eBook Chapters

Introduction

Flowers are the most fascinating objects in the world and many poems are written glorifying them. They are associated with mankind from the dawn of civilization. Flowers are an integral part of our day to day life and they find a place in worshiping, religious and social functions, wedding, interior decoration and self adornment. Flowers are used to convey the human feelings. To say it with flowers is very common in western culture. Emergence of a strong middle class and changing life style has created a great demand for cut flowers in India.

Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is an important fruit crop of hot arid region of the India. It is grown commercially in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. India is one of the largest producers of pomegranate in the world. The pomegranate area in arid region is increasing at faster rate due to its incessant demand, drought hardy nature, low cost management and wider adaptability to arid soils. In Rajasthan it is mainly grown in Jaipur, Ajmer, Alwar, Tonk, Sriganganagar, Tonk, Pali, Kota, Jalore, Banswara, Sawai Madhopur, Bhilwara, Jhunjhunu and Sirohi districts in 12,000 ha area (Rathi, 2017). The pomegranate plants flower and provide fruits throughout the year. In Rajasthan pomegranate is harvested in all three seasons during March-April, Aug.-Sep. and Nov.-Dec. However, it needs to be forced into rest period for prolific harvest at a given time. The basic objectives of flower regulation in pomegranate is to manipulate the natural flowering and fruiting in such a way that it produce high yield of quality fruits in desired season with sustainable use of farm resources. Transition of flower from vegetative phase to reproductive phase is critical phase in pomegranate flowering, which determine production efficiency. The differentiations of vegetative tissue to reproductive tissue decide flowering intensity and production efficiency. Withholding of irrigation (moisture stress), plant growth substances, nutrient content along with canopy management are major horticultural interventions for flower regulation which influence flowering. It is based on principles that pomegranate bears three kinds of flowers namely hermaphrodite, intermediate and male flowers (Fig.1) on both new and old growth in three flushes i.e. ambe bahar (Feb.-March), mrig bahar (June-July) and hasta bahar (Sep.-Oct.).

INTRODUCTION

Seed is one of the most vital and important inputs for increasing agricultural production. Commercial flower seed production is an international business involving highly specialized growers. Compared with the production of seeds of cereals, pulses oilseed even vegetable seeds, it is done on a relatively small scale. However, a large number of species are being produced under very different cultural conditions. It seems to have great scope for expansion in developing countries like India, especially under northern India climatic zones having favourable growing conditions, skilled and cheap labour.

INTRODUCTION

Seed is one of the most vital and important inputs for increasing agricultural production. Commercial flower seed production is an international business involving highly specialized growers. Compared with the production of seeds of cereals, pulses oilseed even vegetable seeds, it is done on a relatively small scale. However, a large number of species are being produced under very different cultural conditions. It seems to have great scope for expansion in developing countries like India, especially under northern India climatic zones having favourable growing conditions, skilled and cheap labour.

Annual flowers like petunia, coreopsis, helichrysum, phlox, nasturtium, marigold, gaillardia, salvia, ice plant, verbena, nemesia, pansy, poppy, larkspur, chrysanthemum, etc. have been widely used for seed production. After release of a variety its seed have to be multiplied in sufficient quantity which takes 3-4 generations before it reaches to the farmers for commercial use. The Indian seed programme largely adheres to the limited generations system for seed multiplication in a phased manner. The system recognizes three generations namely breeder, foundation and certified seeds and during multiplication cycle care has to be taken so that variety does not degenerate but maintains its original characteristics.

Seed production of flower has undergone unrestricted revolutionary growth in term of number of crops and their varieties as well as production. This phenomenal development is the result of technological advancement in the production of flower seed and development in the area of production, packaging, handling, transportation and marketing of flower and ornamental plants all over the world. The world germplasm contains more than 1500 different varieties of flowers and ornamental crops. Each species of flower grown for seed has its own specific time, culture, problem of pollination and harvesting and storage requirements. Mild climate with moderate rainfall favour the growth and development of most flower and ornamental crops.

