eChapters

ABSTRACT

In vitro multiplication studies on two peach cvs namely Prabhat and Flordasun grown widely under agroclimatic conditions of Haryana were carried out using nodal and shoot tip explants. Amongst various media modification, M medium containing 1.5 mg^-1 BAP was found the best for shoot induction from both the explants. However, shoot tip showed better response in comparison to nodal explants. Shoot multiplication was highest on M⁷medium (MS+ 6 mg l^-1 BAP). Cultivar response did not differ significantly. Rooting was obtained on M medium containing 0.5 mg l^-1 NAA.

The intricate dance between life and its atmospheric surroundings has shaped every living organism on Earth. From the microscopic bacteria thriving in extreme environments to the complex physiological systems of humans and large animals, weather and climate are not merely backdrops but active, pervasive forces dictating survival, distribution, behavior, and health. Weather, representing the short-term atmospheric conditions we experience daily— temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and sunlight—directly influences immediate comfort, activity levels, and susceptibility to acute events. Climate, on the other hand, embodies the long-term patterns and averages of these atmospheric variables over decades or centuries, acting as a fundamental determinant of ecosystems, biodiversity, and the sustained well-being of populations. This chapter delves into the multifaceted ways in which these atmospheric phenomena exert their influence. We will explore how thermal conditions drive physiological responses, from metabolic rate adjustments and thermoregulation to the very limits of endurance in extreme heat and cold. Beyond direct physiological impacts, we will examine the indirect effects, such as the role of climate in shaping

Introduction

The town Paithan is famous by it’s name Dakshin Kashi. Godavari river has pristine glory and great significance for Hindus.

Nath temple is situated on the bank of Godavari river. It is a holy place and that’s why it becomes a place of public gathering on Ekadashi, Aashadi Ekadashi, Poornima, Deepawali, Dasera etc. Every year during Chaitra lakhs of people gather.

But at the time of Sheshti, which occurs once in a year is a special event. Hence many fold increase of congregation compared to other melas. The particular small stretch of river near temple was highly polluted, due to mass bathing and other polluting activities. The warm weather shall alter the photosynthesis rates, biodegradation and affect BOD, DO, pH etc. Recent Nath Sheshti at Paithan during 20^th March to 22^nd March 2006, drew about one lakh of pilgrims and had a few special aspects of interests from an environmental point of view.

Considering all the above aspects, it was decided to assess the changes in quality of river Godavari during Nath Sheshti.

Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agriculture Modernisation and Water Bodies Restoration and Management project (TN IAMWARM) is a multidisciplinary project funded by World Bank. It is being implemented by WRO, PWD as nodal agency in 63 sub basins along with line departments and TNAU as coordinating agency since 2007. TNAU is concentrating on up scaling water saving technologies including Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) under Precision farming in sugarcane. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Virinjipuram is implementing TN IAMWARM project in Cheyyar & Kiliyar sub basin since 2007. Cheyyar  and  Killiyar Sub - Basin are the tributaries  of the Palar Basin that rises in KolarDistrict of  Karnataka enters through Vaniyambadi  and drains an area of about 13,470 Sq. K.M. of which 10,880 Sq. K.M. is in Tamil Nadu. The command area of this sub basin comes under the Cheyyar and Vandavasi Taluk in Thiruvannamalai and Uttermerur, Maduranthagam, and Seyyur Taluk in Kancheepuram Districts  which covers 458 tanks in 12 blocks with a registered ayakut area of 36746 ha. The major crops grown in the sub basin area are paddy, sugarcane, groundnut and pulses.

The Effective Climate Guidance (ECG) refers to information, tools, and frameworks designed to help individuals, organizations, and governments make informed and effective decisions and take appropriate actions to address climate change (Fig.7.1). It aims to provide practical, relevant, and actionable insights to navigate the risks and opportunities presented by a changing climate. Fig.7.1: Effective Climate Guidance (ECG)
7.1. Key Aspects of Effective Climate Guidance Include
• Materiality: Focusing on the most significant climate-related issues for the specific context (e.g., for a business, these would be the climate risks and opportunities that could impact its financial performance).
• Actionability: Providing clear steps or strategies that can be implemented.
• Decision-Usefulness: Ensuring the information is relevant and presented in a way that supports informed decision-making.
• Authority and Reliability: Based on credible scientific information and data.

Objective: Equip participants with the skills to communicate clearly, confidently, and empathetically in verbal, non-verbal, and written forms to foster collaboration, reduce misunderstandings, and build stronger workplace relationships.
Why It Matters
Effective communication is the cornerstone of professional success. It ensures ideas are conveyed clearly, builds trust, and prevents conflicts. Poor communication can lead to misaligned expectations, decreased productivity, and strained relationships. For example, a vague email can cause project delays, or a misunderstood tone in a meeting can create tension. This module empowers participants to master communication in diverse workplace scenarios.
Learning Outcomes: By the end of this module, participants will:
1. Understand the components of effective communication (verbal, nonverbal, written).
2. Practice active listening and empathetic responses to enhance interpersonal connections.
3. Craft clear, professional written messages tailored to their audience.
4. Apply communication strategies in real-world scenarios through interactive exercises.

Introduction
A microorganism or microbe is a tiny living thing that can exist as a single cell or in groups of cells. People have suspected the existence of these unseen microbes since ancient times. These single-celled creatures have caused serious infections that often led to deaths and illness. These microorganisms can spread quickly and cause big outbreaks of disease. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin. This discovery started the development of one of the most important groups of medicines in medical history. In the next three decades, many different types of antimicrobial drugs were developed. In his Nobel Prize speech, Fleming warned that using penicillin too much might one day lead to bacteria becoming resistant to it, which would be a major problem. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the biggest public health challenges today. Many of the microbes that cause diseases, like bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, no longer respond to common antimicrobial drugs such as antibiotics, antivirals, and antiprotozoals. Antimicrobial resistance is when a microbe becomes able to survive and grow even when treated with medications that used to work on it. Antibiotic resistance is a type of AMR, but it only applies to bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics. Resistant microbes are harder to treat, and doctors may need to use other medicines or higher doses. These options can be more expensive and have more side effects. Microbes that resist multiple antimicrobials are called multidrug resistant (MDR). Those that are resistant to almost all drugs are sometimes called ‘superbugs’. Antimicrobial prophylaxis is used by doctors to prevent infections, but it should only be used when it’s really needed to avoid unnecessary costs, side effects, and the development of resistance. Antimicrobial prophylaxis can be used to prevent a first infection or to stop an infection from coming back or reactivating.

