eChapters

Whatever may be the source of irrigation water viz., river, canal, tank, open well or tube well, some soluble salts are always dissolved in it. The main soluble constituent in water are Ca, Mg, Na and K as cations and chloride, sulphate bicarbonate and carbonate as anions. However ions of other elements such as lithium, silicon, bromine, iodine, copper, cobalt, fluorine, boron, titanium, vanadium, barium, arsenic, antimony, beryllium, chromium, manganese, lead, selenium phosphate and organic matter are also present. Among the soluble constituents, calcium, sodium, sulphate, bicarbonate and boron are important in determining the quality of irrigation water and its suitability for irrigation purposes. However other factors such as soil texture, permeability, drainage, type of crop etc., are equally important in determining the suitability of irrigation water.

The following are the most common problems that result from using poor quality water.

When rocks and minerals under go weathering process large quantities of soluble salts are formed. In humid regions these salts are washed down to the ground water and to the sea. But in arid and semi arid regions they accumulate in the soil. Excessive irrigation and poor water management are the two chief causes of water logging and salt accumulation. An accumulation of salts in soil leads to unfavourable soil water-air relationship and effect the crop production.

The following are the main causes which leads to development of salty soils (salinity or alkalinity)

16.1 Water logging

For optimum growth and yield of field crops, proper balance between soil air and soil moisture is quite essential. Except rice many of the cultivated plants cannot withstand excess water in the soil. The ideal condition is that moisture and air occupy the pore spaces in equal proportions. When the soil contains excess water than that can be accommodated in the pore spaces it is said the field is water logged.

Causes of water logging

1. Excessive use of water when the water is available in abundance or cheaply due to the belief that more water contributes better yield.

2. Improper selection of irrigation methods

3. Percolation and seepage from lands canals and reservoir located at nearby elevated places

4. Improper lay out and lack of outlets

5. Presence of impervious layer with profile impeding percolation

6. Upward rise of water from shallow ground water table or aquifer.

17.1 Rice

Rice culture at present dominates irrigated agriculture. About 64% of the irrigation water resources in Andhra Pradesh are used for cultivation of rice. An adequate water supply is one of the most important factors in rice production. In many parts of India including Andhra Pradesh rice plants suffer from either too much or too little water because of irregular rainfall and land topography.

Percolation losses in rice fields

Percolation losses are a function of the local soil and topographic conditions. Therefore, at any time the amount of rainfall or irrigation water entering the soil becomes greater than its water holding capacity, losses by downward movement of free water (vertical percolation) will occur. Percolation is often defined as the movement of water through saturated soils due to gravity, hydrostatic pressure or both.

Thus where the soil is heavy and the water table is close to the soil surface, percolation losses are low, about 1 – 2 mm/day. On the other hand, where the soil is light and the water table is deep, percolation losses may be high, about 8 – 15 mm/day, or more. About 50 to 60% of applied water to rice is lost by deep percolation. The percolation losses can be reduced by adopting following agronomic practices:

Fill in the Blanks

1.The highest amount of rain is received in India by _______ Monsoon

2.Country with largest irrigated area in the world is _______

3.The major source of irrigation water in Andhra Pradesh is _______

4.The annual water budget of India is about _______ million ha meters

5.Ultimate irrigation potential in India is _______ m. ha.

6.The portion of the total rainfall that is retained in the soil directly for evapotranspiration is _______ M ha m

7.The first irrigation commission was constituted in the year _______

Microbiology is a branch of science dealing with the study of organisms which are too small to be seen clearly by unaided eye. Roughly the organisms with a diameter of 0.1mm or less, which can not be seen by the human eyes unaided, come under the domain of microorganisms.

Thus, the laboratory work dealing with the microorganisms needs special care to avoid infection and infusion for maintaining good health. In fact all microorganisms should be treated as potential pathogens. Thus, for working with microorganisms aseptic techniques must be followed by students as well as by the laboratory assistants and teachers.

Microorganisms, being ubiquitous, are found in soil, air, water, food, sewage, on body surfaces as well as on degrading and decomposing substances. Their survival and continued growth mostly depend on an adequate supply of nutrients and favourable growth environments. The culture media (nutrients) consisting of chemicals support the growth of microorganisms in a given condition. They are devised in such a way that the organism should get all the nutritional requirements. These are usually prepared in laboratory by weighing and dispensing the individual ingredients. Generally, the common media contain both inorganic and organic nutrients; however, for the cultivation of large number of microorganisms, specialized media are required.

Basically the culture media are of three types: (1) Natural, (2) Semi synthetic and (3) Synthetic.

Under natural habitats microorganisms usually grow in mixed populations containing several species. This is really a problem for microbiologists because a single type of microorganism can not be studied adequately in a mixed culture. In laboratories these populations can be separated into pure cultures. The pure cultures contain only one type of organism and are thus suitable for studying the cultural, morphological and biochemical characters of an individual species. In the present days there are several ways of developing pure cultures in laboratories. Some of which are as follows:

4.1 From Soil

Soil contains varied group of microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, algae and protozoa. The type of nutrients available, moisture, temperature and pH of the soil determine the nature of microbial population in soil. Different laboratory techniques for isolation of microorganisms have been detailed in chapter-III. These are used in particular for the isolation of specific type of microorganisms. All the techniques adopted are just to segregate the pathogens/ microorganisms from the mixture of microbial population present in nature.

(a) Isolation of Fungi

Soil contains large number of fungi and constitutes a major place of microbial population. They can be isolated in pure form by following the methods given below:

Generally microorganisms are so small and colourless in their natural state that it becomes difficult to observe them clearly under microscope. Stains and dyes, which are colouring agents, are used by biologist for better understanding of the morphological and anatomical structures of the organisms under study. Stains are prepared with great care and specification to get satisfactory result, while dyes are not as exacting in their characteristics.

Dyes are of two types, natural and synthetic. The natural dyes are used for histological purposes, whereas the synthetic dyes for bacterial stain. Usually dyes which are derivatives of cyclic compound benzene of benzole, are prepared from one or more substances found in coal-tar, and so are called coal-tar dyes. Chemically dyes are organic compounds containing both chromophore and auxochrome groups linked to benzene rings. Chromophore group provides the compounds the property of colour and thus benzene containing chromophores are called chromogens. It has no affinity to combine with fibres or tissue and as such not called dye. For being a dye, compound should contain an auxillary group which provides the compounds the properties of electrolytic dissociation.