Production of seeds of annual flower is having immense impetus as regards the diversification in floribusiness. The flower seed industry is truly international, operating in many countries in the world. Large quantities of annual flower seeds are required both by developed and developing countries adding to the beauty of private and large gardens and also for cut flower production. Annual flower are indispensable in respect of beautification of gardens. In the world, many nurseries are engaged in the production of seed of seasonal flowers and are having a blooming business. The great diversity of flower seed crops is fascinating facet of the world seed industry and they are of high value and low volume in contrast to the high volume and low value seeds. The varied agroclimatic condition existing in India provides a vast scope for the production of a wide range of flower seeds of both tropical and temperate origin. With the availability of relatively inexpensive human labour, technical expertise, and other material, it is possible to organize a strong flower seed production programmed exclusively for export purpose.

I. FILL UPS

1. The botanical name of carnation is _____.
2. The family of carnation is _____.
3. The botanical name of chrysanthemum is _____.
4. The family of chrysanthemum is _____.

Seed is defined as “Fertilized and ripened ovule, consisting of the plant embryo, varying amounts of stored food material and a protective outer seed coat”. It is one of the most vital and important inputs for increasing production of crops. Commercial flower seed production is an international business involving highly specialized growers. Demand of flower seed production increased due to recent advances in commercial production of bedding plants, plug production technology, increased area of gardening, flower growing in home gardens and cut flowers with highly viable seeds and very high percentage of uniform seedlings. It seems to have great scope for expansion in developing countries like India, especially under north Indian climate having favourable growing conditions, skilled and cheap labour.

The world germplasm contains more than 1500 different varieties of flowers and ornamental crops. Each species of flower grown for seed has its own specific time, culture, problem of pollination and harvesting and storage requirements. Growing flower from seed is an important component of commercial flower production and their uses in landscape gardening.

1. CUT FLOWERS

1.1. Common name, scientific name and family

Definition: It is an event at which flowers are displayed and judged for awards.

Flower shows help to spread the world about the joys of gardening and serve as forums for learning and discussing the latest horticultural and design trends. Such flower show offers a wide variety of helpful resources for those interested in learning more about growing flowers for exhibition, designing floral arrangements or exhibiting plants. In addition, many national level flower shows offers training opportunities for members who are interested in becoming certified flower show judges. A Preliminary spadework has to be done to make a show successful. Success depends upon the co-operation between the exhibitor and the members of the flower show committee.

H erbs include non-woody or succulent-stemmed plants that are relatively shorter in stature when compared to shrubs. Based on their ornamental nature they can be broadly grouped as Flowering Herbs and Foliage Herbs. Flowering Herbs can be further classified based on their duration into Annual Flowering Herbs and Perennial Flowering Herbs. Foliage herbs of a perennial nature are further differentiated into monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous foliage herbs.

ANNUAL FLOWERING HERBS

Annual herbs are grown in gardens for their spectacular beauty when they are in flower. They are seasonal in habit and have duration of up to four months. Most of them have a short vegetative phase, which is followed by continuous flowering for several weeks. They are used in gardens for obtaining various colour effects. Varieties of annuals having analogous or similar flower colours can be grouped in flowerbeds and flower borders for monochromatic effects. For contrasting colour effects, varieties having complementary or contrasting colours like violet and yellow or blue and orange as well as green and red can be used. For colour blending effects, flowers having different shades of the same colour can be grown.

1. FLOWERING

The flowering goes through a phase of vegetative growth producing more stems and leaves and a flowering phase where they produce the organs for sexual reproduction.

1.1. Synchronisation in flowering

Synchronous flowering refers to the phenomenon of coincident, simultaneous flowering of all population of a given species in a large region.

Floriculture is the most important aspect of urban agriculture, which fulfils the need for beautification, recreation, entertainment and income earning. In broader sense, it includes growing flowering and ornamental plants in gardens, rooftops and terraces. Floriculture comprises of house plants, flowering plants, pot plants, cut flowers and decorative foliage. It also deals with cultivation of cacti, orchids, succulents, bonsai, ferns and plants grown in landscape gardening.

Role of flowers in our life

• It is a unique gift of nature to relax human mind
• The fragrance and beauty of flowers bring joy and happiness
• Flowers are used as a symbol of grace and sophistication
• Flowers are used in religious rituals for offering during worship

Description of the important flowering shrubs

Description of the important flowering trees

1.1. Floral biology

1.1. 1. Types of inflorescence

Group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches.