Abstract

Experiments on micro irrigation and fertigation system were conducted under four agronomic conditions viz. pot culture, a young conventionally planted apple experimental block, a high density experimental block and a conventionally planted bearing apple orchard. Direct correlation was observed between growth and micro irrigation treatments of 40% and 60% depletion of soil moisture at field capacity (FC); allowing depletion up to 80% of FC was found to be detrimental causing permanent damage and mortality.  Two doses (low and high applied at 10 weekly intervals) of fertigation were tried and were found at par with each other.  In fact, accumulation of N in soil was observed when applied at high dose after the third application whereas in case of applications at low dose a steady high N level was maintained throughout the growing season.  Observations on physiological parameters revealed better performance by the micro irrigated and fertigated trees.  Powdery mildew in apple could also be affective controlled by pesticide delivery through the fertigation system; however, some pesticides were found to affect the growth of the apple trees.  Fertigation has found to reduce fertilizer application by 95% in apple orchards opening further possibilities of reduced chemical pollution in cultivated soils and agricultural produce.

Introduction

Plant needs nutrients for their growth and development. In a systemic agriculture, nutrients are supplied to the plant in different amount, form and time for the economic and optimum crop production. Green revolution realized in the late sixties of the last century is an outcome of efficient use of improved varieties and nutrient management. Success of the green revolution has increased use of chemical fertilizers in the post green revolution era. Soon the chemical fertilizers become indispensible from all the crops including vegetable and plantation crops. Non judicious use of chemicals in the agriculture has lead to the serious health, soil and environmental hazards. Biofertilizers are considered to be the most safe, promising and economic component of sustainable agriculture. Biofertilizer is a substance which contains living or latent microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant root or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by providing and essential nutrients or increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. They can applied in all the agronomic, horticultural and plantation crops.

Rice farming under different subsystems of lowland ecology
1. Rainfed lowland with limited water at seeding and excess water at later growth stages: In rainfed lowland areas, the rice is direct seeded in dry soil in April-May before onset of monsoon (June) and seeds germinate with the showers received after sowing. Drought at the seedling stage kills seedlings and results in poor stand establishment. Furthermore, heavy rains in catchment areas of river basins result in water logging and flooding at late growth stages. The water hinders tillering and results in poor panicle number less than 200/m2 as against 350 /m2 of high yielding rice cultivars.
2. Rainfed lowlands with limited/excess water at transplanting and excess water at later stages: When on-set of the monsoon is delayed, transplanting delayed because the farmer has to wait for adequate rains for land preparation. Monsoon rain submerges the transplanted crop, resulting in poor stand. In some areas, the land gets inundated before transplanting and farmers generally transplant aged and tall seedlings to keep the plant parts above the water. Plant survival in deeper water depends on rise in water level and on the elongation ability and submergence tolerance of the plant. Varieties that elongate fast develop weak culms and may lodge when the water level recedes. In this situation tillering is poor and panicle per unit area are less.
3. Assured irrigated areas with excess water during crop growth due to poorly drained condition: Rice grown in the river deltaic areas of Krishna, Godavari and Indo-Gangetic rivers suffer from water stagnation even though some areas are having irrigation facilities. Heavy rains in the catchment cause flooding and stagnation in rice fields because of congested drainage or lack of drainage caused by topographically saucer-shaped land. These conditions develop during peak monsoon (July-September). The late planted crops, being at an early stage of growth, suffersfro water stagnation. In these areas, transplanting early in the season is necessary for plants to grow enough to escape submergence.

Introduction
Social media has turned into an essential element of individuals’ lives students in today’s world of communication. Its use is growing significantly more than ever before especially in the post – pandemic era, marked by a great revolution happening to the recent investigations of using social media show that approximately 3 billion individuals worldwide are now communicating via social media (Iwamoto and Chun, 2020). This growing population of social media users is spending more and more time on social network groupings, as facts and figures show that individuals spend 2 hours a day, on average, on a variety of social media applications, exchanging pictures and messages, updating status, tweeting, favouring and commenting on many updated socially shared information (Abbott, 2017). In the digital age, social media have emerged as a powerful tool for disseminating agricultural technologies and knowledge. ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Bengaluru Rural has effectively leveraged various platforms to bridge the gap between research and farmers, ensuring timely and relevant information reach the farming community. This article explores how KVK Bengaluru Rural strategically utilizes YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, and X (formerly Twitter) for technology dissemination.
I. Facebook
Facebook’s interactive nature allows KVK Bengaluru Rural to engage with farmers and build a strong online community. The fact that KVK’s Facebook channel has 5080 followers is a significant indicator of its reach and engagement within the farming community. The followers represent a substantial audience actively interested in the KVK’s activities and information, this indicates that, the KVK has successfully established a relevant online community. With this follower base, the KVK can effectively disseminate critical information, such as weather updates, market prices, and technological advancements, to a large segment of the local farming population. A significant follower count suggests that the KVK is perceived as a reliable and trustworthy source of agricultural information, farmers are more likely to follow and engage with organizations they trust.

