eBook Chapters

1. The word "Statistics" derived from the Latin word 'Status' meaning POLITICAL STATE.

2. Statistics are lifeblood of successful commerce.

3. Statistics are not suitable to study the qualitative phenomenon.

4. Statistics laws are not exact.

5. A.L.Bowley "Statistics are numeral statement of facts in any department of enquiry placed in relation to each other".

6. Croxton and Cowden "Statistics may be defined as the science of collection, presentation analysis and interpretation of numerical data from the logical analysis".

7. Alfred Marshall - "Statistics are the straw only which I like every other economist has to make the bricks".

8. Function of statistics

a. Condensation

b. Comparison

c. Forecasting

d. Estimation

e. Tests of hypothesis

9. ANOVA-Analysis of Variance.

10. ANOVA-developed by Prof. R.A. Fisher.

Introduction Technology is the application of knowledge and/or equipment in undertaking and accomplishing certain activity. Fisheries technology is a systematically organized knowledge and materials applicable to production problems to help to boost the present level of fish productivity and or extend the existing range of production. Fisheries technologies are wide range of importance; Technological innovation in aquaculture is leading an evolution in aquaculture practices, thereby reducing losses and increasing efficiency. Technology in aquaculture affects many areas of fishery, such as seed production, feed production and management, pest and diseases management, production, harvesting, marketing, processing, etc. Induced breeding technology in Indian Major Carps transformed the growth of aquaculture sector from traditional to intensive aquaculture practices and led to success of modern aquaculture industry. Mechanization in fishing increased the harvest with less time and minimal human drudgery. Fish processing technologies improved product shelf-life, reduced fish loss and added value to the products.

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.

India is endowed with 8118 kilometers of coastline and access to 5.3 lakh square kilometers of continental shelf to facilitate marine fishing.195210 kilometers long river and canal system, more than 6 million hectares of water bodies under reservoirs, ponds, Fish is an integral part of food and culture in India. Indian coastal region is rich in aquatic bio diversity with various identified fish species and also in aquatic resources. India with its vast and varied marine and inland resources stands third in world total fish production and second in inland fish production. India’s fish production has increased from 5.6 million tonne during 2000-2001 to 6.9 million tonne during 2006-2007. During the year 2006-07, the country witnessed foreign exchange of Rs.8363.53 crore through export of sea food. Fish processing industries in India are gaining importance in recent years due to increase in demand of processed food by the developed countries. In India fishery sector provide livelihood to an estimated 10 million people and the Inland fisheries are of particular importance to the rural poor accounting for about 15% of total global employment (FAO, 2000). Sustainable utilization of available resources with appropriate farming system approaches will increase fish production and also will generate employment opportunities.

1. The removal of moister from the timber is known as seasoning.

2. For boat building purpose timber should have moisture about 18-20%.

3. Mild steel contain 0.15-0.30% of carbon.

4. Low carbon steel contain less than 0.15% of carbon.

5. High carbon steel contain 0.8-1.5% of carbon.

6. The specific gravity of steel 7.84.

7. The aluminum boat was firstly built in France 1892.

8. Ferro cement boat was introduced in France 1847.

9. Specific gravity of aluminum-2.7.

10. Specific gravity of Ferro cement 2.4-2.6.

1. Fiber are basic material for constructing the gear.

2. Fibers length will be 200 times greater than that width.

3. Cotton fibber have length about 20-50 mm.

4. Ramie, hemp, liner are also known as soft fiber.

5. Ramie fiber - china grass.

6. Sisal and manila fiber are hard fiber.

7. Poly amide also known as nylon.

8. Polystyrene also known as terylene.

9. Poly condensation water eliminating process eg PA, PES.

10. Poly vinyl chloride is the first synthetic fiber to be produced by on an industrial scale. And also first synthetic material for gear.

