eChapters

History in general reveals chronological account of important events, contribution of persons who significantly influenced the thinking of their era and the interpretations of the observed facts or phenomenon over the period of time. The progress in plant pathology leading to the major land mark in mycology, plant bacteriology and plant virology will be discussed in chronological order for easy and better understanding.

a) Definition

Fungus is Latin word meaning ‘mushroom’

Alexopoulus and Mims 1979 defined fungus as eukaryotic, achlorophyllous organism generally produced by sexual or asexual method and whose filamentous branched somatic structure is typically covered by cell wall.

Bacteria

Definition

Bacteria belong to prokaryota which encompasses organisms with a primitive type of nucleus lacking a clearly defined membrane. The bacteria are smaller than fungi and measure about 0.5 to 1.0 x 2.0 to 5.0µ.

Definition

Neamtode may be defined as triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented, pseudocoelomate individual invertebrate, with 4 main hypodermal chords, a triradiate oesophagus, circum oesophageal nerve ring, and lacking specialized organs for respiration and circulation.They have tubular gonads which open separately in females but join alimentary canal in males to open through a cloacal aperture.

Pathogenesis: Role of enzymes

The chain of metabolic events that bring about the disease is pathogenesis. It involves the virulence of the pathogen, susceptibility of the plant and impact of the environment. It is called disease triangle. Penetration infection, invasion, colonization and reproduction are the events that occur during pathogenesis, and lead to development of disease.

The establishment of pathogen in the host and consequent development of disease involves a chemical interaction between the host and the pathogen. The pathogen employs offensive chemical weapons to break host barriers, which the host resists with all its might. Parasitism and disease resistance run parallel and are inseparable, A biochemical ‘tug of war’ ensures between the host and the pathogen, in which one tries to outwit the other. Enzyme, toxins and growth regulators are the important chemical weapons of the pathogen. Viruses, however, because of their basic nature, do not produce any of these chemicals.

Pathogens produce these substances either in normal course of their activities (constitutively) or when, they grow on certain substrates such as their host plants (Inducible). Plant pathogenic enzymes disintegrate the structural components of host cells, breakdown inert food materials in the cell, or affect components of the protoplast directly and interfare with its functioning system. Toxins seem to act directly on protoplast component and interfare with the permeability of its membrane and with its function. Growth regulators exert a hormonal effect on the cells and either increase or decrease their ability to divide and enlarge. Polysaccharides seem to play a role only in the vascular diseases, in which they passively interfere with the translocation of water in the plants or they may also be toxic.

Disease Forecasting

Definition

Forecasting involves all the activities in ascertaining and notifying the grower of community that conditions are sufficiently favourable for certain diseases, that application of control measures will result in economic gain or on the other hand, and just as important that the amount expected is unlikely to be enough to justify the expenditure of time, energy and money for control. The above statement made explicit distinction between positive forecast and negative forecast and both have value for growers as well as society in general.

Positive forecast: Employs need based chemical sprays, provides adequate protection to crop and reduces damage to environment.

Negative forecast: Avoids unnecessary chemical sprays, no risk to the crop health and no disruption of environment.

1. Biosecurity

Biosecurity is strategic and integrated approach encompasses policy frameworks to analyze and manage risks for food safety, animal life and health and plant life and health including environment.

Definition

Garret (1970) defined biological control as any condition under which or practice whereby survival or activity of a pathogen is reduced through the agency of any other living organism (except man) with the result that there is a reduction in the incidence of the disease caused by that pathogen.

Baker and Cook (1974) stated that the biological control is the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant stage, by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the environment, host or antagonists, or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists.

Biocontrol can be simply defined as the application of living organism to control diseases.

Definition

Those characters that enable a plant to avoid tolerate or recover from attacks of pathogens under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same species.

Green revolution technologies such as greater use of synthetic agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient-responsive, high-yielding varieties of crops, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials etc. has boosted the production output in most cases. However, continuous use of these high energy inputs indiscriminately now leads to decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of soil health and environments.

Cropping system is defined as the cropping pattern followed on a farm and its interactions with farm resources, other farm enterprises and production technology. The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow on a given area is termed as cropping pattern.

India has over 17% of world’s population living on 2.4% of the world’s geographical area. Per capita agricultural land has reduced by 67% from 0.48 ha in 1951 to 0.16 ha in 2008 due to explosive increase in population. In this situation, it is very difficult to get horizontal expansion in vegetable cultivation. Hence, total production per unit area can be increased by increasing the productivity per unit area through (a) growing improved high yielding varieties and hybrids, (b) adequate and scientific crop management practices and (c) increasing cropping intensities following different cropping patterns.