Indian agriculture, accounting for 25% of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 15% of exports and 60% of the employment continues to be the mainstay of economy. Having achieved laudable success in agricultural production in the last 50 years (50 Million ton to 210 Million ton) India has transformed herself from a food deficit country to a food surplus country. Still there are many challenges, which Indian agriculture is facing, in a fast changing technical and socio-economic scenario. Relating to the natural resources and production base, water has emerged as the most crucial factor for sustaining the agricultural sector. India accounts for 16 percent of the world’s human population and nearly 30% of the cattle with only 2.4% of the land and 4% of the water resources.Even if the full irrigation potential is exploited, about 50% of the country’s cultivated area will still remain unirrigated, particularly with the current level of irrigation efficiency. The share of water for agriculture would reduce further with increasing demand from other sectors. But the water demand for agricultural purposes is estimated to increase in order to produce more cereals, horticultural produce and raw material for a fast expanding food industry. Efficient management of water is, therefore, key to future growth of Indian agriculture. The requirement of water by all sectors in 2025 is estimated to be 105 M ha m (Water Resources Development in India, 2010). Share of water for agriculture is expected to get reduced from the present level of 85 % to 69 % by 2025. On the other hand, the actual agricultural water demand is estimated to increase from 470 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) in 1985 to 740 BCM in 2025. During the same period, the demand for non-agricultural use of water will multiply fourfold from 70 BCM to 280 BCM. The water use efficiency (WUE) in Indian agriculture, at about 30-40%, is one of the lowest in the world, against 55% in China.

The ICT enabled extension systems act as a key agent for changing current agrarian situation by improving access to information, sharing knowledge, providing incredible opportunities and enabling the empowerment of farming communities. In order to extend the benefits of ICT’s to the disorganized and disadvantaged farming sector, one of the road maps to achieve them are access of ICT’s to villagers through Mobile telephony.

ABSTRACT

The study was undertaken to assess the effectiveness of ICT-Enabled Village Information Centres (VICs) with special reference to dairy farming in Tamil Nadu. Ex-post-facto research design was followed, wherein 180 users and 90 non-users of VICs constituting 270 dairy farmers covering three ICT-VIC initiatives viz., Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (TANUVAS), M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) and n-Logue communication in Tamil Nadu were selected using random sampling technique. Data collected through personal interviews were analysed using appropriate statistical tools.

ABSTRACT

Agricultural growth is a catalyst for broad based economic development in most of the low-income countries. Over the last few decades, the share of agriculture in GDP has steadily declined in India from over 50 per cent in the 1950s to 18.5 per cent in 2006-07. The role of extension personnel in this juncture has become immense and there is a mammoth task ahead in the era of contract farming, organized retailing and market led extension. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is an umbrella that includes all technologies for the communication of information.  It caters for individualized instruction and the contents could be easily updated and expanded.

Cassava is one of the leading staple food crop which is consumed as food and rest is used in industries and as feed to animal. Cassava has the potential to increase farm income, reduce rural and urban poverty and help to close the food gap (Nweke et al., 2001). It is used in many sectors like food processing, textile industries, glucose production etc. Salem stands first in area and has about 650 sago and starch industries acting as a prime reason for the intensive area under the cassava cultivation in Salem also 60 per cent of the starch produced in India comes from Salem District alone. Nearly 200 products can be made from cassava which leads to implementation of several interventions in the district which helped in imparting knowledge on cassava value addition techniques and improve adoption. Present study was undertaken to analyse the perceived impact by focusing on the effect of interventions of CTCRI and TNAU among the women growers in enhancing group approaches and empowerment through entrepreneurship activities.

Abstract

The present study of effect of drip irrigation and rootstocks on apple cvs Red Fuji and scarlet Gala under high density plantation was taken up at Horticultural Research Station, Seobagh, Kullu (HP) during 2002-2004. Six year old plants grafted on clonal rootstocks viz., EMLA-106, EMLA-7 and EMLA-111 planted at 3x3m were taken for studies. Five levels of irrigation at 100% ETC, 80% ETC, 60% ETC, 40% ETC and basin irrigation at 100 ETc levels were applied through drips starting from March to fruit maturity. Each treatment was replicated four times with one tree in each in a split plot design. Fertilizer application and cultural practices were carried out as per the recommendations of the university. The data on yield, fruit quality and water use efficiency were collected and subjected to statistical analysis. The fruit firmness, TSS, titratable acidity, reducing sugars, total sugar and non-reducing sugars content decreased with increase in the volume applied through drip. There is a little difference among the varieties and rootstocks for biochemical parameters. Various physical quality parameters were significantly improved by drip irrigation over basin irrigation. The fruits of both the varieties had maximum length, diameter and weight on the rootstock EMLA-106. Similarly yield was also influenced by various levels of irrigation.  Drip irrigation at 40% ETC resulted in maximum water use efficiency (0.022 to 0.023 kg / plant/liter) in Red Fuji during both the years under study.

9.1 Introduction

The sources and types of chemical pollution to which freshwater systems can be exposed are many and varied. The origins of pollutants entering these systems range from those that are predominantly point sources (i.e., industrial effluents) to those that are mainly diffuse, such as agricultural run-off and acid deposition. Some of these are effectively continuous, whereas others are intermittent or episodic.

Pollutants can also be characterized by their quality: general organic loading, specific organic toxicants, inorganic toxicants, and acids. While most of the sources listed above produce mixtures of these characteristics, particular components are enhanced. Industrial effluents generally are the source of specific toxicants, but might also lead to general organic loading.

Some consideration should also be given to the types of system exposed to these pollutants. Most freshwater systems flow, but some more rapidly than others; that is, lakes and ponds have a slow throughput, the so called lentic systems whereas that for rivers and streams is rapid. Because they flow rapidly, the so-called lotic systems have been used for the transport of materials, such as removing industrial pollutants from factories and organic effluents from sewage works.

A view exists that lotic systems that depend substantially on organic inputs from terrestrial ecosystems as a basis for their economy should have the capacity for self-cleansing of at least organic pollutants. However, this perception has been challenged recently (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 1992). Of course, “still” or so-called lentic waters may also be important repositories of pollutants, and are certainly exposed to diffuse inputs from agricultural land leading to eutrophication.