The dyes may be acidic, basic or neutral. The acidic dyes are eosin, acid fuchsine and picric acid whereas the basic dyes are safranin, methylene blue, crystal violet etc. The acidic dyes ionize to give the dye portion of molecule a negative electrical charge. They are salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium etc. The basic dyes ionize to give the dye portion of molecule a positive electrical charge and are salts of chlorides, sulphates or acetates.

The science dealing with the measurement of size of any microscopically visible microorganism is known as micrometry which is based on the principle of physics. Before measuring a cell, the diameter of the microscopic field must be established by means of optic devices, namely an ocular micrometer and a stage micrometer.

a)Ocular micrometer : It is a circular disc that is placed in the eyepiece. The disc is graduated in to several small divisions marked from 0 to 100.It is placed inside the eyepiece of the microscope. The distance varies according to the objective of the microscope which can be easily determined by using a stage micrometer.

b)Stage micrometer : It is a glass slide graduated in 1 mm. Again 1mm is divided into 10 large divisions and 100 small divisions (10 x 10 = 100 divisions). These divisions are equally placed therefore 1 small division is equal to 0.01 mm or 10 μm.

The term growth for bacteria and other microorganism usually refers to changes in the total population rather than an increase in size or mass of an individual organism. As the mechanism of conservation and dissipation of heat generated during metabolism lacks in bacteria, the enzyme system in bacteria gets directly influenced by temperature. The purpose of studying the bacterial growth curve is a) to become familiar with the population growth dynamics of bacterial culture and b) to plot a growth curve and determine the generation time of bacterial culture.

A number of methods are now available for measuring bacterial growth. Some important ones are

1)By colony counting or cell counting

2)By weighing the cells

3)By cell activity (turbidity method)

Our exposure to wide variety of chemicals has increased markedly in the recent past. Most of these compounds are mutagenic as well as potential carcinogens. Emphasis is being laid to develop method for detection of environmental carcinogens so that their use can be avoided.

Despite the fact that mammalian cell structure and human enzymatic pathways differ from those in bacteria, the chemical nature of DNA is common to all organisms; this permits the use of bacterial test systems for rapid detection of possible mutagens.

The Ames test which was developed by Bruce Ames in 1970, at the University of California, U.S.A. is a mutational reversion assay employing several special strains of Salmonella typhimurium, each of which has a different mutation in the amino acid histidine biosynthesis operon.

S. typhimurium, the indicator organism, used in this test is the mutant strain that cannot synthesize histidine (His^-), lack the enzyme to repair DNA so that mutation shows up readily and has leaky cell wall that permit the rapid entry of chemicals. In addition, this S. typhimurium strain carries mutation enhanced plasmid, the combined effect of these characters increase the sensitivity of the organism to mutagenic treatments.

Antibiotics are produced by some true bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi that destroy or inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. Some antibiotics are synthesized or modified in the laboratory; however, their origins are always in living cells.

9.1 Assay of Antibiotics

Soil serves as the major repository of microorganisms some of which produces antibiotics. Four groups of soil microorganisms viz; Streptomyces, Bacillus, Penicillium and Cephalosporium represent three microbial types, namely, actinomycetes, true bacteria and molds respectively.

Following procedure may be applied to isolate antibiotic-producing microorganisms from soil:

10.1 Transformation of E. coli by electroporation Principle

Preparation of electro-competent bacteria is considerably easier than preparing cells for transformation by chemical methods. Bacteria are simply grown to mid –log phase, chilled, centrifuged, washed extensively with ice cold buffer containing 10% glycerol. DNA may be introduced immediately into the bacteria by exposing them to a short high voltage electrical discharge. Alternatively, the cell suspension may be snap frozen and stored at-70^oC for 6 months before electroporation, without loss of transforming efficiency.

Since E.coli cells are small, they require very high strengths (12.5- 15KV cm^-1) for electroporation as compared to those used to introduce DNA into eukaryotic cells. Electroporation is temperature dependent and is best carried out at 0-4°C.

The highest efficiency of transformation is obtained when the concentration of input DNA is high (1-10 μg/ml) and when the length and intensity of the electrical pulse are such that only 30-50% of the cells survive in the procedure. Under these conditions, as many as 80% of the surviving cells may be transformed. Higher frequencies of transformation (colonies/ molecules input DNA) are obtained when the DNA concentration is low (?10pg/ml).

The method outlined in this protocol is followed with most strains of E.coli and with plasmids <15kb in size. However, substantial variation in the efficiency of transformation between the strains of E. coli. has been reported. As in case with chemical transformation, linear plasmid DNAs introduced into E.coli by a pulsed electrical discharge transform very efficiently from 10 to 1000 fold but less efficiently than the corresponding closed circular DNA – perhaps because the exposed terminal of linear DNA are susceptible to attack by intracellular nucleases.

Identification of enteric bacilli is of prime importance for controlling intestinal infections. This can be achieved by preventing contamination of food and water by a group of bacteria belonging to family – Enterobacteriaceae which are found in the intestinal tract of human beings and lower mammals. The microorganisms of this family are short, gram negative, non spore forming bacilli. Such common enteric bacteria are a) pathogens such as species of Salmonella and Shigella b) occasional pathogens like species of Proteus and Klebsiella and c) normal intestinal flora like species of Escherichia and Enterobactor.

Viruses are smaller than bacteria and require living cell for their growth. They can be detected through the bacteria to which they parasitise. Viruses are associated with both eukaryotes as well as prokaryotes and contain either DNA or RNA; only few have both DNA and RNA.

Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophage. They consist of head or capsid and a tail. The head may be round, oval, polyhedral and is made up of proteins while tail is hollow and provides an exit for nucleic acid to enter in bacterial cell. The tail also helps in attachment to the cell wall surface of bacteria. After injection of the nucleic acid into bacteria they multiply and form large number of bacteriophage particles which cause lysis of the bacterial cell wall releasing many bacteriophages. Phages that cause lysis are known as lytic phages and that do not cause lysis are called temperate phage. The most common lytic phage is E.coli – a coliphage.