Human beings, considered to be the highly evolved living organisms, have been making consistent and constant efforts to lead comfortable life without much concern for the conservation of nature and adversities to other living and nonliving entities existing in the universe. To meet the requirements of food, feed, fibre, timber and other needs, the plants that could supply the above were selected and domesticated. When the useful plant species were cultivated over large areas repeatedly year after year, the problems afflicting plants that were not recognized earlier as constraints for crop cultivation, assumed monstrous proportions wiping out entire crops and ruining the livelihood of the people of that geographical location/country. World history is replete with numerous instances of huge crop losses caused by microbial plant pathogens resulting in malnutrition, hunger and death. Migration of millions of people to other countries for their survival, became unavoidable. Such historical evidences threatening the existence of humans necessitated to investigate the causes of destructive diseases like late blight and heliminthosporiose diseases affecting respectively potato and rice, the staple food of the largest populations of the world. In order to take appropriate measures for minimizing losses due to crop diseases and to mitigate the sufferings of man and the animals, application of various short- and long-term disease management strategies has become indispensable for the profitable cultivation of crops

Management of crop diseases by various methods of exclusion in order to reduce the pathogen population in a geographical location / country may be achieved by either preventing introduction of pathogens or by growing disease-free seeds and planting materials. In addition, the inoculum of a pathogen reaching newly planted crops may be significantly reduced by adopting appropriate cultural practices also. The contributions of these factors for successful cultivation of crops are discussed hereunder.

8.1 Prevention of Introduction of Microbial Pathogens

Prevention of pathogen introduction is the primary responsibility of plant quarantines. Quarantines have been established by several countries by enacting appropriate laws that regulate the importation of plants, seeds and asexually propagated plant materials. These materials are placed in post-entry quarantines (PEQs) and examined by technical personnel for the presence of pathogens and pests. It is obligatory for the exporting countries to comply with the regulations of the importing countries. As the movement of plant products has increased enormously, following the adoption of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), vigilant enforcement of sanitary and phytosanitary measures has become essential. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) appointed an Expert Consultation on the Harmonization of Plant Quarantine Principles to formulate basic principles to determine standards for plant quarantine principles in relation to international trade (FAO 1991). According to the recommendations of the Expert Consultation, the sovereignty of the importing country is recognized and it has the right to implement the phytosanitary regulations deemed fit by that country. However, cooperation among countries was emphasized for the successful implementation of the recommendations by the member countries belonging to one of the eight regional plant protection organization set up after the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) held in 1951. A plant pathogen is recognized as of quarantine significance (QS), if its exclusion is considered to be essential to protect agriculture and natural vegetation of the importing country which has to be provide necessary infrastructure and trained personnel to prevent or delay its entry along possible routes. Lists of quarantine pathogens and the regulations to be followed are prepared by the importing country and made available to the exporting countries.

Diseases are caused by different kinds of microorganisms which may primarily attack specific plant organs initially. They may be either confined to the organs in which infection is successfully initiated and may spread to other organs to cause secondary infection. The plant organs initially affected may not show characteristic symptoms in certain cases as in root rot and wilt diseases. The root infection is recognized much later, when yellowing (chlorosis) of the leaves is observed. It may become very difficult to save the infected plants at this stage, since the pathogen is well established in the deeper tissues of the infected plants. However, the spread of the disease to the adjacent plants may be prevented by protective treatments. Integration of various principles of management of crop diseases has to be followed for successful crop cultivation. The combination of practices that can be applied varies with different types of diseases and the crops affected. Hence, the integrated management of crop diseases is discussed for different groups of diseases affecting primarily different plant organs/ tissues. Fungal and bacterial pathogens remaining in the soil or plant debris left over after harvest of previous crops infect the root system initially and crown or the basal portions of the stem may also be affected later.

Plants have to transport water and nutrients absorbed by the roots from the soil and photosynthetic products from the leaves to other plant parts and storage tissues through the stem tissues. Infection by fungal and bacterial pathogens interferes with the movement of the essential materials leading to the derangement of several physiological functions to varying degrees and even collapse of the aerial plant parts.

16.1 Fungal Pathogens causing Diseases Affecting Stems of Plants

Fungal pathogens cause blight, stem rot, rust, anthracnose, die-back and canker symptoms on the stem tissues of several crops. These pathogens may be soilborne or airborne generally, while some of them may spread through water also.