Flowsheet

Based on various experimentations concerning live fish transportation, a flow sheet may be prepared as:

Evaluation of the health status of the fishes purchased from the market to be packed for transportation. Serrated operculum and spiny fins, if any (as in Anabas testudineus) is serrated as it damages the packing materials. The trimmed fishes are treated with antibiotics and left for a week for wound healing.

In the case of abroad transportation of fish, clearance to the fitness of fishes is made available from a veterinary doctor/inspector. A no-objection certificate is also obtained from the office of the Marine Products Export Organization.

Proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories for the determination of oxygen uptake of fishes as well as all the other steps of fish transportation in this pandemic of COVID-19.

Determination of oxygen requirement of the fish in terms of per hour and per unit body weight is essential. In the case of air-breathing fishes to be packed (Like Channa punctatus, Anabas testudineus, Clarias batrachus and Heteropneustes fossilis), determination of aerial and aquatic oxygen requirement of the fishes is essential. The oxygen requirement of oxygen was estimated from the calculated values of intercept (=a) and slope (=b). For this calculation, a relationship of aW^b is applied.

A large proportion of the body of mammals including domestic animals, is made up of water. This water is an essential attribute for the life of the animals. Animals deprived of food but provided water will survive much longer than the animals provided with food but deprived of water. Water is the basis of the liquid environment of the cells, which Claude Bernard called the milieu interieur, and Cannon the fluid matrix.

1. Introduction

Movement of fluids from one location to another is an important unit operation in food processing. Various types of systems are used to convey fluids based on their flow behaviour. Understanding fluid flow behaviour is therefore important for designing of fluid flow systems. The fundamental mechanism involved in fluid flow is the momentum transfer occurring in moving fluids during various unit operations (fluid flow, aeration, drying, fluidization, filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, mixing, etc.). This chapter deals with the basic concepts of fluid flow, viscosity, pressure measurement, conservation of mass and energy, boundary layer, momentum and velocity profile of fluid flowing in a pipe, flow metering devices, and pumps.

Q. 1 Density of water is:-
(A) 1000 kg/m3    (B) 500 kg/m3
(C) 1500 kg/m3    (D) 2000 kg/m3

Technical Term           Definition

Fluid Mechanics         Fluid Mechanics is a study of physical behavior of fluids and fluid systems, and laws governing their behavior. It incorporates action of forces

                                   on fluids and the resulting flow pattern

There is a delicate balance among electrolyte concentrations, body water and acid base status to maintain body homeostasis. Disturbances in homeostasis results in life threatening abnormalities. The aim of fluid therapy is to replace losses and maintain fluid and electrolyte balance in the body.

Introduction

Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Drying and dehydration both can be defined as the process of removing moisture from the foods. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process, wherein heating medium or internal heat generation helps in evaporation of free water molecules from the product. Drying means removal of moisture of food upto a predetermined level where as in dehydration, complete removal of moisture upto bone dry weight of food material. Dehydrated foods have less than 2.5 % moisture content (dry basis) where as dried foods have dry basis moisture content more than 2.5 %. Drying operation consumes energy from 0.38 to 0.63 GJ/ton of food grain. Removal of water from foods using thermal energy thus makes it an energy intensive process. Modes of heat Transfer in various Driers are given in Table 1.Developments in dryer and methods, dryer selection based on form of raw material and typical residence time for various dryer are are given in Table 2,3 and 4, respectively.

Fluorescein diacetate (3’ 6’-diacetyl-fluorescein) is a fluorescein conjugated to two acetate radicals. This colourless compound is hydrolysed by both free (exoenzymes) and membrane bound enzymes, releasing a coloured end product, fluorescein. This end product absorbs strongly in the visible wavelength (490 nm) and can be measured by spectrophotometry. The enzymes responsible for FDA hydrolysis are plentiful in the soil environment. Non-specific esterases, proteases and lipases, have been shown to hydrolyse FDA. The hydrolysis of FDA by soil enzymes can be estimated by methods of Adam and Duncan (2001).

What is FISH ?