With increasing industrialization, water sources available for consumption as potable water are being adulterated with industrial, animal and human wastes. As a result water has become a formidable factor in disease transmission. Polluted water usually contains large amount of organic matter which forms nutritional base for growth and multiplication of microorganisms. Usually the water with non-pathogenic organisms, like autotrophs and saprophytic heterotrophs, are not of major concern, but presence of intestinal contaminants of fecal origin are of great concern. These pathogens are responsible for intestinal infection such as bacillary dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera and paratyphoid fever.

The detection of all the intestinal pathogens on a routine basis would be a tedious and difficult task, however, it would be easy to demonstrate the presence of some of the nonpathogenic intestinal organisms like Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis. These are always found in intestine but their detection confirms the contamination of water with fecal material. Such organisms are also called pollution indicator.

14.1 Culture from Urine

Infection of urinary tract due to microorganisms affect patient of all age group and both sex., and they vary in severity from an unsuspected infection to a condition of severe systemic disease. Urine is a ordinarily excellent culture medium for the multiplication of common pathogen of urinary tract. Most bacteria found in the urine are due to contamination of skin flora during passage and they tend to increase greatly, exceeding 10⁶/ml. When the bacterial count exceeds 10⁵ per ml of urine it indicates significant bacteriuria and is indicative of a urinary tract infection. Infection of the urinary tract may be limited to a single tissue/ organ or they may spread upward and involve the entire urinary system. Escherichia coli is the most common urinary tract pathogen. Pseudomonas aeroginosa causes another important urinary tract infection, which is characterized by blue green pus. Cystitis (inflammation of urinary bladder), Pyelonephritis (inflammation of the kidney) are permanent diseases of urinary tract.

Urinary tract infections are generally characterized by bacteriuria, bacteria in the urine. Quantitative microbiological assay of urine can identify the probable pathogen. For this purpose, calibrated loop- direct streak method and pour plate method are routinely used. Now-a-days commercially prepared special plastic device called the urine dip slide and diagnostic urine–culture called Bacturcult is being used for isolation and identification of microorganisms from genitourinary tract infections. The Bacturcult is a sterile disposable plastic tube coated with a special medium on its inner side for detection and identification of bacteriuria.

Fermentation

The term fermentation is loosely used to denote any process in which microorganisms are involved, regards of whether or not the organism is growing in the presence of molecular oxygen. Thus, it can be defined as 'an ATP generating metabolic process in which organic compounds serve both as electron donor (becoming oxidized) and electron acceptor(becoming reduced). Energetically, fermentations are poor energy yielding process and products have lower energy content then the substrates. Since there is no net oxidation in fermentation, the number of molecules of C, H and O remain the same in products as in the substrate.

Introduction

Farming system that advised integrated the needs of the ancestors the economic factors like profitability, amusing acceptability and economically active and technically achievable enterprises in a accumulated furnishings wherein availability of acreage resources, basement and institutions such as irrigation, marketing facility business accessories including storage and transportation and credit besides the agro biological application namely interdependence. Technically achievable enterprises and the achievement of individual farmers are to be advised as above factors in farming system approach. Farming system, therefore, designates a set of agronomical activities organized while attention acreage productivity, anatomy superior and advancement adorable similar of biological assortment and ecological stability. The accent is added on a system rather than on gross output. In added words farming system is an ability administration action to accomplish bread-and-butter and sustain agronomical accumulation to be accommodated a sorted claim of the acreage domiciliary while attention the ability and advancement top quality. Farming system in its absolute faculty will advise the afterward agency to lift the abridgement of Indian farming and accepted of active of the farmers. Farming system distinctively refers to an accumulation aggregate of enterprises in which the articles and or the byproducts of one action serve as the inputs for accumulation of added enterprise. Farming systems access has appear after than that farming came into actuality getting strategically activated as breadth specific suitability. Farming systems decidedly contributed to the re-silence of farming and as able-bodied as affluence farming, organic farming and inorganic farming. Agro-climatic regions of the country are abounding adapted and differed from breadth to breadth wherein types of farming are as well different. Somewhere, the farming is based on horticulture, ley farming, agroforestry and abounding added like farming of agronomic crops. India’s bounded locations are amenable for such variations, as the assertive locations acquaintance altered climates, appropriately affecting anniversary region’s agronomical abundance differently. India is actual abased on its vagaries of cloud burst abundantly to accord satisfactory crop yields. India’s farming has all-encompassing accomplishments which go aback to at organic 10 thousand years. Reportedly, the country holds the additional position currently in agronomical accumulation in the world. In 2007, farming and affiliated industries fabricated up added than 16% of India’s GDP. Despite the abiding abatement in agriculture’s addition to the country’s GDP, now the farming is getting advised as the bigger activities antecedent of alimentation in the country and plays a key role in the socio-economic advance of the country. Now a day, India is the additional bigger ambassador of wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, silk, groundnuts, and of abounding more. It is as well the bigger farming of vegetables and fruit, apery 8.6% and 10.9% of all-embracing production, respectively. The above fruits produced are mangoes, papayas, sapota, and bananas. India as well has the bigger amount of livestock in the world, captivation 281 million. The country housed the additional bigger amount of animals in the tune with 175 million in the year 2008. In this accomplishments the apperception of farming system, appropriately was demography application as aggregate of agri-horti and animals, veterinary including fisheries taken into account as integrated approach.

Introduction

A system is a set of inter-related, interacting and committal elements acting calm for an accepted purpose and able of reacting as an accomplished to alien stimuli. It is artless by its own achievement and it has alien boundaries based on all cogent augment backs.

Farms are systems because several activities are carefully accompanying to anniversary added by the accepted use of the Grassland labour, Grassland and capital, by accident administration and by the collective use of the farmer’s administration capacity. The assay of farms is absolutely important to the accountable of development.

Relevance of the farming systems approach: Choosing behavior for agronomical development requires the use of advice about the absolute farming situation. After-effects of farming system from a circuitous alternation of committal and committal apparatus of elements that the agronomical enterprises of the rural household. At the centermost is the agriculturalist who takes accommodation in an attack to accomplish his aspirations, goals and adapted objectives aural the banned of technologies accessible to him. Uses inputs to get outputs in acknowledgment to the abstruse elements which are the accustomed ability award in any accustomed breadth akin what the farming system can be. The human aspect provides the framework for development and appliance of an accurate farming system.