1. Examples of grappling gears Clamps, Tongs and Raking devices.

2. Wounding gears with sharp projectiles Spears, Lances, Fish plummets, Fish comb, Arrows, Harpoons, Blow guns, Rifles.

3. Brail net-Large scoop net.

4. Jerk net a rectangular net kept under tension between two sticks which are pushed forward.

5. Collection of shells and corals for decoration and small fishes for aquarium is called as Aesthetic fishing.

6. Fish plummets are also called as plume lines or plumed lines.

7. The cross section of the two scam trawl during operation is elliptical.

8. Bridles-legs of trawl.

9. Sweep lines serve as false netting under water and vibrate in the water column.

10. The size of the trawl net is generally referred by the length of the head rope.

Aim: To know the method of securing thomas splint, in the forelimb.

Description

After immobilising the fracture site covering the distal as well as proximal end properly the thomas splint is fitted over the forelimb.

The foot is immobilised to the distal end of Thomas splint.

The immobilised forelimb kept closed and straight with the posterior extension of bamboo of the thomas splint. The limb is fixed with posterior bamboo splint with bandage roll at several place to avoid anterior, posterior movement of the limb.

At the time of fixing the limb with posterior extension bamboo of the Thomas splint, bandage are rapped along with the netting of thomas splint, to avoid medullary lateral movement of the immobilised limb.

Finally the immobilised forelimb is rapped along with the bandage roll including both the anterior and posterior extension of bamboo splint.

To avoid outside movement of the immobilised limb, the method of immobilisation of fracture of forelimb has been shown in fig-1.

Plans need not be made for nuts and bolts, but are essential to prevent future bottlenecks. If enough cushions are provided for the future, the economy will grow smoother and faster. The importance of plan is that when you design it before you implement it; you have a better chance of eliminating design flaws from the beginning. If you start out coding and later on figure out you have a design flaw, it is extremely painful to go back and re-implement everything. Certain software engineering experts have estimated that it can cost up to 10x more (time and money) to fix a design problem in the later stages of software development than in the early stages.

CORPUS

Fixation of rubber slipper over the foot, after application of fracture, immobilising devices the foot is protected with rubber slipper to avoiding soiling and affection of foot (Fig. No-1).

The foot protection the protective rubber slipper is applied given to both their foot (Fig No.2).

Gum bandage, immobilised limb (Fig No.3).

As well as POP cost application (Fig No. 4).

The rubber could be given anterior to posterior derection to avoid entering of soiling towards the foot.

The slipper retain in position with due to splint.

Fixation can be done by either wet fixation or dry fixation. If staining is to be delayed for a few days, cell preservation enhanced by fixation. Fix the slide within 30-60 seconds.

Wet Fixation

Nutrient adsorption in soil is one of the important phenomena in terms of nutrient availability to plants. Due to the nutrient fixation of the added nutrients supplied through fertilizers or manures may result the increase in cost of production due to the non-availability of the added nutrients at the optimum level to the plants. Hence, management options are required to release the sorbed nutrients from soil for better availability to the plants. The ion-fixation is driven by physico-chemical and biological processes and varies under agro ecological situations. The chemistry of ion fixation in the form of specific or non-specific adsorption on soil colloids will help understanding the bonding and adsorption reactions of ions in the soil.

8.0 What is fixation?

Fixation of plant nutrients in soil may be defined as the process, where readily soluble plant nutrients are transformed into less soluble forms by physical or chemical reaction with organic or inorganic compounds and thus restricting the mobility of ions in soil that leads to the decrease in availability to the plants. There are two kinds of fixation in general, viz; cation (N, K, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Ca,Mg etc.) and anion (P, B, Mo etc.) in soils. The fixation of ions in soil is governed by important physical and chemical parameters of soil based on which the available pools of nutrients for plants may be determined.

When an element burns in a flame it emits radiation characteristic of its identity. Flame photometry is the determination of an element in solution by measurement of emission of light by atoms of the element in flame. Initial tests for identification of a few elements by flame tests are well known. Na burns with yellow flame, K with lilac flame, Ca, with red flame, Cu, with green flame etc. Emission of characteristic radiation by an element and correlation of emission intensity with the concentration of that element form the basis for flame photometry.