INTRODUCTION

During the last three decades, libraries have shown a considerable degree of momentum in the collection building and readership programme activities involving considerable expenditure of funds. This rapid development of libraries as a consequence, generated several evaluative studies on the usefulness of libraries to society. Until recently evaluations were subjective, based purely on opinions expressed by an individual or group. However, developments in the field of mathematics, statistics, operations research, management science, economics and system analysis have led to a minimization of this subjectivity. In particular, the systems analysis approach has led to the identification and application of appropriate quantitative measuring techniques for evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the information services offered by the librarians. This has generated a new field in library and information science viz; ‘Bibliometrics’.

Bibliometric analysis which has now become a well established part of information research and quantitative approach to the description of documents and examination of services is gaining ground both in research and practice. Librarians are facing the problems arising out of ever increasing cost of different types of reading materials and decreasing budgets of libraries.

Bibliometric studies are helpful in solving the problems of librarians. Pritichard¹ defines Bibliometrics as “application of mathematical and statistical methods to books and other media of communication”.

INTRODUCTION

Research and teaching increasingly rely on global networks for the creation, storage, evaluate, and disseminate the knowledge. The 21^st century has brought enormous change in higher education throughout the world as a result of new information and technological developments. We are outfitting our schools, libraries, and homes with electronic technologies, but are we preparing our students and teachers for the onslaught of information that is provided by these technologies? What happens when the student can get more information from the Internet than previously conveyed by a teacher or a textbook? What should a student do when faced with so many informational possibilities ? Which of the information is credible and which is not?

The teacher’s role must evolve from the giver of knowledge into being more of a coach or guide. Teachers, librarians, administrators, and the community must collaborate to develop ways to involve the student not only in using classroom materials but also in using resources from the broader community and the mass media.

Teachers must be prepared to teach student to become critical thinkers, intellectually curious observers, creators, and users of information. In this context university libraries need to be dynamic, take a leading role in assessing the information literacy and computer literacy competence of the teachers and plan for conducting such programmes to improve the situation. One such attempt has been made by the Authors and the result is reported here.

INTRODUCTION

Andries Van Dam of Brown University, USA coined the term electronic book. E-books are print versions of books, which exist in electronic formats and can be read on a machine. The development of e-book started around 1960s by Alan Kay, called the Dyna Book. Stephen King’s ‘Riding the Bullet’ was one of the most popular electronic books available on the web. The electronic documents are easy to access, easy to search, inexpensive and economy in storage. An e-book can be purchased/borrowed, downloaded, and used immediately, whereas to buy a printed book, one must go to a bookshop, or library etc. It can reduce photocopying activities. The concept of Digital library was created based on the electronic documents.

The transfer of ownership of an e-book author is very difficult, whereas such transfer is possible in printed books. It is cheaper and easier for authors to self-publish e-books when compared to printed form. In electronic format there is no hold on licensing. The problems with e-documents are lack of long term access, dependence on the computer, lack of standardization and less permanent. Digital Right Management system is one of the most important development of electronic publishing. It has control over intellectual property. The e-publishers are more concerned about rights. They are offering limited usage for printing, downloading and copying.

INTRODUCTION

The Digital Library concept has evolved to provide solutions for storage, access, dissemination, content delivery and it paved way to mobile library, as we can browse and share content while on the move. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has given a new shape to the learning process, which includes reading, understanding and gaining information, which becomes knowledge. As the type of format of information changed from written to e-format, libraries assumed the role of digital libraries.

The library is a place which holds the information resources in print and digital formats. The concept of digital library is a major success as it came out of closed four walls of library and reached readers in their home, workplace and even while traveling, with the help of mobile electronic gadgets like laptop, palmtop, e-Book reader etc. e-Learning technology is a wonderful gift provided by the present day technological advancement and innovations. e-Learning is the convergence of learning and the Internet’ and it has brought about profound changes around the globe in the way people learn and train, allowing them to do it anywhere, any time. Through the World Wide Web the users can access e-content from any point, off or in campus, through a computer and connectivity.

INTRODUCTION

Libraries are undergoing rapid changes due to the developments in Information Communication Technology (ICT). Paper based resources are giving way to electronic resources. The dynamic linking capability of web has provided users unrestricted access to information. ICT has brought massive changes in distance mode of education. ICT has helped to introduce many virtual universities in the world, which are operated through Internet and other telecommunication technologies. The e-learning library should organize and present the e-learning resources and services in a way that help users to locate and retrieve materials needed efficiently.