Introduction

India, only occupies 3.29 million km² bounded geographical areas, which forms 2.4% of the world’s land acreage area; it support over 15% of the world’s population. The population of India as on 1 March 2016 stood at 1332 billion. Thus, India supports about 1/ 6th of world population, 1/50th of world’s land acreage and 1/25th of world’s water resources. The country as well has a livestock population of 500 million, which is about 20% of the world’s absolute livestock population. More than half of these are cattle, forming basic the backbone of Indian agriculture. The absolute accessible water assets of the country are adjourned as 1086 km³. Total bounded breadth of alone Eastern India occupies 28% of country’s absolute breadth of 328.73 m ha. The share of forest area to geographical area ranges from 33 to 54% for North Eastern hill states, in Assam. The per capita land availability decreased from 0.50 ha in 1981 to 0.33 ha in 2000 due to proportionate increase of land use for non-agriculture purpose and increasing population density. Rice, maize, wheat, rapeseeds, groundnut, pulses, sugarcane, potato, jute, jowar and bajra are the major crops grown in this region amongst which rice is the principle crop. India has a long history of agriculture since civilization. Then the agriculture was based on traditional practices and the local varieties were being grown without much care. Population densities usually didn’t pose much difficulty to supply food grains. Rice both under low/up land ecosystem is primarily grown under rainfed conditions having production constraints of entirely opposite in nature. Very low productivity under rainfed eco-system is mainly due to yield depressing factors caused by biotic stresses across the rice ecology, either resulted from excess or deficit water due to uneven and erratic distribution of annual rainfall. The cropping intensities in the states like Assam, Bihar, MP, Orissa, UP and West Bengal are 137.7, 137.8, 125.6, 154.6, 148.6 and 159.6 per cent, respectively. This indicated that a vast majority of lands remain fallow during dry (winter/rabi)season due to lack of proper technologies, which are under rainfed conditions, specifically lack of available moisture and or rainfall during this period. That is more than half of the arable land remains fallow during rainless period. Increasing cropping intensities in rainfed uplands is not easily achievable but there is great potential of intensification of cropping in rainfed lowland by utilizing natural resources and conserved residual moisture. Pulses like black gram, green gram, lentil, lathyrus, chick pea and oilseeds like linseed, groundnut, and rapeseed could not only increase the cropping intensities but also come forward to increase national productivity. Adoption of improved crop cultivars, cropping system, increasing cropping intensities, precision farming can hold good to get out of this situation where whole system is to be considered.

Introduction

Farming system is complicated inter-related with soil, plants, animals, implements, power, labour, capital and alternative inputs controlled partly by farming families and influenced to varied degrees by political, economic, institutional and social forces that operate at several levels. The farm is viewed during a holistic manner. The farmers are subjected to several socio-economic, biophysical, institutional, body and technological constraints. Farming system conceptually may be a set of components or parts that are reticulate that act amongst themselves. At the centre of the interaction is that the farmer exercise management and selection concerning the sort and results of interaction. It’s the human setting that gives ample condition for development and utilization of a specific system. A farming system clearly is incredibly complicated system. Therefore, any agricultural technology compatible to a specific agroecological state of affairs and socio-economic environment might not be adopted by alternative farmers. Unless each natural and human environment is thought-about, agricultural analysis won’t end in relevant agricultural technology. The income from cropping alone in tiny and marginal farms is hardly ample to sustain the farmers’ family. With the decline in farm size (0.15 ha) because of explosion of population, it’d be more and more tough to provide enough food for the family by the tip of the century. Therefore, the farmer, to be assured of an everyday income for a good living (above the poverty line), a considered mixture of anybody or additional of those enterprises with agronomic crops ought to complement the farm income and facilitate in usage the farm residue/waste. The choice of enterprises should be supported the cardinal principle of minimizing the competition and maximizing the complementarily between the enterprises.

Conservation Agriculture

The agronomic measures for water conservation helps to control the evapotranspiration loss from soil and plant surface, reduces the splash effect of raindrops, checks topsoil erosion and runoff losses, permits a better intake of rainwater by improving the better soil physical environment and thereby conserves higher soil moisture for better plant growth and yield.

1. Mulching : It protects the top soil from erosion loss by controlling runoff, facilitates rainwater absorption by soil, increases the consumptive use of water by crops and hence the water use efficiency, regulates the hydrothermal regime of soil, reduces the evaporation component of the evapotranspiration, prevents soil crusting and plant nutritional losses and keep down the weed infestation. Dry soil mulch as created by stirring the soil surface with the inter-culturing implements helps to minimize evaporation loss from soil surface. Use of cover mulches like black polythene sheets or organic residues or crop stubbles on soil surface will act as barrier to reduce the evaporation losses. Post-rainy season crops (rabi crops) which live primarily on soil stored moisture derive more benefit from mulching.
2. Anti-evaporants : These are used to reduce the evaporation from the soil surface. Straw, sawdust, paddy husk, wood bark etc are used to arrest the evaporation from soil surface. Hexadecanol, a long-chain alcohol, is also used to retard the evaporation from soil surface. This chemical is resistant to microbial activity and degradation and remains active in the soil for more than a year. The main limitation in soil surface mulching is high cost involvement.

Introduction

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions amongst organisms and between organisms and their environment. India exhibits a spread of landscape and climate that are mirrored within the evolution of various soils and vegetation. These also exists a significant relationship among the soils, land form climate and vegetation. These additionally exists a big relationship amongst the soils, land type climate and vegetation. Regions are diagrammatic such everyone is as uniform as potential with relevancy physiographic, climate, length of growing amount (LGP) and soils for macro level and land use designing and effective transfer of agro-technology varied Agro environmental condition Zones diagrammatic in line with the design commission which are explained together with the classification by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).

State of Jammu and Kashmir is located almost in the middle of three climatic regimes of Asia. The chapter introduces the agro-climatic zones of Jammu and Kashmir based on physiography. Each province of the state of Jammu and Kashmir has been further delineated into micro agro-climatic zones.