The sample to be analyzed is prepared in solution and sprayed under controlled conditions into a flame. The light from the flame enters a monochromator to isolate the desired region of the spectrum. A photocell and an amplifier measure the intensity of the isolated radiation. After proper calibration of the photometer with solutions of known composition and concentration, it is possible to correlate the intensity of a given spectral line with the unknown concentration of that element. A calibration curve prepared using known concentrations is useful. Internal standards and addition of known concentration of sample to be quantified are more useful.

Principles of Working
(Lundegårdh, 1929-1934 : Mac Intyre, 1961)

Flame photometry is the measurement of the concentration of an ionic material in a solution introduced in  to a flame, where the intensity of light emitted by the flame under these conditions is measured. We should give credit to Kirchhoff and Bunsen (1860), who developed the idea of emission spectroscopy into quantitative inorganic analysis, later on Janssen (1970) made lot of developments in this direction. The main parts of flame photometer are: (1) burner, (2) atomizer which disperses the solution as a fine spray into the flame; a means of isolating from the spectrum (i.e., filtering system, diffraction gratting etc.) only that portion of the emitted light which is a specific characteristics of the substance being examined ; a photosensitive detector with or without amplifier; and a method of measuring the desired emission. In flame photometry the diluted biological fluid is atomized directly ino the flame without need of preliminary separation. The resulting emissions are those of all the inorganic ions present. For measurement the emitted light is passed through a monochromater where the wavelength most characteristics of the material analysis and which most closely follows Beer’s law is selected.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sensory science is the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation and includes our basic understanding of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could unfold the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) methodology was first described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be the impediments in solving “the problem of flavour characterization” Further, new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by the food industry, but much more needed in be done if it is to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food and it is taste plus odour. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volatile tastants by the tongue while in other words, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all the possible flavour stimuli that could be encountered is as vast as the galaxy.

Introduction

How one can differentiates between sensory science and sensory evaluation? Perhaps the simplest way would be to think of sensory science as the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation. It could include our basic understandings of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could designate the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) methodology was f irst described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be impediments to solving “the problem of flavour characterization” (Stone et al., 1974). As noted by Pangborn (1964), new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by industry, but much more needed to be done if it was to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food. “Flavour is taste plus odour”. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volative tastants by the tongue. On the other word, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all possible flavour stimuli we could encounter is as vast as the galaxy. However, most of the attempts to define these experiences have historically been over simplified.

1. Flavor is a sensory phenomenon depending upon
   1. Taste, texture or mouthfeel
   2. Odour or aroma, appearance
   3. Temperature - sensation of heat or cold
   4. All of these
2. Flavours are minor constituents of foods, usually
   1. Nutritive
   2. Non - nutritive
   3. Energetic
   4. None of them

A. Diseases

1. Anthracnose

Occurrence & severity status

Anthracnose has a serious impact on yield and fibre quality of flax (Linum usitatissimum) and is well-known in Europe, Asia and America. Flax anthracnose increased in Germany when flax production was expanding in the 1930s (Rost 1938). The anthracnose pathogen is seed- and soilborne, causes damping off of flax seedlings (Rost 1938), and is one of the causal organisms of so-called flax-sick soils (Bolley & Manns 1932). It has been recorded in nearly every country where the crop is grown either for fibre or oil. It is known to occur in Belgium, the British Isles, Canada, Formosa, France, Germany, Holland, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, New Zealand, Poland, U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. (including Siberia), in most of which countries its incidence has resulted in appreciable crop losses (Muskett and Colhoun, 1947). The disease is most common in cool and humid flax-growing areas (Nyvall, 1989). The disease is destructive to the crop, especially when the seed source is contaminated by the fungus. It can spread rapidly under favourable conditions causing severe local epidemics and heavy losses in yield and quality of both fiber and seed (Mercer, 1992c; Rashid, 2003b). The losses of 50% in fibre yield in an epidemic year were reported by Muskett and Colhoun (1947). Ondrej (1985) indicated a considerable loss in fibre strength on attack by anthracnose.