Thus, the challenge for aquatic ecotoxicology is to develop methods that can not only assess but also estimate the ecological impact of chemicals on a variety of complex ecosystems under diverse and complicated circumstances (e.g., periodic perturbations or steady trickles, and mixtures of varying complexity). The predictive approach is important in risk assessment used in the regulation of chemical pollutants. Assessment, at times referred to as a “retrospective approach,” is used to determine whether particular contaminants have an impact on specified natural ecosystems. This chapter reviews current methods, first predictive and then retrospective approaches, to address such problems. Initially, one must define what is to be measured, for it has relevance to both approaches.

Introduction

Increasing public concern regarding the use of pharmaceuticals in livestock feeding due to the emergence of drug resistance has led to an enhanced interest to plant derived bioactive compounds as alternative means to improve livestock health and production. Plants bioactive compounds are the plant secondary metabolites having pharmacological or toxicological effects in animals. Secondary metabolites are formed within the plants as well the primary biosynthetic and metabolic routes for compounds associated with plant growth and development, and are considered as products of biochemical deviate in the plant cells and not required daily for the performance of the plant. Some of them are found to have various important functions such as protection, attraction or signaling in the plants. Most species of plants seem to be competent in synthesizing such compounds. Plants with potent bioactive compounds are often characterized as both poisonous and medicinal, and a beneficial or an adverse effect may depend on the quantity eaten by the animal. Some tropical tree leaves and typical food and feed plants with bioactive compounds with less prominent effects, their intakes are usually considered as advantageous.

Abstract

Micronutrients and bioactive compounds must be part of the population's diet in sufficient amounts to meet the body's needs. The concentrations of micronutrients and bioactive compounds in plant foods at harvest are known to vary with such factors as the variety or cultivar, stage of maturity, geographic or climatic effects, etc. Most subclasses of polyphenols e.g., phenolics acids and flavonoids, the effects of processing on the contents were found negligible in comparison to the differences between varieties of plants but carotenoids are among the food components most affected by environmental and processing conditions. Thermal processing has long been known to cause significant losses of vitamins, carotenoids and anthocyanins. The heat treatment viz. blanching, pasteurization, sterilization etc. result in losses of thermally labile nutrients and bioactive compounds, but the inactivation of oxidative and other degradative enzymes (e.g., lipoxygenase for carotenoids, polyphenol oxidase for flavonoids, ascorbic acid oxidase for vitamin C). Nutrients in dehydrated products are more likely to undergo degradation during storage because of the greater surface area exposed to oxygen and light. Blanched products generally resist decomposition better than unblanched foods during storage. Compared to losses during processing, subsequent storage often has a small but significant effect on vitamin and bioactive compound contents. Reaction rates are relatively slow at ambient or reduced temperature. The processing method chosen, and storage condition applied finalise the retention of these compounds which decreases with longer processing time, higher processing temperatures and storage of the food.

14.1. Slope
It is a crucial topographic factor that affects water drainage, erosion and accessibility of agricultural machinery. Steep slopes increase the risk of soil erosion, and water run-off requiring erosion control measures such as contour ploughing or terracing. Slope also affects the availability of sunlight, as steeper slopes may cast shadows and influence microclimates within a field.
14.2. Altitude / Elevation
Elevation is the vertical distance of a point or location above a reference point, often mean sea level. It influences temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the types of crops that can be grown in an area. Higher altitudes generally experience cooler temperatures, which may limit the choice of crops that can thrive. Elevation affects the length of the growing season and influences the choice of appropriate crop varieties. In summary, elevation is an absolute measure of the vertical distance above a reference point (such as MSL), while it is a relative measure that describes the variation in elevation within a specific area or region. Elevation provides information about the height of a point, whereas it provides insights into the topographic features and slopes of a given agricultural landscape. Both elevation and relief are important considerations in agriculture as they influence factors such as water drainage, temperature gradients, and suitability for specific crops.
14.3. Aspect
Aspect refers to orientation of the slope (north, south, east or west). It affects the distribution of sun light; wind patterns and temperature gradients in a field. In the northern hemisphere, the north side of slope is often shaded while the southern side receives more solar radiation and heat, creating warmer microclimates and potentially influencing the choice of crops or planting strategies. Aspect can also impact the risk of frost or cold air drainage in certain regions. Whereas, in the southern hemisphere, the south side slopes get shaded and north facing slopes receive more solar radiation.
14.4. Relief
Relief refers to the variation in altitude between different points. It is a relative measure on changes in altitude across a particular landscape or agricultural area. The valley slopes are preferred sites for agriculture in mountain regions due to several reasons:
• The valley slopes offer relatively flatter terrain, making it easier for farming activities such as cultivation, irrigation and mechanization.
• The valleys tend to have better access to water resources such as rivers or streams which can be used for irrigation water.
• The valley slopes provide good sun exposure and protection from strong winds creating favourable microclimates for crop growth
• The natural drainage patterns of valleys help preventing water logging and ensure better water management.

Abstract

The present experiment was conducted to study the influence of weather parameters on the population dynamics of insect pests of rice during 2009-10 at ICAR-RC for NEH Region, Mizoram Centre, Kolasib, Mizoram. The result of the study indicated that, the mean populations of peak abundance of major insect pests rice crops during August were stem borer, flea beetle and gundhi bug. The Correlation studies showed that stem borer population a significant positively correlation was observed with maximum and minimum relative humidity. Nevertheless non significant negative correlation was obtained with maximum and minimum temperature. The finding of the present study indicated a positive non significant correlation with maximum relative humidity, maximum and minimum temperature where as negative insignificant correlation with rainfall and minimum relative humidity with flea beetle population. The highest minimum temperature showed a positive significant correlation with the Monolepta.