Introduction

The creation of first humane life forms has been evidenced since 4 million years ago. They were reportedly called hunter gathers and hunted animals and collected seeds and fruits from wild plants for their livelihood maintenance as food stuff. These nomadic people moved from one place to another place as they depleted the resources of an area. The trial-and-error experimentation and manipulation of species, the scene was set for domestication of plants and animals. In addition, these hunter-gatherer societies probably paved the way for domestication by developing the social structures (later on promoted to village organizations and cooperation) as well as knowledge of cultivation techniques (later on institutes and knowledge centre).

Early Farming (1650 & Before)

Around 12-10,000 years ago human being started farmingin search of food stuff for maintain their livelihood.

It was reported that the roots of farming began within the gift day of Turkey and Middle East the geographical region, referred to as Fertile Crescent of the geographical region. Cultivation and replantation involves the deliberate sowing or alternative management of plants, that don’t essentially take issue from wild populations. The beginning of farming is primarily associated with the domestications of several species; it involves genetic change of wild varieties through conscious or unconscious human selection, the start of farming is primarily related to the domestications of many species; it involves genetic amendment of untamed varieties through aware or unconscious human choice. 2 of the earliest settlements area unit referred to as Cata Huyuk and Jericho, as reported. Folks began to taking regarding wild grasses and mistreatment the seeds for food and planting for following year’s food. These seeds area unit currently referred to as cereals and compose an outsized proportion of the world’s food provide. Water was 1st primary demand of existence of life whereby Jericho, like several early cities was set around a uniform water supply, a spring that created over a thousand gallons each minute. Reportedly, around 2 to 3 thousand folks lived there. Farming of wheat, barley, peas, and lentils supported these folks were found there.

Introduction

India’s food problem dates back prior to independence. In the beginning, India’s food problem was one of scarcity, shortage of rice after the separation of Myanmar (Burma) from India in 1937 and shortage of wheat, also after the partition of the country in 1947. Initially, the major concern was to increase the domestic supplies either through increased production or through imports or through both. In the second half of the 1950s and during the 1960s the major concern was shifted to control of food grains prices. The Government of India entered into an agreement in 1956 with the USA known as PL 480 agreement for the import of rice and wheat. The Government found the PL 480 food imports a good tool to stabilize food prices in the country. Infact, PL 480 imports were the basis of our agricultural and industrial development. The frequent occurrence of flood and drought, food shortage resulted famine in several corners of the country during pre-independence period and even after independence.

Introduction

The sustainable agriculture begins with ideal soil health with minerals and organic matters. The sustainable farming practices enhance and protect soil health, water quality and water quantity, biodiversity, manage insect pests, disease and weeds. The Indian council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) set up an All India Soil Survey Committee in 1953 which divided the Indian soils into eight major groups. (i) Alluvial soils (ii) Black (or Regur soil) (iii) Red and Yellow soils (iv) Laterite soils (v) Arid and desert soils (vi) Saline and alkaline soils (vii) Peaty and marshy soils and (viii) Forest and mountain soils.

Introduction

On the basis of inputs based ecological principles, the all possible and available resources are allocated to achieve maximum outputs. One of the most promising paradigms of external inputs based agriculture that have emerged for the benefit of small scale resource-poor farmers and that is termed as low external input and sustainable agriculture (LEISA), which can enable such farmers to achieve higher income and attain sustainability by: (i) Optimizing the use of locally available resources, thereby achieving a synergetic effect amongst the various components of the farming system (soil, water, animals, plants, etc.) so that they complement each other in the production of output; and (ii) Minimizing the use of external inputs, except where there is a serious deficiency and where the effect on the system will be to increase recycling of nutrients.

Low External Inputs and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA): Low external input sustainable agriculture (LEISA) is a way of thinking about farming. It incorporates some ideas found in what people have labelled eco-logical, organic, regenerative, biological, or simply alternative agriculture. Amongst the goals that now drive the interest in low-input sustainable agriculture, two stand out: profitable and productive farming, and protection of resources and environmental quality. Companion objectives include ensuring safe and nutritious food supplies and reducing health risks to farm workers. LEISA involves farmers substituting management, scientific information, and on-farm resources for some of the purchased inputs they currently depend on maintain production sustainability. Sustainability has been defined, for the purpose of including resource-poor as well as resource-rich farmers, as managing agricultural productivity while maintaining or improving the resource base. This means that agriculture must be environmentally solid, economically feasible, socially scrupulous, and flexible (for future needs).

Introduction

Despite fact that more than two-third of the earth’s surface is covered with water, currently, near about 450 million people in 29 countries are facing severe water shortage and at least 20 percent more water would be required to feed additional 3 billion populations by 2025. About 97.5 percent of ocean-sea water is not available due to its salinity and 2.49 percent is locked up in ice and only 0.01 percent is technologically available and economically accessible water either from surface or ground water sources for human uses. So water saving technologies developed so far is very pertinent to propagate amongst the users. Water is an essential natural resource for sustaining the environment and supporting life where the agriculture is the major user of water resource. Water is an indispensable for sustainable agricultural growth and development. Previously, rainfed agriculturewas associated primarily with conservational land treatments to check soil erosion and land degradation.But in the areas of medium to heavy rainfall, there is ample scope of tapping excess rain water through suitable water harvesting structures constructed for this purpose for its subsequent uses as irrigation or to apply lifesaving irrigation to the crops which should also come under the purview of water management for crop production. Although there is a difference in the objectives of water management where there is abundant availability of water from continuous flow connected with perennial sources or lakes and rivers and that of from restricted or limited supply from collection of excess rain through water harvesting structures.The former is associated with to obtain as much as yield of crop per unit area under water application and later is associated with increasing productivityof crop per unit of water application even under rainwater recycling and its effective management for the purpose of irrigation. Hence, both the rainwater and irrigation water are considered to be equally important to context of agricultural development of the country to get higher water use efficiency and proper utilization of water resources (Zaman,et.al., 2017).