The condition is one of the most common pruritic skin disease caused by hypersensitivity reaction to the flea salivary antigens. Type I immediate hypersensitivity, type II delayed hypersensitivity and cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity to the flea salivary antigens have been recorded. Late phase IgG mediated reaction also caused in this condition. It occurs in dogs mostly between 1 and 3 years of age.

9.1 Introduction

Flood water which is in the form of a hydrograph when passes down a river section undergoes several changes in its form. There may be some addition of water to the river section when the flood wave passes down the river section. There may be some diversion of water from the section. Thus, depending on the addition or abstraction of water to the incoming flood water, shape of the flood hydrograph in the downstream section may change. Sometimes channel storage and resistance to flow of water in the channel section also affects the shape of the flood hydrograph.

7.1 Introduction

Flood is an unusually high stage in a river resulted due to high rainfall or snow melt which causes large flow of runoff in it. During flood, the river overflows the banks and inundates the adjoining areas. Flood causes heavy damages to buildings and hydraulic structures besides causing catastrophic loss to human life and property. It causes great economic loss due to disruption of many structures and damage to agricultural fields. Many forest and aquatic lives are affected by the flood. Hundreds of crores of rupees are spent every year to control, forecast and manage the flood.

This chapter portrays flooding as a geohazard that can be managed with ease through simple and effective measures. Flooding is a recurrent geohazard that affects vast lands in India and elsewhere. Unlike many other geohazards, flooding event and probable area to be affected could be predicted with fairly accurate levels and hence, proper safety measures could be taken easily. However, as flash floods could not be predicted and the nature of flooding hazard that it brings in added danger of health hazard, crop damage and cutting off of supply and communication networks, flooding is as serious threat as any other geohazard. Scientifically designed urbanization and flood control measures are suggested for minimizing the potential impacts of flooding.

INTRODUCTION

Flooding is defined as a temporary submergence of a large area (that normally remains dry) under water by overflowing rivers and reservoirs as a result of heavy rains, high winds, cyclones, storm surges, tsunami, melting of snow or dam burst (Arya et al. 2005). The term “temporary submergence” denotes a time period ranging from few hours to about few months depending on type and location of flooding. Although flooding is a natural phenomenon that plays a major role in replenishing wetlands, recharging groundwater and supports agriculture, extreme demands on natural resources due to population growth, people and their property move closer to water bodies

Flooding

Flooding affects both above and below ground ecosystem processes in greenhouses. Below-ground changes may be less obvious, they are as important as the above-ground changes. Soil microorganisms are sensitive to disturbance, and shifts in soil microbial community structure are expected when anaerobic conditions develop from flooding. The useful aerobic microbes are destroyed by flooding. It takes time to built-up their population in the soil to benefit plants. Due to anaerobic condition created by flooding in greenhouse plant roots in soil are not able to breath, function and hence wilting of plants occurs. Flood irrigation in excess create flood like condition in greenhouses at time. Excess water in soils is a major factor affecting plant survival and functioning. In saturated soils, the supply of atmospheric oxygen into the soil is curtailed and various facultative and obligate anaerobic microorganisms use oxidized compounds as electron acceptors for respiration, thus converting them to reduced forms. The reduction and the associated processes influence plant survival, growth and functioning in wetlands. Flood irrigation should always be just wet the soil not flood inviting stagnation of water.