Fluorescent in situ hybridization is a technique in which single-stranded nucleic acids (usually DNA, but RNA may also be used) are permitted to interact so that complexes, or hybrids, are formed by molecules with sufficiently similar, complementary sequences. Through nucleic acid hybridization, the degree of sequence identity can be determined, and specific sequences can be detected and located on a given chromosome. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) is a powerful technique for detecting RNA or DNA sequences in cells, tissues, and tumors. FISH provides a unique link among the studies of cell biology, cytogenetics, and molecular genetics.

Principle of FISH

FISH involves the preparation of short sequences of single-stranded DNA, called probes, which are complementary to the DNA sequences the researchers wish to paint and examine. These probes hybridize, or bind, to the complementary DNA and, because they are labeled with fluorescent tags, allow researchers to see the location of those sequences of DNA. Unlike most other techniques used to study chromosomes, which require that the cells be actively dividing, FISH can also be performed on non dividing cells, making it a highly versatile procedure.

Management of Compound Fracture

An open fracture is an injury that occurs when a broken bone is exposed through the skin. This may mean that the bone is actually sticking out of the skin, or it may mean that the skin and soft-tissue is disrupted and exposes a path to the site of the fracture. Often called a compound fracture, an open fracture necessitates different treatment from the usual closed fracture.

Surgically Cleaning the Bone

Surgically cleaning the bone is one of the first steps for treating an open fracture. Most patients who sustain an open fracture undergo a surgery called “irrigation and debridement.” Irrigation means washing the bone and the site of the injury. Debridement is described in the next step.

Determining the extent of injury can be difficult just by looking at an open fracture. This is especially true in high-energy injuries including automobile collisions and gunshot wounds. With these types of injuries, even small penetrations in the skin can cover very large areas of soft-tissue damage around an open fracture. Therefore, when surgically cleaning the bone, it is important to do this in the operating room (OR) under anesthesia — trying to sufficiently assess and clean the bone in the emergency room, without adequate anesthesia, may be insufficient.

Aim: Regular flushing of compound and fracture using topical antibiotic or antiseptic required to bring the open wound and fracture either to a aseptic stage or to reduce the degree of infection and pus formation.

Procedure

After through cleaning the exposed bone as well as the wound of the compound fracture the wound is placed inside its part.

A thick walled rubber tube / plastic tube threaded with two end of a suture with a straight needle is carried to a higher site from the fracture within the wound.

The suture and needle is brought out, the sutures separated and again threaded and the flushing catheter is fixed with suture. Fig.1.(a) and Fig. 2. (a), (b).

The wound is protected with a thick absorbant sterile cotton padding, keeping the flushing catheter out through a small hole within the bandage. Fig. 1 (b) and Fig.2.(c)

The limb is immobilized as per the recommended procedure depending the level of fracture, outer end of the flushing catheter is kept outside, of the immobilization for carrying out regular flushing of the wound.

Abstract

The anomalies observed in the reverine systems have been demonstrated to be the potential tool in deciphering the tectonically active zones. Such various drainage anomalies viz: radial drainages, anomalous compressed meanders, eyed drainage and the youthful floodplains observed in Annamali – Palani - Varushanad hill ranges of the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu show that the N-S and NE-SW trending faults are tectonically active in the recent years.

Introduction
 
Arid western part of Rajasthan which contains the Indian segment of the Thar Desert, accounts for ~62% of the country’s hot arid area and is a region of low rainfall. Under such physico-climatic situation, fluvial processes function much less frequently and more episodically than the aeolian processes, but their impacts on landforms and society are large, as noticed on several occasions in arid regions. There is a distinct east-west gradient of rainfall and temperature in the region. Along the eastern margin bordering Aravallies, the mean annual rainfall is 500 mm while in the westernmost part at Jaisalmer, it is less than 150 mm. The rainfall is largely monsoon driven which brings 80 - 90 per cent of total rainfall received during the year. There is large inter-annual rainfall variability of rainfall which leads to climatic extremes of drought and floods of different magnitudes. For example on an average, the Thar Desert in India experiences flood-causing rainfall in 2-3 years in a decade, but a maximum of 5 flood causing rainfall years in a decade was recorded during the 1950s, 1970s and the 1990s (Rao et al. 2006).