At present e-portals of various organizations come across as gateway for the websites that aggregates information from variety of sources, providing access to information network and set of services through the web. For examples the libraries of National Research Centers of India, Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Science (IISc) and Indian Institute of Management (IIM). The approach of learning of these institutes doesn’t mean composed, organized and packaged e-information resources in a blogging pattern but it is comprehensive and fully accessible to the user as reader and writer. Undoubtedly, a study of e-library environment of these institutes immensely helps us in evaluate the potential of proliferation of digitalization of libraries in India.

Calcareous soils

In arid regions, calcareous soils are developed from limestone or marl parent materials. The content of calcium and magnesium carbonate may be as high as 60 to 70 per cent of the total soil mass. In calcareous soil lime content may vary from a small amount in some places in the profile to appreciable amounts throughout the profile.

Calcium carbonate coatings occur in sand, silt and clay size fractions of calcareous soils. In sub soil, large amounts of lime forms hardpan under high water tables.

In general, pH of the soil increases to alkaline pH with increasing the proportion of water to soil ratio. This may happen in part from a reduction of CO₂ pressure. The dilution of salts in soil solution also permits greater hydrolysis of calcium clay. The dilution of calcium carbonate with production of hydroxyl ions may lead to higher pH as:

Iron Toxic Soils

Lowland rice is being cultivated on approximately 128 million hectares of either irrigated or rainfed land out of which 100 million hectares suffer due to nutrient deficiency or toxicities. Among the toxicities, iron toxicity is well recognized as a nutritional disorder in low land rice production. Iron toxicity is a syndrome of disorder associated with high concentration of Fe²⁺ in soil solution. A wide range of soil types show iron toxicity problem including acid sulphate soils, acid clay soils, peat soil and valley bottom soil. During monsoon rains in the wet season, soluble iron (Fe²⁺) migrate to the surface and its iron content increases to subtoxic or toxic levels.

In rolling topography and with heavy monsoon downpour there is considerable lateral flow of iron containing water from the adjacent uplands to mid – and low lands. This increases the iron content to toxic levels. Poorly drained sandy soils in valleys receiving interflow water from adjacent uplands with laterite horizon (Plinthudults) showed iron toxicity in Srilanka and Kerala and Odisha in India. These soil groups come under the taxonomic orders Alfisols, Ultisols and Oxisols occurring in association with Entisols and Inceptisols. The iron concentration (Fe²⁺) in soil solution that affect low land rice yield ranges from 10 to > 2000 mg L^-1 Iron toxicity induced yield reduction which is associated with poor nutrients . status (deficiency of P, K and Zn) and H₂S toxicities.

Soil conservation in hilly areas

Soil erosion is a major problem on hills because of steep slopes. It has been estimated that about 6 million ha of land requires intensive conservation measures in Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Anthropogenic activities like shifting cultivation, deforestation, over grazing accelerate soil erosion in hilly ecosystem.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables are increasing in popularity in the daily diet of people of both the developed and developing countries. Product quality and quality evaluation methods are extremely important. The decisions concerning harvesting, maturity, ripeness and quality are based mostly on subjective and visual inspection of the external appearance of the fruits. The quality of fruits and vegetable is mostly based on size, shape, colour, gloss, flavour, firmness, texture, taste and freedom from external and internal defect. Many techniques for evaluating the external quality parameters are now available commercially. Internal quality parameters such as sugar content, acidity, oil content and internal defects however, are difficult to evaluate. Methods are needed to predict the internal quality of fruits and vegetable better without destroying them. Recently, there have been an increasing interest in non-destructive method of quality evaluation and a considerable amount of efforts has been made in this direction. The development of science and technology, especially of information technology has made available many non-destructive methods of analysis of materials which can also be applied to fruits and vegetables. The fruit industry needs non-destructive techniques for online sorting and certifying high quality fruit.

Non-destructive method can be classified according to the principle used to detect fruit properties; mechanical, acoustic, optical and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (MRI) Techniques.

Pollination

Pollination is the act of transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organ of a plant to the female reproductive organ of same or another plant.

Pollination is of two types

5.1 Self Pollination

It is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower from where the anthers have been generated. Thus, self pollination happens to be denominated as autogamy where auto means “same” and gamy means “union”. Obviously, self pollination is found in bisexual flowers. But self pollination also occurs when pollen is transferred from one bisexual flower to the stigma of another bisexual flower of the same plant. This kind of autogamy is known as geitonogamy. So, self pollination has to be defined keeping the parent plant on the main focus not the flower. If genetical consequences are considered, self pollination promotes the occurance of purelines or homozygotes. Self pollinating species developed themselves evolutionary fit due to homozygous balance and do not exhibit significant inbreeding depression.