A chain of reactions is initiated upon soil flooding leading to reduced soil redox potential conditions. These reactions include physical, chemical and biological processes that have significant implications on plants growth. Physical processes include restriction of atmospheric gas diffusion in the soil leading to depletion of soil oxygen and accumulation of carbon dioxide. Shortly after flooding, the limited supply of oxygen in soil pore spaces is depleted rapidly by roots, microorganisms, and soil reductants. This process leads to oxygen depletion and reduction in soil oxidation reduction potential followed by a chain of soil chemical changes. The processes that follow include denitrification, reduction of iron, manganese and sulphate, and changing soil pH

I. FILL UPS

1. A _____ is an unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence with pedicellate flowers along the axis.
2. A _____ is a type of raceme with flowers that do not have a pedicel.
3. An _____ is a type of raceme with a short axis and multiple floral pedicels of equal length that appear to arise from a common point.
4. Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
5. Determinate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
6. A compound raceme is often called a _____.
7. _____ are umbels in which the single flowers are replaced by many smaller umbels called umbellets.
8. _____ is the pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender filament supporting the anther.
9. _____ is the part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
10. _____ is the ovule producing part of a flower.

1. INFLORESCENCE

An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches.

1.1. Types of inflorescence

Inflorescences can be simple or compound.

1.1.1. Simple inflorescence

Inflorescence of sessile disc florets forming the capitulum

1.1.1.1. Indeterminate

Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called racemose. The main kind of racemose inflorescence is the raceme. The other kind of racemose inflorescences can all be derived from this one by dilation, compression, swelling or reduction of the different axes. Some passage forms between the obvious ones are commonly admitted.

Floral decoration in India has got a historical background spreading over different eras. Admiration of natural beauty, plants and flowers were part of civilization process. Many evidences are there in the paintings, carvings on wall of caves, temples, mosque besides literatural references that flowers were in use in many forms since time immemorial. Every religion, culture, rulers and regimes had great influence on the use of flowers.

At present, flowers are integral part of our daily life. We use flowers in various ways and for many purposes. Loose flowers are used for worship while garlands for decoration purpose during social, institutional, official functions etc. In addition, cutflowers in the form of bouquets are very common in use. Arrangement of flowers in the vase, bowl or any other container is displayed extensively for interior decoration. At present, placing flower vase is very popular in houses, corporate offices, institutes, hotels etc. and is a well established practice.

Introduction

Flowers provide opportunity to convert them into exquisite value added products directly from fresh flowers like garland, bouquet , flower arrangements or after drying the flowers making different dried flowers products like pot pourri, wreath, painted gourds or after processing like rose water, gulkand,gulroban,perfume, essential oil, insects repellants, cosmetics etc. Beside this a number of pigments like xanthophylls, carotenoids, luteins, anthocyanins etc. which have neutraceutical properties and pharmaceuticals compounds are also prepared from flowers. The value addition results in more acceptable quality products for the domestic and export market and hence ensure high premium to the producers.

Introduction

Flowers provide opportunity to convert them into exquisite value added products directly from fresh flowers like garland, bouquet, flower arrangements or after drying the flowers making different dried flowers products like pot pourri, wreath, painted gourds or after processing like rose water, gulkand, gulroban, perfume, essential oil, insects repellants, cosmetics etc. Beside this a number of pigments like xanthophylls, carotenoids, luteins, anthocyanins etc. which have neutraceutical properties and pharmaceuticals compounds are also prepared from flowers. The value addition results in more acceptable quality products for the domestic and export market and hence ensure high premium to the producers. Moreover, value addition technology can help avoiding wastage during the glut period and farmers involved in the flower cultivation can earn better remuneration. Preparation of value added products helps in employment generation at producer level, wholesaler level or industrial level. It is a good source of income generation. There are various types of value added products which can be prepared either by practice or by obtaining training of making these products. The value added products can be classified into three categories namely:

1. This is fragrant rose variety

   a) Blue Moon

   b) First Red

   c) Gladiator

   d) None

2. Rose belong to family

   a) Amaryllidaceae

   b) Compositae

   c) Rosaceae

   d) None

1. GENERAL FLORICULTURE

Development of Floriculture’ was recommended by Dr. P.P. Trivedi committee.

India ranks 2^nd in flower cultivation next to China.

The production of loose flowers almost tripled between the 8^th Plan and the 11^th Plan.

The annual domestic demand is valued at around 60 billion USD.