Introduction

Rainfed agriculture plays and will continue to play a dominant role in providing food and livestock for an increasing world population. Rainfed agriculture practiced on 80% of the world’ agriculture land area and generates about 70% of the world’s staple food including most of the food in poor communities in developing and least favoured areas. The most recent estimates have put global rainfed croplands at 1.75 billion ha (Bha) at the end of the last millennium, or about 5.5 times the irrigated area in the world. India ranks 1^st amongst the countries that practice rainfed agriculture both in terms of extent 86 (mha) and value production. Agriculture water management deals with the administration of a key input to agricultural production and offers to hope that land and water use will be intensified. Scarcity of water resources and growing of competition for water many sectors reduces its availability for irrigation. Effective management of water for crop production in water scarce area requires efficient approaches for increasing crop productivity and drought tolerance by genetic improvement and physiological regulation may be the means to achieve efficient and effective use of water. A single approaches would not be able to tackle the forthcoming challenge of producing more food and measures with engineering solutions (water saving technologies, irrigation methods, deficit irrigations, proper deficit sequencing, modernization of irrigation system) and agronomic and soil manipulation (seed priming, seedling age manipulation, direct or wet seeded rice. proper crop choice, integrating agriculture and aquaculture, increasing soil fertility and addition of organic matter, tillage and soil mulching). The term enhancing water productivity implies how we can most efficiently improve the outcome or yield of a crop with water currently in use, the answer lies in three main pathways of increasing water productivity with multiple use of water. Transpire most of the supplied water (minimization of unwanted loss), exchanged water for carbon dioxide more effectively inproducing biomass, and convert most of the biomass into grin or other farm of harvestable product. Many technologies to improve water productivity and the management of scarce water resource are available, amongst the most promising and efficient proven technique are limited supplemental application of irrigation for optimize the use of limited water and water harvesting for improved farm income in drier environment.Improving (water productivity, however requires exploiting not only water management but also other input such as improved cultivars, fertility management and cultural practice which influence crop productivity and yield.

Introduction

Organic agriculture implies growing of agricultural crops and animal husbandry components while not chemical plant food, weed killer and pesticides used. An agricultural practice followed in organic farming squarely measure ruled by the principles of ecology and squarely measure amongst the ecological means that.

Organic agriculture could be a production system that avoids or mostly excludes the employment of synthetically combined fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, placental feed habit-forming and genetically changed organisms. Organic farmers admit crop rotation, inexperienced manures, compost, biological blighter management, and mechanical cultivation to keep up soil productivity and management pests as way as doable and practicable. Organic agriculture could be a distinctive production management system and key issue of maintenance of agricultural property that promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, together with multifariousness, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is often accomplished by victimization on-farm science, biological and mechanical ways in exclusion of all artificial off-farm inputs during this context, a serious thrust towards organic cultivation, however, would require variety of alternative initiatives and infrastructural support. Active involvement in learning crops and their diseases, development of organic manure, natural pesticides, coaching of farmers, and provision of storage and property square measure all vital areas to appear into.

Organic farming has become progressively vital in agriculture given the rising variety of issues that use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides squarely measure throwing up GM (genetically modified) crops could give a wonderful yield however their long-run effects square measure hitherto untested and other people aren’t quite able to trust these foods excepting for this, there has been a big rise within the demand for organic food across the globe. Promoting these organic-farming techniques solely leaves India best poised to take advantage on the export potential of those foods.

Introduction

India is the seventh largest having 329.73 million ha of geographical area and second most populous country having more than a billion population in the world. There is no other substitute other than to use every square inch of land and every drop of water effectively and efficiently. Though there was markedly increase in annual food grain production from 51 (195051) million tones t0 206 million tones (200001), still the death on hunger is visualized.

The demand for food is increasing with everincreasing population growth rate. So there is no option other than to increase food production. There is very little or no scope of horizontal expansion due to land limitation, the question of vertical expansion is the only way to fit with the situation. Genetically improved crop variety, hybrids, mechanized agriculture, higher rate of fertilizers and chemicals application may give one or two more green revolution, but the question lies how far it can sustain greenness?

Adoption of improved crop cultivars, cropping system, increasing cropping intensities, precision farming can hold good to get out of this situation where whole system is to be considered.

The cropping intensities in the states like Assam, Bihar, MP, Orissa, UP and West Bengal are 137.7, 137.8, 125.6, 154.6, 148.6 and 159.6 percent, respectively (FAI, 199495). This indicated that a vast majority of lands remain fallow during dry season due to lack of proper technologies, which are under rainfed conditions, neglected. Except West Bengal, more than half of the arable land remains fallow during rainless period. Increasing cropping intensities in rainfed uplands is not easily achievable but there is great potential of intensification of cropping in rainfed lowland by utilizing natural resources and conserved residual moisture. Pulses like black gram, green gram, lentil, lathyrus, chick pea and oilseeds like linseed, groundnut, rapeseed could not only increase the cropping intensities but also come forward to increase national productivity.

Introduction

Agricultural productivity during past three decades resulted in depletion of natural resource base besides creating several environmental and ecological problems. In contrast the demand scenario features a growth rate in food requirements to meet the ever-increasing demand of the growing population. The total food grain demand of India by 2020 is estimated at 294 million tones as against the present 224 million tonnes (2010-11), which has to come from the almost static net cultivated area of about 142 million ha. This improvement in food grain production has to be achieved while dealing with the factors affecting the ecological balance and sustainability of Agricultural resources. Soil and water conservation is an important aspect, which needs very careful dealing with proper attention of the researchers and planners particularly in the context of agriculture of rainfed areas. As the water without soils is useless for crop cultivation, the soils without water nothing but desert. At least 20 % of total land is deserted and very difficult to use with another 20 % is sandy and poor in nutrient content subjected to severe soil erosion and excessive land degradation which causes fragile nature of eco-system and threatens food security of such areas. Soil erosion reduces productivity and cuts crop yield and causes at least 10 metric tons of topsoil loss per hectare per year. Now days, soil and water conservation is gaining paramount importance globally due to its obvious reasons. The main objective of the subject to protect soils against damage due to excessive runoff by natural, mechanical, cultural and agronomic measures to be adopted to bring a state of equilibrium between climate, soil, rainfall, slope and vegetation.