Oilseed Crops consist of those groups of plants cultivated for substantial quantities of the oil, vegetable fat obtained from the seeds (endosperm) of the plants.

The major oilseeds grown world over are soybeans, sunflowers, rapeseed – mustard (or canola in USA & Canada), groundnuts (peanuts) and linseed. Seed oils from flax (linseed) and castor beans are used for industrial purposes. These Oilseed crops including oilseed bearing trees are the basic biological systems that produce oils, contributing to renewable energy production, help stabilize greenhouse gases, and mitigate the risk of climate change (Jaradat, 2016)

The oilseed crops are of heterogeneous group of plant species not having any common morphological and genetic features except production of seed oil. Crops like groundnut, sesame, castor bean, soybean and niger are grown during the rainy season and the others like rapeseed and mustard and safflower are grown in the post rainy season. Sunflower, however, may be grown in both the seasons. Hence the individual crops forming the conglomerate of Oilseed crops have to be treated differently for their improvement and production. Nevertheless, all of them produce a common end product viz., oil or vegetable fat, the importance of which is growing in product development, commerce and human and farm animal nutrition. The oilseed bearing crops have to be treated as a unique group in terms of research and development to come up with strategies for their judicious exploitation in the national farm economy. From the scientific point of view, the oilseed crops are energy rich and offer impressive potentials in terms of realizable production levels and valuable product development. In India good progress has been achieved so far in research and development of some oilseed crops; but there exists a need to scale to newer heights in terms of realising the hidden potentials of oilseed crops through basic and strategic research, with an integrated approach.

3.1 Introduction

Many gardens follow strict rules. So those are known as formal gardens. Generally formal gardens include:

Italian gardens

French gardens

Persian gardens

Mughal gardens

9.1 Introduction

Xeriscaping is the fine art of creating water-efficient landscapes by using plants that are appropriate to the natural environment. Xeriscaping (zer-i-skaping) is a word originally coined by a special task force of the Denver Water Department, Associated Landscape Contractors of Colorado and Colorado State University to describe landscaping with water conservation as a major objective. The derivation of the word is from the Greek “xeros,” meaning dry, and scape meaning the pattern of the landscape – thus, xeriscaping. The term xeriscaping represents a practice or philosophy with the goal to establish and maintain an attractive and healthy landscape while reducing water usage. One of the prime practices in xeriscaping is the use of drought tolerant plants, but xeriscaping is more than that. It also includes changes in the landscape design, soil improvement, efficient irrigation, mulching, and other maintenance practices which contribute towards a water-wise landscape. But xeriscapes are not dry and dull. Well-designed xeriscapes are enchanting and beautiful. The best xeriscapes use a fraction of the water needed by traditional lawn-dominated landscapes. Some xeric plants require little or no supplemental watering once they are established. And xeriscapes require far less ongoing maintenance.

The Export-Import (EXIM) Committee was constituted in the Seeds Division to deal with application for exports/imports of seeds and planting materials in accordance with the New Policy on Seed Development and EXIM regulation.

The Policy reiterated that all imports of seeds and planting material would be regulated under the Plant Quarantine Order 2003 and amendments made their under, Import licences would be granted by DGFT/PPA on the recommendations of DAC.

The composition of the EXIM Committee is as under: (i) Secretary (A&C) - Chairperson (ii) Agriculture Commissioner (iii) DDG (CS), ICAR (iv) DDG (Hort.), ICAR (v) JS (IC) (vi) JS (PP) (vii) Horticulture Commissioner (viii) Animal Husbandry Commissioner, Deptt. of Animal Husbandry & Dairying (proposed to incorporate by the 94th Exim Committee) (ix) Director, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) (x) Plant Protection Adviser (xi) Economics and Statistical Adviser (xii) JS (Seeds) - Member Secretary

A small quantity of seeds sought to be imported would be given to ICAR, or farms accredited by ICAR, for trial and evaluation for one crop season. On receipt of applications for commercial import, DAC would consider the trial/ evaluation report on the performance of the seed and their resistance to seed/ soil borne diseases. DAC is required to either reject or recommend the application to DGFT for grant of import licence within 30 days of receipt.