About 2,33,000 hectares across the country was used for floriculture, producing 17,29,000 metric tonnes (MT) of loose flowers and 76,732 lakh cut flowers.

India has exported 22,947.23 MT of floriculture products to the world for worth of Rs. 460.75 crores in 2014-15.

The share of exports of dried flowers and plant parts are 45%, flowering plants (22%), fresh foliage (13%), fresh cut flowers (10%), live plants (7%) and bulbs and tubers (3%).

India’s share in global floriculture trade- 0.6%.

USA ranks 17th in per capita cut flowers consumption.

India ranks 2nd in flower cultivation next to China.

India stands 14th in the world in exporting floricultural products, while the Netherlands and Columbia rank 1st and 2nd, respectively

Those plants which are completed their life cycle in a season or a year, is called annuals. Thre are many types of annuals.

1. On the basis of seasons:
   1. Rainy annuals: Balsam, Cock’s comb, Amaranths, Gaillardia, Torenia, Gompherena etc.
   2. Summer annuals: Zinnia, Kochia, Tithonia, Sunflower, Cosmos, Coreopsis.
   3. Winter annuals: Remaining annuals.

The scientific horticulture consists of the following divisions. Among them, which division has impact on environment aesthetically and functionally

A. Fruits         B. Flowers

C. Spices       D. Plantations

World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body which deals with the “Rules of Trade” between nations on the basis of the agreements negotiated and signed by most of the world’s trading nations. These agreements are essentially contracts that bind governments to keep their trade policies within predefined limits. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters and importers.

The purpose of WTO agreement is to help free flow of trade, serve as a forum for trade negotiations and to serve as a dispute settlement body. There are 5 broad principles of the trading system followed under WTO:

Trade without discrimination

Freer trade, gradually through negotiations

Predictability, through binding

Promotion of fair competition

Encouragement to development and economic reforms.

Introduction

Floriculture or flower farming is the study of growing and marketing flowers and foliage plants. Floriculture includes cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for direct sale or for use as raw materials in cosmetic and perfume industry and in the pharmaceutical sector. It also includes production of planting materials through seeds, cuttings, budding and grafting. In simpler terms floriculture can be defined as the art and knowledge of growing flowers to perfection. The persons associated with this field are called floriculturists.

Worldwide more than 140 countries are involved in commercial Floriculture. The leading flower producing country in the world is Netherlands and Germany is the biggest importer of flowers. Countries involved in the import of flowers are Netherlands, Germany, France, Italy and Japan while those involved in export are Colombia, Israel, Spain and Kenya. USA and Japan continue to be the highest consumers.

Floriculture  is  increasingly  regarded  as  a  viable  diversification  from traditional field crops due to increased per unit returns and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers” during all the occasions. All over the world, the floricultural sector is experiencing rapid changes. Opening up to the world, market  in  the  WTO  regime  paving  way  to  free  movement  of  floricultural products worldwide, globalization and its effect on income generation have all  contributed  to  increase  in  per  capita  consumption  of  flowers  in  most countries. Noticeable  feature  of  global  floriculture  is  the  development  and expansion of floriculture in non-traditional areas. Netherlands, Italy, Germany and  Japan  had  strong  tradition  for  growing  and  consumption  of  flowers. The  concept  of  commercial  floriculture  was perpetuated  across  the  world from those regions. New production centres are developing in Latin America, Africa and also in Asia to meet the demand of consuming countries and also to  expand  domestic  market,  commensuration  with  improved  economic conditions  these countries  provide  highly  qualitative  floricultural  products with low cost price which is finding a favourable place in markets of Western Europe, America and Japan. Emergence of new production centres has made floriculture  more  competitive  and  this  in  turn  is benefiting the  ultimate consumers.