Introduction

Social disinterestedness could be an anticipation that applies issues of amends and candor to policy. Aback the Sixties, the anticipation of amusing disinterestedness have been activated in an advance of institutional contexts, calm with apprenticeship and accessible administration. The anticipation of amusing disinterestedness is about afflicted aback to the works of philosopher and Plato. Definitions of amusing disinterestedness will vary, about all focus aloft the ethics of amends and fairness. Disinterestedness in fashionable societies involves the role of accessible directors, United Nations bureau breadth assemblage accountable for authoritative assertive that amusing casework breadth assemblage delivered equitably. This bureau demography into application actual and accepted inequalities a part of groups; candor relies on this amusing and actual context. Amusing and bread-and-butter bigotry has abiding furnishings on societies and as well the bloom of populations. The acceptance from an ample alter of disciplines breadth assemblage acclamation disinterestedness in avant-garde agency that. Solutions alter from acclamation cyber banking accretion aberration to apprenticeship quality, cyber banking action to bent amends reform and affluence of accession disinterestedness problems that anon and alongside accept an aftereffect on animal bloom and well-being. The aggregation seeks to acknowledgment such queries as, will a bigger pay advance superior of action measures, calm with health, nutrition, and ancestor’s circadian life? As added cities ahead hikes in their pay, this assay can acquaint approaching choices apropos the after-effects on staff, their families, employers, and as well the community. An administration of assets, resources, and liabilities a part of the individuals during a nation or association that’s advised accurate and simply. Whereas some accept that bread-and-butter disinterestedness needs that anybody voters pay an agnate quantity, others accept that the abundance paid care to wait aloft the abundance that every accountable will allow to pay while not disproportionate hardship. Put simply, disinterestedness is possession. Aural the affairs world, disinterestedness refers to stock. Aural the accounting and aggregation disposition world, disinterestedness (or added normally, shareholders’ equity) refers to the abundance of basic contributed by the abode owners or the acumen amid a company’s absolute assets and its absolute liabilities. The fashionable era is casual through an alluringly and annealed aggressive laissez-faire abridgement that’s about there’s no acknowledgment to actualize some individuals at an advantage while not creating others worse off. This cessation refutes the claims of ambitious bread-and-butter planners, United Nations bureau assert that markets breadth assemblage disorganized free-for-alls which centralized chief would be added economical. During a class disconnected association the advantages of amusing appear can’t be aggregate appropriately by the all categories of individuals. It’s simple to appetite agitated with the abstraction that markets appreciate appropriate and to again draw inappropriate abstracts apropos policy. It’s basic to arouse that authority is apropos a way to achieve goals; it doesn’t say something apropos what your goals care to be. Locution that the bazaar aftereffect is economical doesn’t beggarly that that aftereffect is about alluring for all the individuals. In fact, in some affairs analive action could advisedly baldest accessory bulk aftereffect that’s not economical.

1. 1 Introduction

Irrigation is the artificial application of water needed to the crop field. It is the process of uniformly wetting the root zone depth. The wetting may be done over the land surface or below of it. The application of water in excess to the requirement or accumulation of water in crop field due to rain or unplanned seepage is not considered as irrigation. However, irrigation is supplemental to rainfall. Irrigation water is considered as single most important inputs for crop production.

Measurement of water used in irrigation ensures the application of required amount of water in crops. Knowing the rate of flow the adjustment to period of control at gates, etc. can be done to regulate the water at different branches of canals. To get the total control over the supply of water there should have the provision of water measurement at the critical points in irrigation systems.

Units of Measurement

Water is measured at rest or in motion. The water of reservoir, ponds, tanks, etc. at rest is measured in volumetric unit as liter, cubic meter, hectare-meter and hectare-centimeter. Water flowing in rivers, canals, channel, etc. is measured in liter/s, liter per hour, meter per second and hectare-meter per hour or day.

3. 1 Introduction

Irrigation efficiency evaluates how effectively the water has been distributed for the purpose of crop production. Water is conveyed to crop field through canal water courses and channels. During this process considerable amounts of water get lost through run off, deep percolation, evaporation, etc. The losses of water greatly depend on the skill of the irrigator, degree of land preparation, and design and planning of the system. The extent of water losses starting to diversion of water from its source to crop field though conveyance and ultimate application and distribution of water in crop field which can be estimated separately. The estimation of these efficiencies enables one to identify the step(s) where improvement is required. The method of measurement and evaluation for its efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of water. Irrigation efficiency in developing countries in general is poor particularly in gravity irrigation methods. However, water is become more and more scarce. Due to pressing need of it judicious and efficient management is one of the vital issues to be solved on priority basis.

Scheduling irrigation is the process of determining when to irrigate and how much to irrigate. Selecting the appropriate time span in between two irrigation and applying the required volume of water in each irrigation, ensures saving of water, minimize energy use, higher crop yield and lower production costs. Irrigation applied earlier than due date causes loss of water through evaporation or deep percolation and later causes water stress to plants and thereby affects the growth and yield of the plants. Scheduling of irrigation may be required in two field conditions: (i) when availability of water is adequate, (ii) when availability of water is limited.

In the places where water is adequate scheduling of irrigation follows full irrigation with time sequence of minimum number of irrigation to ensure maximum yield and high water use efficiency. When water is limited its use is rationalized by using at the sensitive stages of the plants and withholding irrigation at other stages. The sensitive stages so selected that by using the available water provides possible maximum yield.

5. 1 Irrigation Channels

Canal or channel is an artificially made conduit through which water is supplied to the field from river, tank, reservoir or wells. The open channel is the most common type of water conveyance system. If the pipes and drains are partially full behave like open channel. The irrigation channel may be lined or unlined and the flow is either uniform or varied.

The canal may be classified in following ways.

(a) Classification based on the source of supply

(i) Permanent or perennial canal

(ii) Inundation canal

The plants collect water by its root system available in the soil medium. A soil rich in nutrients cannot ensure success of crops unless the presence of satisfactory state of water and air, mechanical attributes and thermal regime. The physical properties of soil and plants greatly influence the movement, retention and use of water. The soil should provide sufficient pore spaces and size distribution and decomposition of rocks and for the movement and retention of water for plant needs. Rainwater, irrigation, groundwater, seepage, etc. , contribute in replenishing the water in dried up soils. In all the cases thorough understanding of behavior of water is required to ensure the need of water to plants and optimize the use of irrigation water.

7. 1 General

The major portion of water in a crop field gets lost through evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation is the process by which water is changed from the liquid state to vapor state. It takes place from the adjacent soil, water surface or from the surfaces of leaves of the plants. Transpiration is the removal of water vapour through plant body. Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation and transpiration. The process of evaporation and transpiration goes on simultaneously and difficult to separate them in a crop field.