Molecular diagnostic laboratory set-up has basic requirements of space, laboratory benches and equipments. In terms of laboratory space, minimum four chambers, one each for sample preparation and nucleic acid extraction, PCR reaction mixture preparation, thermal cycling and gel analysis are required. In addition there should be sufficient space for storage of consumables and laboratory wares. In addition, there are some laboratory equipments which are needed in a molecular diagnostic laboratory. In the following section the equipments of a molecular diagnostic laboratory are discussed. The pictures are taken from the instruments present in the laboratory of the author. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the reader to a molecular diagnostic laboratory. None of the pictures below are meant for promotion of any particular brand or manufacturer.

3.1 UV-VIS spectrophotometer

A spectrophotometer is required for determining the quality and quantity of nucleic acids extracted from a sample. Photometric research applications such as DNA, RNA and protein analysis can be carried out in a UV-Vis Spectrophotometer. There are various units that feature a broad wavelength range (including UV area), path length correction and a fast reading speed. Various instruments also provide an interface that allows quick measurements directly from the instrument or comprehensive easy-to use software for demanding assays.

The homoeopathic system of medicine is one of the finest systems of cure available in the world. It achieves in totality the ideal laid down by its founder, Dr. Samuel Hahnemann:

"The highest ideal of cure is rapid, gentle and permanent restoration of the health, or removal and annihilation oftlie disease in its whole extent, in the shortest, most reliable, and most harmless way, on easily compreltensible principles".

In homoeopathy, not a single drug is used without knowing its effect on healthy human beings. Hence there is no shooting in the dark. The system operates, by and large, without laboratory tests and other expensive means of diagnosis, which are being used when not needed and that too, unfortunately on patients who can hardly afford the expenses.

Cost wise, there is no medical system in tlie world, which is as inexpensive as homoeopathy. No patient who requires a speedy cure without side effects can ignore homoeopathy; no doctor who has nothing but the good of his patient at heart can overlook the utility and effectiveness of homoeopathy and no Government which has to balance its budget can afford not to use homoeopathy in hospitals and other institutions run for the health and care of the sick and thus it is the most cost effective treatment

The discovery of homoeopathic system of medicine makes a fascinating story.

2.1 Introduction

Dear students, you shall be taught plant biotechnology during the third semester in the course ‘Elementary Plant Biotechnology’. But, for understanding of non-conventional breeding methods/techniques you should acquire some knowledge of basic plant biotechnology. Hence, in this chapter plant biotechnology is introduced to you in brief.

2.2 Definition

The term ‘biotechnology’ stems from fusion of ‘biology’ and ‘technology’. It was coined by Karl Ereky, a Hungarian agricultural engineer, in the beginning of 20th century. According to him, all processes used to yield finished products from raw materials with the help of living organism come under biotechnology. It may be defined in number of ways. However, in simple terms, biotechnology may be defined as ‘the controlled use of biological agents, such as microorganisms, or cellular components, for beneficial use’ (U.S. National Science Foundation).

8.1 Introduction

In pre-historic times, people lived as hunters and gatherers. Then, gradually they began to produce the crops they ate on piece of land, and farming was born. Wild plants have certain traits that keep them protected and productive without human intervention. However, most of them are not desired for food or other use by humans. By spontaneous mutagenesis and hybridization, occasionally variant plants were found that lacked some of the undesired traits, such as bitter taste, thorns, or had particularly attractive features, such as larger fruits and more regular tuber shape. Consequently, as time passes such variation was picked up by humans by selection of such variants, keeping and advancing them. Thus, plant domestication is the process of bringing wild species under human management. In other words, plant domestication is the process by which genetic changes (shifts) in wild plants are brought about through a selection process imposed by humans. It is a method of plant breeding in the sense that, when successful, it provides domestic types that are superior to ones previously available.

Pre-historic man domesticated virtually all of our present-day crops. But, domestication of wild species continues even today and is likely to continue for a long time in the future. For example, in many countries there is an increasing emphasis on bringing forest trees producing timber, etc. under human management. A similar trend is seen for medicinal plants and plants producing specific compounds of interest, e.g., hydrocarbons, oils, etc. Kala jeera (Bunium persicum), a perennial spice, was domesticated during 1990s in Himachal Pradesh; it is being cultivated as an orchard crop. One important aspect of domestication at present is the use of particular genes from wild relatives in the improvement of cultivated species. When a plant breeder transfers one or a few desirable genes from a wild relative to a cultivated type, he is, in a sense, domesticating the wild species in part.