The ozone layer is a region in the Earth’s stratosphere where a certain amount of incoming solar radiation is absorbed. Over the last twenty years or so a series of man-made threats to it have been reported and each has been treated  with more gravity than the last. Now a-days such threats feature  regularly on the agendas of international conferences.

Ozone, Positive and Negative : Ozone, or trimolecular oxygen (O3) can be advantageous or exert harmful influence on human health, as well as that of other organisms. It is all depends on whether it is present in the troposphere or stratosphere (Fig. 8.1). In the stratosphere, ozone is a beneficial serving as a shield in screening out most of the damaging portions of ultraviolet radiation which have wavelengths between 290 and 320 nanometers. In the troposphere, ozone is a negative as it appears as a component of smog with a number of deleterious effects, as will be discussed below.

Abstract

As such in search of alternative to chemical insecticides against insect pest of rice resulted in identifying white muscardine fungus, Beauveria bassiana an entomopathogen out of several entomogenous fungi prevalent in rice ecosystem as the potential mycoinsecticides. The fungus has 78-87% virulence against rice hispa with  LC 50 value of 90.16. Under field situations it is required that the effectiveness of the bioagents are enhanced by combining them with compatible pesticides. A sublethal dose of a pesticide  would make the insect physiologically weak which makes it much more susceptible to the attack of the entomogenous organisms. In view of this, compatibility test was conducted with 14 different commonly applied insecticides at two different doses i.e., recommended and half of the recommended dose. In small scale field trial chloropyriphos at half of the recommended dose along with B. bassiana was the best treatment in controlling the pest along with increased yield of the crop consecutively for two years.

ABSTRACT

An in vitro evaluation was carried out to find out the efficiency of bacterial and fungal antagonists in checking the growth of pathogens of Kacholam. Out of the two methods tried to find out the effectiveness of Pseudomonas fluorescens against the two isolates of Ralstonia solanacearum, cross streaking produced lysis at the juncture and point inoculation produced clear inhibition zones. Among the two fungal antagonists tested Trichoderma viride was more efficient than Aspergillus niger because of its faster growth over the pathogen. However, both the antagonists showed complete overgrowth and dense sporulation on the area where the pathogen was streaked. To find out the efficacy of Pseudomonas fluorescens against leaf spot pathogens like Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and C. capsici, streaking on both sides yielded more than 50 per cent reduction in growth of both the fungal pathogens. The fungal antagonist T. viride showed a faster growth over pathogens than A. niger eventhough both recorded an antagonism index of 1500. Dense sporulation was seen over the pathogens in case of T. viride. The ability of fungal antagonists to produce volatiles and their effect on fungal pathogens were also assessed. It was noticed that the volatiles produced by T. viride was more effective than that of A. niger. Even though the extent of inhibition was less compared to direct action, this could also be one of the mechanisms of action of both the antagonists. The study revealed that all the three antagonists were effective against both bacterial and fungal pathogens and they could be utilized under field conditions.

Abstract

Lentil is an important pulse crop and play very important role in the supply of the protein to under nourished vegetarian population of the country. Fusarium wilt of lentil caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis is one of the wide spread and destructive diseases in India under rice-based cropping system. Use of synthetic fungicides has led to the emergence of several problems like environment pollution, residual effect in grains and killing of non-target organism(s). Hence, for minimizing the losses caused by Fusarium wilt, four plant extracts such as Garlic, Neem, Eucalyptus, Tulsi and three antagonistic bio-agents viz. Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescence were evaluated in vitro. The results clearly showed that all plant extracts were more or less inhibitory to mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis. The effectiveness of extracts increased with increase of their concentration and maximum growth inhibition was obtained in Eucalyptus followed by Garlic and Tulsi. While minimum per cent inhibition was recorded in Neem. Among bio-agents, T. viride showed maximum growth inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis followed by T. harzianum at both 4 and 7 days incubation period.

Abstract

Microbial inoculants are low cost inputs with high benefits in agriculture. Solid carrier based (peat or lignite) inoculants are used in most tropical countries. The carrier based inoculants have short shelf life, are liable to have high contaminants and have shown inconsistent field performance. In recent years, special liquid formulations containing not only the desired microorganisms and their nutrients but also added cell protectants or chemicals that promote formation of resting spores or cysts have been developed. The liquid formulations have longer shelf-life (12 months at room temperature) and are also more tolerant to adverse conditions encountered in storage. Liquid Rhizobium biofertilizers enhanced the soybean crop yields in the United States of America, Brazil, Europe and Asia over carrier based inoculants.

ABSTRACT

The main function of extension is to bring a desirable change in human behavior. The extension workers, thus are essentially educators and their most important job is to communicate useful and practical research findings to the farmers in such a way that they understand, accept and adopt. In order to achieve this objective, the extension agencies are disseminating new technologies through different means including mass media like radio, T. V, and print media. Considering the wide areas of coverage, exposure and frequent use by people, the mass media such as television, newspaper and radio play an important role in the transfer of technology. Mass media are increasingly becoming a veritable instrument and tool for transforming agriculture. Hence, mass media play a vital role in agricultural extension. There is a gap between the agricultural researchers and the farmers. A lot of findings from the research institutions and laboratories are not used by the farmers, either because of the information did not reach them, or the received information was not implemented by them. To overcome this problem, mass media play a vital role in diffusing scientific knowledge among the mass. This is used to link researchers and extension workers and collecting the feedback from farming communities. Further, agricultural technology information acquired by farmers through mass media. Generally, the agricultural technology information includes techniques of applying fertilizer, insecticides and fungicides to crops, improved methods of cultivation and conservation techniques of planting, maintenance, harvesting and storage of crops. There are also new technologies of animal husbandry as well as processing and marketing various agricultural products. Hence, mass media is the most effective means of reaching people with new ideas and persuading them to utilize these innovations. The appropriate use can create knowledge and catalyze behavioral change among farming communities for better family farming.