Introduction

Floriculture, the branch of horticulture dedicated to the cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants, has gained significant attention and importance due to its multifaceted prospects and scope. It is a captivating blend of art and science, encompassing the nurturing of plants for aesthetic, commercial and even therapeutic reasons. From the meticulous care of delicate blooms to the strategic planning of vast floral displays, floriculture spans a wide spectrum of activities, each contributing to the beauty and functionality of our surroundings. From the meticulous care of delicate blooms to the strategic planning of vast floral displays, floriculture spans a wide spectrum of activities, each contributing to the beauty and functionality of our surroundings. This can range from the production of cut flowers for floral arrangements and bouquets to the cultivation of potted plants for indoor decoration. Whether it’s the striking colors of roses, the delicate petals of orchids, or the lush foliage of ferns, floriculture celebrates the diversity and splendor of the plant kingdom.

Floriculture is the aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of ornamentals, annuals, biennials and perennial plants but also with their marketing. Flowers symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. In India, it is a dynamic and expanding industry showing an impressive annual growth rate.

Classification of Flower Crops

The flowering plants can be classified broadly on the basis of their species, genus, family, plant part used or type of flower plants. They are further classified as cutflowers, cut foliage, turfgrasses, groundcovers, hedges, accents, specimen plants, avenue trees, screens, topiaries, fillers and others.

Important Points to Remember

ROSE

• Botanical name: Rosa spp.
• Family: Rosaceae
• 2n = 14
• Origin: North Hemisphere (Himalyas)
• Flower colour: Red (commonly)

12.1 Meaning and Definition

A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process. Each step in the process is represented by a different symbol and contains a short description of the process step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the process flow direction. This diagrammatic representation can give a step-by-step solution to a given problem. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.

7.1 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soil Laboratory Methods

Hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil indicates the ease with which water is transmitted through the soil pores. If a constant water head (h) is maintained on a saturated soil column of length (L) and the volume of water (V) percolating per unit time (t) through per unit cross sectional area (A) to the other end, then according to Darcy’s Law, the rate of flow of liquid or flux (q) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (ÄH/L) across the length of soil column.

6.1. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soil: Laboratory Methods

Hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil indicates the ease with which water is transmitted through the soil pores. If a constant water head (h) is maintained on a saturated soil column of length (L) and the volume of water (V) percolating per unit time (t) through per unit cross sectional area (A) to the other end, then according to Darcy’s Law the rate of flow of liquid or flux (q) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (ΔH/L) across the length of soil column.

Flower arrangement is the art of using plant materials and flowers to create an eyecatching and balanced composition or display. Among all art forms, flower arrangements today take as prominent a place. The art engages ones personal involvement in welcoming guests and bringing cheer to the surroundings. It is rightly said, “Flowers are the music of the ground. From earth’s lips spoken without sound. “Professionally designed floral designs, arrangements or artwork incorporate the elements of floral design: line, form, space, texture, and color, and the principles of floral design: balance, proportion, rhythm, contrast, harmony, and unity.

Composition of Arrangements

There are a few compositions of flower arranging that should be considered. Once we understand these we can create so many different styles and our floral designs will have that professional look.

Ikebana

Flowers are generally known as the symbol of beauty around the world. Many people stick flowers in vases to wreath their rooms, houses and other places. Japanese FlowerArrangement is essentially different from the Western style of flower arrangement. The western style involves symmetrical arrangement of flowering plants in a vase whereas, the Ikebana, which means “flowers kept alive”, is much more intricate, complex and asymmetric. This style of flower arrangement is one of the famous cultural traditions of Japan known around the world. Generally, all Japanese flower arrangement styles are lumped together as ikebana but we cannot say they are all the same. Ikebana is a disciplined art form in which nature and humanity are brought together. Though it is a creative expression, it has certain rules governing its form. The main rule is that all the elements used in construction must be organic, be they branches, leaves, grasses, or flowers. The artist’s intention behind each arrangement is shown through a piece’s colour combinations, natural shapes, graceful lines and the usually implied meaning of the arrangement. They arrange flowers to recreate nature in miniature to see individual flowers which have been left behind. Ikebana is like one of the ways to communicate with nature. Another aspect present in ikebana is its employment of minimalism. That is, an arrangement may consist of only a minimal number of blooms interspersed among stalks and leaves. The structure of a Japanese flower arrangement is based on a scalene triangle delineated by three main points, usually twigs, considered in some schools to symbolize heaven, earth and man and in others sun, moon, love & earth. The container is also a key element of the composition and various styles of pottery may be used in their construction. Over time, the ways and styles have changed but there is still the basic idea of ikebana remain same.