11.1 Introduction

In chapter 10, we have discussed the different types of variation, namely, genetic, environmental and genotype × environment interaction variations. We have also learnt how to estimate the phenotypic variance and its components including genotypic (also called genetic), environmental and g × e interaction variances from trial data. Now in this chapter, we shall discuss on the genetic components of polygenic (quantitative) variation and its implications on breeding strategies.

11.2 Genetic Components of Polygenic Variation

In this chapter whenever we call genetic variation, we mean polygenic (quantitative) variation, and we know that variation is usually measured in term of variance. However, variation, variability and variance are almost used synonymously. The genetic variance has been classified into different components by various workers. Fisher (1918) divided genetic variance into three components: additive, dominance and epistatic (interaction) variances. Wright (1935) classified genetic variance into two components: additive variance and non-additive variance (dominance and epistatic variances). Mather (1949) classified genetic variance into two components: heritable fixable variance (additive variance and additive × additive epistatic variance) and heritable non-fixable variance (dominance variance, and additive × dominance and dominance × dominance epistatic variances). Later, Hayman and Mather further divided the epistatic variance into three categories: additive × additive, additive × dominance and dominance × dominance.

12.1 Introduction

Allowing certain plants from the population to reproduce, while barring others, comprises selection. This permission for reproduction may be granted by nature or by the plant breeder. In the other words, both nature and breeder exert selection pressure. Natural selection operates through differences of fertility among the adult individuals of parent generation as well as through differences of viability among the individuals of offspring generation. Artificial selection, i.e., the selection from action of the plant breeder in the choice of parents, produces its change of gene frequency by separating the adult individuals of parent generation into two groups, viz., the selected and the discarded, that differ in gene frequency. So, selection simply implies the retaining of desirable types or culling of unwanted or undesirable types.

13.1 Introduction

F₁ plants produced by crossing two parents with contrasting characters are called hybrids. Hybrids generally exhibit increased vigour and fitness over the parents. This phenomenon is called hybrid vigour or heterosis. Thus, heterosis is the phenomenon in which the hybrid of two genetically dissimilar parents shows increased vigour at least over the mid-parental value. Heterosis is just the reverse of inbreeding depression, which results after selfing the plants of the cross-pollinated crops. Kolreuter (1761-66) was the first to report hybrid vigour in the hybrids of tobacco, Datura, etc. Most of the early plant hybridizers including Mendel (1865) had noticed this phenomenon. Shull (1914) coined the term heterosis from two Greek words, hetero (different) and osis (condition), to replace his own earlier word ‘stimulus of heterozygosis’. In current usage, heterosis and hybrid vigour are used as synonyms and interchangeable.

13.2 Types of Heterosis

Depending on the nature, origin, adaptability, reproducibility and non-reproducibility, heterosis can be categorized into two: (1) euheterosis (true heterosis) and (2) pseudo-heterosis (false heterosis, i.e., luxuriance).

14.1 Introduction

The mating or crossing of genetically dissimilar individuals is called hybridization. Hybridization results in recombination that in turn widens the spectrum of variation among individuals. So, the reason for genetic diversity in progenies of crosses is the formation of new combinations of genes. This newly created variability is then channelized into development of better cultivars.

The importance of pure line selection as a method of breeding started decreasing when plant breeders felt that the genetic variability existing in the land races of self-pollinated crops had been almost completely exploited and there was little chance for further improvement in these crops by using pure line breeding. Therefore, no option was left for plant breeders except to cross diverse individuals and combine together desirable characters in a single genotype from two or more parents. The planned hybridization which could avoid self-pollination and chance cross-pollination, soon became the main feature of almost all plant breeding programmes.

20.1 Introduction

A hybrid cultivar (also called hybrid) is the F₁ progeny of a planned cross between inbreds, cultivars, clones or populations. Depending upon the breeding approach, the hybrid cultivar may involve two or more parents. A critical requirement of hybrid production is that the parents are divergent. This divergence is the cause of superior performance of hybrids. The outstanding performance of crops is due to the exploitation of the phenomenon of heterosis (hybrid vigour) which is high when parents are divergent. Much of what we know about heterosis breeding (also called hybrid breeding) came from the work on maize hybrid cultivar development. However, commercial hybrids are now available in many crops including self-pollinated crops.

21.1 Introduction

There are a number of field, vegetable, fruit and ornamental crops that are cultivated using asexual or vegetative parts such as stems, roots, modified flower etc. This is a heterogeneous group of plants and can be further categorized into four groups for ease in understanding the breeding methods applied to them. They are:

Group 1: Flowerless or Sterile

This group either does not bear flowers or if bears, they are sterile and do not set seed, e.g., ginger, mango ginger, turmeric, garlic, betel, many yams, etc.