Abstract

The major losses of banana at present by Panama wilt disease pathogen of banana and its management is very typical because it is caused by a soil-borne pathogen (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. c u b e n s e ). The micronutrients are used to manage the disease as well as it provides the healthiness of plant and increases the fertility of the soil that’s why the plant is free from the disease or less infected. An experiment of micronutrients was conducted in the laboratory of plant pathology BAU, Sabour for Invitro evaluation of the micronutrients viz. Zinc Sulfate, Ferrous Sulfate, Ammonium Sulfate, Copper Sulfate, Calcium Nitrate, Borax and Potassium Chloride against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense causing Panama wilt of banana. The results of the experiment revealed that among the micronutrients used, Borax @ 500 and 750 ppm completely inhibited the mycelial growth of FOC followed by Zinc Sulfate (45.7, 42.6, 39.2 and 18.5 mm at 100, 250, 500 and 750 ppm respectively). The incorporation of borax in the solid medium at higher concentrations viz., 500 and 750 ppm is very effective for the management of Panama wilt disease of banana. This approach leads to maintain our ecosystem sustainability for a longer time and manage the disease.

Abstract

European red mite is a  serious pest of apple in Himachal Pradesh. Recent survey has shown that 80 per cent apple orchards are infested with this pest. As a result of continuous feeding fruit remained undersized, poor coloured and sour in taste. New acaricides fenazaquin (0.001%) and propergite (0.057%) proved highly effective Standard acaricides dicofol ( 0.037%) and insecticide endosulfan (0.07%) remained effective upto 15 days only.

Abstract

Pigeon pea is an important pulse crop of India and its production is greatly affected by wilt disease. Pigeon pea wilt is a very destructive soil borne disease caused by Fusarium udum. In present research work plant extracts (Garlic, Neem, Tulsi), bio-agents (Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens) and fungicides (Vitavax, Bavistin and Thiram + Carbendazim) were tested against Fusarium udum. Among them fungicides were found most effective in inhibiting mycelial growth of Fusarium udum recorded 100% inhibition followed by garlic bulb extract (52.12 to 56.33%). Among bioagents, Pseudomonas fluorescens inhibit the growth up to (46.00 to 51.79%) followed by T. viride (44.32 to 48.79%) amongst all treatments except untreated.

Keywords: Pigeon pea, Fusarium udum, bio-agent, fungicide

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) is one of the major pulse crops grown in the tropics and subtropics belonging to family Leguminaceae. It has wide adaptability and low input requirements mostly grown in kharif season.

ABSTRACT

Phytophthora rot is the most destructive disease of black pepper nursery inflicting heavy crop losses. Considering the seriousness of the disease, the present study was undertaken to isolate and select the efficient antagonists from pepper nurseries raised in Government farms at Chelakkara, Pazhayannur, Mannuthy and Pananchery of Thrissur district. A quantitative estimation of the rhizosphere microflora from different nurseries revealed more abundance of soil bacteria followed by fungi and actinomycetes. Based on cultural characters of the rhizosphere microflora, 22 fungi, 20 bacteria and five actinomycetes were selected for further studies. Antagonistic action of soil microflora against Phytophthora capsici was studied by dual culture method in comparison with that of standard culture of T. harzianum. The study revealed that all fungal isolates and five bacterial isolates were antagonistic towards the pathogen with varying degrees. Among the fungal isolates, 13 isolates including T.harzianum recorded cent per cent inhibition of P.capsici. From among the fungal isolates that showed antagonistic reaction in dual culture, further selection of efficient ones was carried out based on the antagonistic index (AI). The isolate 22 F₂ (Trichoderma sp.) showed the maximum AI of 3000 followed by isolate 34 F₂ (Trichoderma sp.) and T. harzianum with an AI of 1500 each. The cultural and morphological characters of the efficient native isolates (22 F₂ and 34 F) were studied and were identified as Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai aggr. and Trichoderma viride Pers. ex S.F. Gray aggr. The three antagonists were found parasitic on P.capsici as evidenced by excessive coiling, penetration and disintegration of the hyphae and thereby these Trichoderma spp. used in the study is found to have effective parasitic effect on the pathogen in addition to some degree of antibiosis and these fungi could be utilised for the management of Phytophthora rot in black pepper nursery.

ABSTRACT

Phytophthora pod rot (PPR) incited by Phytophthora palmivora is the most serious disease of cocoa, inflicting heavy crop losses. Since, antagonistic microbes are useful in ecofriendly management of plant diseases, the present study was undertaken to harness the potential of antagonistic epiphytic microflora isolated from cocoa pods for the management of PPR of cocoa. A quantitative estimation of the epiphytic microflora from pods collected from different locations of cocoa gardens of Thrissur district revealed more abundance of bacteria followed by fungi, actinomycetes and fluorescent pseudomonads. The in vitro antagonistic effect of 16 isolates of fungi, 22 isolates of bacteria, five isolates of actinomycetes and two isolates of fluorescent pseudomonads from pod surface against P. palmivora was carried out in comparison with standard cultures of Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens. The study revealed that all the epiphytic fungal and bacterial isolates including standard cultures of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens were antagonistic to P. palmivora in varying degrees. Based on the in vitro screening seven promising epiphytic fungal isolates and five bacterial isolates along with standard cultures of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens were evaluated for their efficiency in reducing the infection by P. palmivora on detached pods. The pathogen was inoculated on the pods one hour after application of antagonists. Observations taken 10 days after inoculation of the pathogen revealed that one isolate of T. viride and two isolates of P. fluorescens obtained from pod surface exerted more than 40 per cent efficiency over control in reducing the infection. The standard cultures of fungal and bacterial antagonists recorded 33-35 per cent efficiency. Hence, these efficient epiphytic and standard cultures could be utilized for the management of PPR of cocoa.