SUMMARY

Fly ash, a waste product generated by coal based thermal power plants. The annual production of fly ash in the country has increased from 40 million tones in 1994 to 110 million tones in 2004 and it is expected that by 2012 the annual production of fly would reach the mark of 170 million tones. Owing to its physico-chemical characteristics, it has a vast potential for use in agriculture, forestry and wasteland reclamation. Application of fly ash into soil has been reported to increase the water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity, porosity and decrease bulk density, modulus of rupture and surface encrustation. The studies conducted by various organizations on fly ash use in different crops have revealed significant increase in the crop yields such as wheat, maize, paddy, soybean, sunflower and vegetables like brinjal, tomato, potato, cabbage. Application of fly ash has been found to increase the level of heavy metals  viz., Co, Pb, Mo, As and Se as well as the activity of radio-nuclides i.e., ⁴⁰K, ²²⁶Ra, ²²⁸Ac  in the soil- plant system; however, the levels of all these heavy metals and radio-nuclides were found to be well below the permissible limits.

Poultry holds significant value as it provides essential protein, vitamins, and mineral nutrients, including eggs and chicken meat.Poultry is a significant source of organic fertilizer and generates income and employment for millions of farmers and other poultry cultivators. The bigger and richer the industry, the more problems they face.Infectious diseases transmitted by flies, majorly house flies (Musca domestica) and other insects are the primary concern for poultry farmers on their farm. The threat of flies is a major problem worldwide wherever poultry farming is an important economic activity.In livestock and medical treatments, flies are significant pests that can cause irritation, spoilage of food, and serve as vectors for various pathogenic organisms. They are also highly destructive.

Abstract

Foam Mat Drying (FMD) is an economical alternative to drum, spray and freeze-drying for the production of food powders. The raw material is converted into stable foam by adding foaming agent through beating or whipping in presence or not of foam stabilizers, and dehydrated by different classical airflow and thermal means. A high-quality food powder attributes can be obtained by the proper selection of foaming method, foaming agents, foam stabilizers, time taken for foaming, suitable drying method and temperature. FMD can be used for large production of food powders because of its suitability for all types of food materials, rapid drying at lower temperature, retention of nutritive value and bioactive compounds, good reconstitution characteristics and flowability and cost-effective for producing powders.

In this chapter, basics of foam and its structure, mechanisms of foaming, types of foaming agents and stabilizers for the production of stable foam have been discussed. The influence of foaming agents, foaming properties, thickness of foam and drying temperature on the drying characteristics of mat are also studied. This chapter analyzes the application of foam drying process for different food materials, the microstructure and whole quality attributes of obtained powder, and the energy consumption and costs of FMD as well.

Focused assessment with sonography for trauma (abdominal and thoracic) refers to the limited ultrasound examination with the main focus on quick identification of the presence of free fluid within peritoneal, pleural and pericardial spaces in trauma cases in intensive care units. Despite limitations, findings of FAST are helpful in stabilizing the emergency patients.

Understanding focus is a crucial technique in photography, especially for beginners. If your photos aren’t properly focused, they’ll turn out blurry even with perfect camera settings. The ease of focusing depends on your subject it’s simpler for stationary objects like landscapes but more challenging for moving subjects like birds in flight. This guide will cover all the essentials for achieving sharp, focused images.

What is Focus

In every photo, there’s a plane of focus, an area that can be as sharp as possible. Imagine this plane as a window intersecting your scene; any object touching this window is “in focus.” Adjusting this plane to get your subject sharp is known as focusing. Modern lenses achieve this by moving internal glass elements to alter the light’s optical path. You can also change the focus plane by moving the lens physically, a technique used in macro photography with extension tubes.

Cowpea is a quick growing leguminous forage crop. It is usually grown mixed with cereal fodders and grasses to improve the nutritive value of the herbage. It contains 20 – 24 % crude protein, 43 - 49 % neutral detergent fibre, 34 – 37 % acid detergent fibre, 23– 25 % cellulose and 5 – 6 % hemicelluloses on dry matter basis. The digestibility of cowpea fodder is above 70%. Cowpea can be grown under partial shaded conditions. It is an excellent cover crop, which suppresses weeds and enriches the soil. Cowpea requires warm climate with good atmospheric humidity. It can be grown in kharif as well as in zaid season.

Berseem is very important rabi season legume fodder and popularly know as the “King” of fodder crops.

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.)

Berseem, also called Egyptian clover, is an important winter forage.