The term consumptive use is used to refer evapotranspiration together with the water used in the metabolic activities of the crop plants. The actual amount of water used in metabolic activities is insignificant (less then 1% to ET). Therefore, the consumptive use and evapotranspiration are often used as synonymous term. It includes the water consumed by the plants for metabolic activities or transpiration plus the water evaporated from the land and water surfaces of the cropped area.

The factors affecting the rate of evaporation are the vapour pressure at the water surface and air above, air and water temperatures, wind speed, atmosphere pressure and size of the water body. Other factors remaining same, the rate of evaporation increases with an increase in the water temperature. Higher wind velocity causes greater scope for evaporation. Decrease in atmospheric pressure increases evaporation. The solute dissolved in water causes reduction in the rate of evaporation than that of pure water. The evaporation from soil surface occurs in same way to free water surface when the soil particles are surrounded by thin film of water and pore spaces are partially filled. However, in such situation greater resistance has to overcome for evaporation from the soil particles than while evaporating from a free water surface. The evaporation process practically stops when the moisture content in soil goes below a threshold value.

8. 1 Introduction

Water is a precious commodity. Necessity of conservation of water supply is increasingly felt all over the world as the demand of it continues to increase when the sources of supply are increasingly scarce. The conveyance and proportional distribution of water is one of the most important part of any irrigation project. Water available in the stream, reservoirs or wells is carried to the field of use through canals. The economy of any irrigation project largely depends on how efficiently the water is being transported and distributed in respect to water losses and cost.

Water losses in irrigation channels are mainly due to evaporation from the water surface and seepage from the bed and side of the channels. Seepage losses some time become the single important factor which causes unavailability of water particularly in downstream of the channel in canal irrigation system and excess pumping of water in tube wells and river lift irrigation system.

Lining irrigation channels means to cover the channel earthen surface by any substance, which can considerably reduce the seepage loss. The concrete, brick, stone, natural clay of low permeability, bituminous material, plastic compounds, etc. , are used for channel lining.

Poor quality of water is one of the important factors causes gradual accumulation of salts on the ground or in the root zone of crops leads to saline and alkaline condition. This results in loss of permeability, toxicity and anaerobic conditions. In salt affected soils plants face constraint to derive their nutrients at the required rate due to high soil moisture tension, which affects adversely the crop growth and productivity.

10. 1 Land and Water Resource

India has got the world’s 2. 45% area and 16. 87% of population with only the 4% of available fresh water (Table 10. 1). This indicates the necessity of development of water resources and optimal use of it. India at macro level does not have short of water. But the shortage of water is due if not properly managed by conservation and sector wise utilization.

11. 1 Introduction

Agricultural drainage is the removal of excess water from the farmland for the purpose of providing favorable soil air environment for plant growth. Removal of water may take place form the surface or below the surface of the land. The practice of lowering ground water table below the root zone depth to improve the plant growth or to reduce the accumulation of salts in soil is also called as drainage.

Drainage system is broadly classified as surface and subsurface drainage. Removal of excess water over the land surface is known as surface drainage and that of removing water below the surface is known as subsurface drainage. The flow of water in the form of evaporation or evapotranspiration also play important role in improving drainage situation. It gives the idea of the time required to get the wetland workable though it is not called a type of drainage as because this is very slow process and cannot be controlled by the human activities. However, using of certain tree plants e. g. , Eucalytus, Poplar, Casurina or similar species in wet fields, which transpires at high rate and improves the drainage problem by lowering the shallow water table is the new idea known as bio-drainage.

The purpose of a sub-surface drainage system is to lower the ground water table and removal of salts beyond the crop root zone. The ground water table may rise due to commonly practiced flood irrigation method, seepage from unlined channels, percolation of rain and runoff water and sub-surface flow from higher areas. Sub-surface drainage consists of drains laid at a specified depth, spacing and grade below the ground surface. The size, spacing and depth of drains depend largely on the soil-water properties viz. , infiltration, saturated hydraulic conductivity, drainable porosity; and the requirement of removal of water through drains in certain time period fixed on the basis of rainfall and crop cultivated. The drains are usually placed in a pervious stratum. Suitable filter of coarse sand and gravel may be used when it is placed in a low permeable stratum. Sub-surface drainage serves the important job of removal of concentrated salt solution from the crop root zone particularly in arid and semi-arid region.

Abstract

The two most important tasks for a patentee to undertake after being granted a patent, in any patent regime, would be to pay the renewal fees necessary to keep the patent alive, and provide proof of having worked the patent in the jurisdiction. This article seeks to highlight features of India’s legal requirements with regard to the working of patents on a commercial scale. The number of patents granted in a country is an indicator of the technological strength of the country. However, it should be noted that actual technological growth depends upon the working of patents. Working of a patent means the commercial exploitation of the invention that is embodied in the patent.

Introduction

‘IP’ refers to unique, value-adding creations of the human intellect that results from human ingenuity, creativity and inventiveness. An IP right is thus a legal right, which is based on the relevant national law encompassing that particular type of intellectual property right. Such a legal right comes into existence only when the requirements of the relevant IP law are met and, if required; it is granted or registered after following the prescribed procedure under that law. All countries around the world have a national legal system of intellectual property rights which has developed over varying periods of time during the last 150 years or so. It has enabled the grant of property-like rights over such new knowledge and creative expression of mankind, which has made it possible to harness the commercial value of the outputs of human inventiveness and creativity. This is usually done by its orderly use, exchange or sharing it amongst various types of business partners in a complex network of strategic relationships that generally work harmoniously during the new product development process for creating and marketing new and improved goods and services in domestic and export markets.

IPR is a tool for Innovation and reward for it. Innovations are concerned with the commercialization of new ideas; in contrast, an ‘invention’ may not be directly associated with commercialization. As such, innovation may be seen as a process of interaction and feedback during the various stages of the new product development process. An invention is considered as the generation of a new idea or knowledge, which aims to solve a specific technical problem. Inventions could relate to products or processes and are characteristically protected by trade secrets, utility models/petty patents or patents. Utility models/petty patents or patents are granted/registered under the relevant national/regional law by the relevant national or regional patent office. As not all inventions are commercialized, so it is clear that not all inventions result in innovations.