Irrigation Efficiency
Irrigation water is an expansive input and has to be used very efficiently. The main losses that occur during irrigation of fields as conveyance, run off, seepage and deep percolation; Irrigation efficiency can be increased by reducing these losses. Uneven spreading and inadequate filling of root zone are the other causes for low irrigation efficiency. Irrigation efficiency at the field level can be increased by selecting suitable method of irrigation, adequate land preparation and engaging an efficient irrigator. At the project level, it can be increased by proper conveyance and distribution system. Irrigation efficiency is the ratio usually expressed as percent of the volume of irrigation water transpired by plants, plus that evaporate from the soil, plus that necessary to regulate the salt concentration in the soil solution and that used by plants in building plant tissue to total volume of water diverted, stored or pumped for irrigation.
Wt+Ws-RsEi=×100Wi
Where,
Ei = Irrigation efficiency (percent)
Wt = the volume of irrigation water / unit area of land transpired by plants, evaporation from the soil during the crop period.
Ws = the volume of irrigation water per unit area of land to regulate the salt Content of soil solution.

The objective of any cropping system is efficient utilisation of all resources such as land, water and solar radiation, maintaining stability in production and obtaining higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time.

Abstract

The groundwater targeting in hard rock aquifer systems is complex, because of the heterogeneity of the aquifer systems. The ground water mobility and stability in such aquifer systems varies because of the lithology, folded structures, fracture density, geomorphology, slope etc., These occur in various permutations and combinations and control the overall water holding and conducting capacity in different parts of the aquifer systems. Hence, one needs to analyse all the data so as to understand and bring out precise spatial models on the groundwater probability in hard rock aquifer systems. In the present study, the authors have carried out GIS based appraisals to understand the relation between the lithology and groundwater movement in hard rock aquifer systems of parts of Central Tamil Nadu covering 1300 sq.km. In the said study, GIS images were generated on the maxima zones of various aquifer parameters such as water level, width of aquifer depletion, transmissivity, permeability, specific capacity, storage co-efficient, optimum yield and recovery rate. These were overlaid with the lithology GIS image. Such an analysis has shown that, in general, the fissile hornblende biotite gneiss appears to have some control over the groundwater systems.

11.1 Performance of Farm Irrigation Systems

The performance of farm irrigation systems is determined by the efficiency with which water is delivered to the field and utilized to the fullest amount possible with minimum losses due to seepage and percolation, runoff, evaporation and other operational losses. The efficiency of the irrigation system will increase if the conveyance losses, application losses and other losses are reduced to a great extent.

11.1.1 Overall Efficiency

The overall efficiency of a farm irrigation system is defined as the percent of water applied to the farm that is used for irrigation on the farm. Irrigation efficiency otherwise called as overall system efficiency is defined.

About 60 per cent of total arable land (142 million ha) in India is rain-fed, characterized by low productivity, low income, low employment with high incidence of poverty and a bulk of fragile and marginal land. Watershed development program is, therefore, considered as an effective tool for addressing many of these problems and recognized as a potential engine for agricultural growth and development in fragile and marginal rain-fed areas. The Government of India has accorded high priority to the holistic and sustainable development of rain-fed areas through the integrated watershed development program since the 7th Five Year Plan (1985-90) and since then a number of watershed programs have been specifically launched in the rain-fed areas with the sole objective to improve the livelihood of poor rural households in a sustainable manner.

Water is indispensable for human, animal and plant life. It is a major component of all organisms some of which contain more than 90% of water. Water is a constituent of protoplasm. It maintains turgidity of cells which is essential for stomatal opening, expansion of cells and for different physiological processes. Water is also required for translocation of nutrients and dissipation of heat.

16.1 Irrigation

Irrigation is generally defined as the artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying the moisture essential for plant growth.

However, a broader and more inclusive definition of the term irrigation is the application of water to the soil for any number of the following six purposes —

1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth.
2. To provide crop insurance against short duration drought.
3. To cool the soil and atmosphere, thereby making more favourable environment for crop growth.
4. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil.

The conservation of soil and water is very essential for sustainable production, environment preservation and balanced ecosystem. Fifty percent of total geographical area (329 m ha) of our country needs soil and water conservation measures. About 5334 million tonnes of soil is lost annually along with 10 million tonnes of fertilizer and other essential nutrients and organic carbon. Loss of nutrients is almost equal to their total production in India. In India about 70% of the cultivated area falls under the category of dryland conservation measures for soil and water and efficient utilization of these resources is needed in these areas. The fact that rainfed agriculture supports 44% of India’s human population and contributes 90 percent of coarse cereals and pulses, 80 percent of oil seeds and 65 percent of cotton and growing realization that further gains in productivity of crops and live stock will emanate from rainfed regions, leave no room for complacency in this regard.

In these areas, rainfall frequently occurs with high intensity that produces higher runoff due to non adoption of soil and water conservation (SWC) measures and poor permeability of the soil. As a result crop grown during rainy season often suffer from moisture stress due to inadequate moisture storage in the soil profile. Secondly soil erosion problems such as sheet, rill and even gully erosion are common in the region.

It has been reported that the black soils of peninsular region of India, under cultivated fallow gives runoff of about 23.4 percent of rainfall and results in a soil loss of 8.94 t ha^-1 at 1.0 percent slope (Verma et al., 1990). They further reported that the rate of siltation reduced by 83 percent within a span of five years due to adoption of agronomic measure of SWC. These studies clearly showed that soil erosion and runoff are the major factors causing land degradation in the region that needs appropriate SWC measures so that crop productivity could be maintained.

PGPR have shown potentiality against pests and diseases oc curring on crop plants. Wilt and collar rot diseases are caused by soilborne pathogens viz., Fusarium oxysporum fsp. lycopersici (FOL) and Sclerotium rolfsii respectively in vegetables. An attempt was made to manage the diseases with PGPR microbes and 142 PGPR strains were isolated from different vegetable crops. Among them two isolates viz., Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BA1) and B. subtilis (BS2) were found highly effective in controlling the diseases.  Apart from the disease control, the isolates BA1 and BS2 also registered enhanced crop growth and yield in cowpea under field conditions. Species level identification of BA1 and BS2 was done through PCR amplification and sequencing of 16s rRNA. Both BA1 and BS2 clustered with Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and B. subtilis respectively.