Family : Leguminaceae

Importance

• It is quite nutritive and succulent highly pelatible. It has 20% crude protein and 70% dry matter digestibility
• Forage is also rich in calcium and phosphorus.
• Berseem cultivation changes chemical characters of soil

Maize is an ideal forage crop grown throughout the country. It is quick growing, high yielding and provides palatable and nutritious forage which can be fed at any stage of growth without any risk to animals. Maize produces good quality herbaceous fodder with high digestibility. On an average, it contains 9-10% crude protein, 60-64% neutral detergent fibre, 38-41% acid detergent fibre, 28-30% cellulose and 23-25% hemi cellulose on dry matter basis when harvested at milk to early-dough stage. It can be fed as green or dry and makes excellent silage.

The key characteristic of monsoon based agriculture of India is variability of availability of forage and fodder resources for livestock. In monsoon seasons, fodder availability will be at its peak, and the same will be scarce in dry months. Considering that, preservation of fodder during monsoon months especially through rainfed farming is essential to ensure a fodder supply throughout the year. Preservation of fodder is process of preserving the excess available fodder in a proper form without the loss of nutrients and its palatability. 

Livestock farming is an integral part of Indian agriculture system and vital source of livelihood particularly in the rural areas of the country. This sector has been the primary source of energy for agricultural operations (for land preparation, sowing, pulling bullock carts etc.) and major source of animal protein (mutton, chevon, chicken, pork, beef, eggs etc.) for majority of population. India has been habitate of major draught, milch and dual-purpose breeds of cattle as well as buffaloes. Besides their potential our indigenous as well as crossbred animals are unable to produce maximum output due to unavailability of adequate and nutritious feed and fodder throughout the year. The quantity and quality of forage production is directly proportional to the livestock health, production and productivity. There is colossal gap between demand and supply of good quality nutritious fodder. Besides, the availability of lesser area under cultivated fodder crops, the grazing lands also becoming smaller due to the degradation of the land, urbanization, industrial development and increased area under food production to fulfil the demand of increasing human population. To meet the nutritional requirement of such a huge population of indigenous, crossbreds as well as genetically upgraded animals, proper management and conservation of fodder and grasslands is necessary.

Forages: The term forages denote plants that are used for feeding the animals that are cultivated in the farm, or it may be a wild used for stock feeding grown for the vegetative purpose. The vegetative phase is encouraged and the reproductive phase is suppressed.

Abstract
 
Pop sorghum, apart from popping qualities has also shown the potential fodder yielding abilities. A field experiment was conducted at University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka during kharif 2001 under rainfed situation.

To an immunologist, the presence of embryo inside the mother’s uterus is perhaps one of the most surprising things. Pregnancy is a unique event in which a genetically and immunologically foreign foetus usually survives to full term without apparent rejection by the mother’s immune system. Thus, Pregnancy represents the unique physiological phenomenon of the symbiosis of two semi-allogeneic individuals: the mother and her fetus. Such symbiosis requires a sophisticated immunological regulation to avoid rejection-like reactions and to control the invasion of foreign foetal tissue into the maternal deciduas. A very fine tuning of cellular interactions at the interface of both individuals is indispensible for successful implantation and pregnancy.

Over the past decade, more information has been gathered to provide insight into the complex immunological mechanisms that allow the foetus to grow and survive in most cases.

Water vapour changes to the liquid water through condensation process. Condensation is the direct cause of the various forms of precipitation. It occurs as a result of changes in air volume, temperature, pressure or humidity. Water vapour can also be converted directly into the solid form through a process called sublimation. The latent heat expended in evaporation is liberated in the process of condensation. Four mechanisms may lead to condensation.

These are the plants that grow mainly for its ornamental or attractive leaves rather than its flowers and grown indoor or around the house. Foliage plants are often cultivated to show a variety of unique or exotic leaf shapes, textures and colours.

There is a tremendous scope in the use of these plants to beautify houses, offices, hotels, hospitals and almost all public buildings. In the modern concept and practice of indoor gardening, the scope of growing plants has been extended too many areas in and around the house including balcony, verandah, terraces and patios. These foliage plants can be displayed in different ways to bring the beauty to the surrounding. Some of the house plants can be suited well for decorating the corners of the rooms like Aglaonema, Acalypha, Croton, Dracaena, Cordyline, Dieffenbachia, etc. whereas, for enhancing window sills and boxes suitable plants are Hedera, Coleus, Euphorbia, Kalanchoe, Pilea, etc. For hanging purposes Monstera, Scindapsus are the first choice.