Definition: Flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping together flowers and plant materials to achieve harmony of form, colour and texture.

Types of flower arrangements

A. Japanese or oriental/eastern type: Japanese flower arrangements also called ‘Ikebana’ (Ikebana, also called Kado). Emphasis is given on spiritual and religious background and only few flowers are used. “Ikenabo” was the first school of Ikebana, meaning “the arrangement of flowers of the hermitage along a pond” which was started by Buddhist monk Semmu around A.D. 621. Ikebana was practiced by Buddhist monks as a concentration exercise (Dhyana). There are three basic lines that were followed in Ikebana namely, Shin meaning heaven is generally a central vertical line of the main branch in the arrangement. Whereas, Soe meaning man is the secondary branch symbolizes human kind. Ikebana artists position Soe to grow forward from the Shin line at a right angle. Third is, Hikae, symbolizes earth is arranged at the bottom, opposite the first two elements. In India, Ikebana was introduced during sixties and gradually becomes popular.

Flowers of the garden are brought indoors to enjoy the beauty. Fresh flowers are arranged in various styles according to one’s choice. There are two major and distinct styles of arranging fresh flowers, namely the European and the Japanese. Both the styles are greatly influenced by the place where they have been originated. Flowers are also dried and used for different arrangements. Fresh flowers are used as ornaments and also for making floral patterns on the floor called Rangoli.

1. INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Flower arrangement is a very old art. In India, the flowers have been earlier arranged in temples and during festivities. The first rules of ikebana were laid down in Japan more than a thousand years ago. Flowers have been widely used for interior decoration, but they were cut from the garden and simply massed into water-filled containers to brighten the home. The beauty of the display relied upon the blooms themselves rather than the aesthetic appeal of the design. Even at homes and venues of festivals/functions/on auspicious occasions, flowers are used in a big way in the form of garlands, wall hangings, and floor decorations. Flower arrangements grace table tops, window sills, corners, fire places, and so on to suit the occasion.

Flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping together plant materials (flowers, foliage, fruits, twigs etc) to achieve harmony of form, colour and texture, thereby adding cheer, life and beauty to the surroundings.

Various types of arrangements are chosen, as appropriate to the area and occasion. Medium sized ‘round’ arrangements are often provided at the guest relations executives’ desk in the lobby and on coffee tables in the lounges. In most five-star hotels, one can see huge, spectacular arrangements in the loggies. Table arrangements for conferences must be low so that guests may see over them. At informal banquets, large arrangements may be seen. At wedding banquets, wall arrangements using gerberas are very popular, now a days. On special occasions and festivals, a large amount of flowers is required for making up various types of arrangements. The extent to which flowers are used in hotel interiors depends on the degree of luxury provided, the number of special functions held.

The housekeeper is responsible for all flower arrangements and their placement. Simple arrangements such as a bud in a vase can be done. Alternatively, flower arrangements may be provided on contract, in which case the arrangements are brought in and taken away at agreed times and little or no floral work is carried out on the premises. Arrangements like running water, containers, buckets, vases, scissors and flower pots are important.

I. General information

1. Japanese flower arrangement is called as Ikebana
2. Meaning for Ikebana is flowers kept alive
3. Western style of flower arrangement involves symmetrical arrangement of flowering plants in a vase
4. Ikebana style possess asymmetric flower arrangement
5. Tatebana is a type of flower arrangement in which flowers are placed in standing arrangement and are of tall nature
6. Basic lines of Japanese flower arrangement are heaven, man and earth
7. ‘Shin’ in Japanese flower arrangement represents Heaven
8. ‘Soe’ in Japanese flower arrangement represents Man