Abstract

India is the prevalent prime producer of moringa [drumstick] with an annual production of 2.2 million tonnes of tender fruits from an area of 38,000 ha. Among the states, Andhra Pradesh leads in both area and production [15,665 ha] followed by Karnataka [10,280 ha] and Tamil Nadu [7,408 ha]. In other states, it occupies an area of 4,613 ha. Tamil Nadu is the pioneering state in so much as it has varied genotypes from diversified geographical areas, as well as introductions from Sir Lanka. Farmers found that growing moringa crops during summer season was remunerative. Thus, moringa gained a foothold as a summer vegetable. Its unique flavour and aroma became very popular. For South Indian any meal without moringa and pulses is considered incomplete. The demand for the moringa pod also increased due to increased urban settlements and migration of people to urban colonies. Based on the significance of moringa in the human diet this study might more viable with the specific objectives of to assessing the marketing strategies for promotion Periyakulam annual moringa seeds in Tamil Nadu.

Moisture deficit causing shortfalls in crop production is the characteristic feature of dryland agriculture. Other adverse factors viz., decline in soil fertility together with play of biotic stresses add to the complexities of dryland crop production. Added to the proven agronomic management to combat the problem of drought in dryland agriculture, there is the need to tailoring of suitable crop varieties which can yield reasonably well under conditions of moisture deficit (Varshney et al., 2021). In this context, the appropriate developmental rhythm along with the combination of the constellation of characters of the crop plant matching with the rainfall and the soil moisture availability patterns of the zone are the important considerations together with stability of yield (Hanson and Nelsen, 1980). This task being a complex one, the problem should be approached through multidisciplinary strategy that should buffer the genetic and breeding efforts.

10.1 Introduction

Rainwater is the main source of water for agriculture but its current use efficiency for the crop production is low ranging between 30-45%. The rising demand for water for non-agricultural uses is proportionately decreasing its share for agricultural uses. Efficient methods of water harvesting in the farm reservoirs including farm ponds and its management for subsequent uses in agriculture with improved water use technologies are vital for increasing the productivity and reducing poverty in rainfed ecosystems. It is not to be forgotten that the harvested water in the pond is a very valuable commodity. It may be used for industrial use or for irrigation in agriculture. The harvested water is also a good source to meet the water demand of domestic animals and for human beings (Fig. 10.1). The stored water of the pond can be used for fish farming, tree plantation, intensive irrigation to small area and extensive supplemental irrigation to rainfed crops. Stored water in a pond is developed resource and is, therefore, more expensive than the natural resource. Hence, there is a need to utilize it judiciously and efficiently.

Introduction

One of the most common concerns in irrigated agriculture is regarding water quality or salinity. Out of the ground water surveyed in different Indian States, as much as 84% is rated either saline or alkaline (Minhas 1996). Salinity management is very important for using saline water in irrigation safely. This requires an understanding of how salts affect soil as well as plants, of how hydrogeologic processes affect salt accumulation, and also of how cropping and irrigation activities affect soil and water salinity.

The objectives of management practices for getting optimal crop production with saline irrigation water include the prevention of salt build-up in soil which limit the productivity of soils and the control of salt balances in the soil-water system, as well as minimising the damaging effects of salinity on crop growth (Meiri and Plaut 1985). Amongst the various soil, water, and crop management options available, there is usually no single way to achieve safe use of saline water in irrigation but many different approaches and practices can be combined into satisfactory irrigation systems using saline water. The appropriate combination depends upon edaphic, hydrogeologic, climatic factors as well as social and economic condition of the farmer. Several practices interact with each other, and should be considered in an integrated manner, along with climatic and human factors. Because of the climate, the basic principles of saline water management need some adaptation, e.g. providing for a leaching requirement is not appropriate when the growing season for post-monsoon winter crops starts with a surface-leached soil profile, because it would increase the salt load. High salinities during the initial stages of growth are particularly harmful. Recommendations for effective management of irrigation water salinity depend upon local soil properties, climate, and water quality; options of crops and rotations; and irrigation and farm management capabilities

12.1 Introduction

The eggs represent very good basis that can be enriched with useful and beneficial substances and become functional food, since certain beneficial substances which layers consume in their daily diets transfer relatively easily into their products. However, enrichment of poultry meat and eggs can have adverse consequences in regard to their quality. Functional food is interesting also from the economical aspect, because it opens for poultry producers the possibility to introduce new products into their product range. Of course, main assumption is that consumers of enriched products are willing to pay premium price for these products, which is by 15-20% higher than average product price. On a global basis, eggs are one of the most recognized and accepted foods by consumers.

INTRODUCTION

EGGS : Eggs and egg products constitute an important part of family meals. The economic importance of the egg to agriculture and industry, its multiple uses in the preparation of many food products, and its excellent nutritive value have stimulated scientific scrutiny into the nature of the egg.

STRUCTURE : The chief parts of the egg are the yolk, the albumin (the white), and the shell and the shell membranes. The yolk is more complex structurally than may be thought at first glance. At the very center is a light coloured structure called the white yolk. The vitelline membrane serves as the enclosure or sac for the yolk. The strength of this membrane is important when yolks and whites needs to be separated in cookery. Two important rather twisted membraneous structures extend from opposite sides of the yolk into the white.

In order to assess the quality characteristics of eggs the book reference values were taken for comparison

EDS 76 is an infectious disease of laying hens caused by hemagglutinating adenovirus and characterized by failure to achieve production targets or by the production of thin-shelled or shell-less eggs in otherwise healthy birds.

This important disease caused loss of egg production for several years - vaccination introduced the disease and a new vaccine virtually eradicated it.