Foliage plants are grown for attractive branches and leaves. These plants have several benefits such as improving air quality, promoting better mental & physical health and enhancing the aesthetic value of the immediate vicinity. Some of the foliage plants grown in indoor or in the garden are described in this chapter.

Dieffenbachia

Dieffenbachia is a foliage plant with large and showy leaves. This is native to the West Indies. It is a very popular plant grown in the home gardens due to easy maintenance. The beauty of the plant lies in the unique pattern of colour combination of the leaves. The leaves are yellow near the vein, which turns dark green towards the edge. This combination is random and even within the same leaf, different patterns of ribbons and spots of yellow & green are formed. It can be taken up under various light intensity and growing conditions. Dieffenbachia plants grow up to 2.4 meter height with wide leaves of around 50 cm long and 25 cm wide. 

Description of the important foliage trees

Abstract

Medicinal plants growing around us are the biggest gift to mankind from the nature. They grow abundantly and over centuries, humans have learned how to utilise plants for the treatment of illness. The great Himalayan belt is home to many endemic medicinal plant species. These plants are the rich source of traditional medicines and form a basis for livelihood of rural and indigenous populations. The present study is aimed to investigate the medicinal wealth of Bani valley that lies in Kathua district, (J&K) which is a part of Western Himalaya. Due to varying climatic conditions, terrains and forest types, the valley is home to various endangered and endemic medicinal plant species. A total 231 plant species belonging to 69 families ranging from angiosperms, gymnosperms and cryptogams (lycophytes and ferns) were documented by frequent field surveys and reviewed by published literatures and floras. Out of 231 plant species, herb species were 142, shrub species were 43 and tree species were 46. Asteraceae was recorded as dominant family followed by Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Polygonaceae, Ranunculaceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae, Acanthaceae and Urticaceae. Ethnobotanical data used for various ailments and diseases were obtained from local tribes.

Abstract

Since pre-historic times plants have tendered their services to mankind in the form of food, shelter and medicine. Due to the advancement of human civilization, various folklore systems of medicines were developed across the globe. Among the various folklore system of medicine, Sowa-Rigpa” is one of the oldest well recognised and widely accepted system of folk-lore medicine in the world. It is one of the commonly used of system of medicine in different parts of Tibet, Bhutan, China, former Soviet Union (some parts), Himalayan ranges, Magnolia and, Nepal. The exact origin of Sowa-Rigpa system of medicine is still not known. In the present scenario due to the awareness among the people about the determental effects of the modern chemical drugs, people preferred to use herbal based system of medicine to treat diseases. So, it is needed to understand the floristic wealth of tradional system of medicine to identify the important plants with potential source of drug candidate molecules. In the present chapter an attempt has been made to study the folklore plants used in Tibetan Mountain based Sowa-Rigpa system of medicine and food. Total 332 plant species presented as the most important in Sowa-Rigpa system of medium.

1. Introduction Fonio (Digitaria exilis), also known as acha, hungry millets, and fundi in various regions, is a minor and underutilized millet with exceptionally small size (H. Sartelet et al., 1996; Bello et al., 2020). This ancient crop native to West Africa is considered one of the oldest cultivated millets for ensuring food security. Figure 1 illustrates the components and structure of fonio millets. In recent times, fonio millet has garnered increased attention due to its remarkable nutritional and functional properties (Zhu, 2020). Being gluten-free, it is rich in nutrients such as carbohydrates, fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals (Fe, Cl, K, Mg) as well as essential sulphur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine, which also possess phenolic properties (Barikmo et al., 2004; Zhu, 2020).

Fonio is an indigenous cereal crop of West Africa. Fonio grain belongs to genus Digitaria Haller that consists of 230 to 325 grass species, both annual and perennial. The fonio species is a part of Poaceae family, sub- family of Panicoideae, and the tribe of Paniceae. Fonio grains have a protective covering (husk) outside the kernel, similar to rice.