Group 2: Apomicts

Apomixis has been reported in over 300 genera. But stable apomixis has been reported only in a few cultivated plants like meadow grass, citrus, mango, raspberry, etc.

Group 3: Flowers but Seed-Set Rare

In this group flowering takes place under specific situations but seed-set is limited, e.g., potato, sweet potato, sugarcane, etc.

29.1 Introduction

An environmental factor that interferes with the complete expression of genotypic potential of a crop is called stress. The stresses may be biotic (pathogens, insect-pests, etc.) or abiotic. The main abiotic stresses are drought, mineral deficiency/toxicity and heat or cold. The losses due to abiotic stresses can be minimized by:

Crop management: The degree of stress can be reduced by suitable agronomic/soil management practices, e.g., irrigation to relieve drought stress, soil amendments to reduce salinity.

Development of resistant cultivars: This offers the cheapest, easiest to apply and most eco-friendly approach to reduce losses due to any stress.

Indirect breeding: Evaluation of materials under stress often helps in identification of a resistant line that may become an important commercial cultivar.

???????Direct breeding: It is deliberate breeding of materials for stress resistance. When a genetically variable material is grown under the stress environment, selection can be based on survival, yield and other traits contributing to stress resistance.

1. Introduction

Anybody can become angry-that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the right degree and at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way-that is not within everybody’s power and is not easy.

– Aristotle.

The word emotion is derived from the French word, “emouvoir” which means ‘to excite’. Researchers have been interested in emotions since time immemorial. One of the earliest reported studies on emotions was attempted by Aristotle in 4th Century BC wherein he identified 14 distinct emotions. The traditional Indian art and literature talks about ‘navarasas’, nine emotions namely, joy (hasya), fear (bhayanaka), anger (raudra), love (shringar), courage (vira), sadness (karuna), amazement (adbhuta), disgust (vibhatsya) and calmness (shanti). Darwin (1872) theorized that emotions can be innate, evolved, and had a functional purpose. Robert Plutchik in 1980 talked about eight basic emotions, which he grouped into four pairs of polar opposites namely, joy-sadness, anger-fear, trust-distrust, surprise-anticipation. Renowned psychologist Paul Ekman and his colleagues through a cross cultural study in 1992 identified six basic emotions namely, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. The popular animation movie produced by Pixar and released by Disney pictures in the year 2015,explored the emotional adjustment journey of a girl Riley, through the five basic emotions, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness, adapted from Ekman’s work. In a recent study by Cowen and Keltner (2017) researchers identified 27 unique emotions. In yet another study to identify emotions based on facial expressions irrespective of sociocultural influences by Jack et al. (2016) just four emotions, happiness, sadness, anger and fear were recognized.

Verbal communication-definition and meaning-Verbal vs Oral communication - Types-Styles-Barriers to effective verbal communication

Meaning

Verbal communication takes place directly between the superiors and juniors in organizations and between farmers and extension functionaries in the field and is often known as face to face communication. It takes the form of talks, a public address, verbal discussions, telephonic talks, telecommunications and other forms such as audio-visual aids speeches and orders, holdings of meetings and conferences, lectures, social get-togethers, training sessions, public address systems, museums, counseling etc.

Definition

The Verbal Communication is a type of oral communication wherein the message is transmitted through the spoken words. Here the sender gives words to his feelings, thoughts, ideas and opinions and expresses them in the form of speeches, discussions, presentations, and conversations.

Verbal vs Oral communication

Verbal Communication - Oral: It consists of spoken messages which include exchange of ideas, questions or comments. Few examples of verbal (oral) communication are face-to-face conversations, group discussions, counselling, interview, radio, television, calls, etc. Man is the only privileged species which can use language. Language is mostly used in speech and writing comes later. Oral communication has much wide and acceptable use when compared to written communication. As a part of everyday life, in informal relations or formal organization, we communicate more orally than in writing. Oral communication is a building block of human relations. Without oral communication, any interaction is lifeless. Thus, its importance cannot be ignored.

Verbal Communication - Written: This type of verbal communication does not require speech or sound. Though technically, written communication is nonverbal, it falls under this category as it includes the use of words and language. Few examples of verbal (written) communication are books, letters, text, newspapers, etc.

Definition-Importance of keeping a lab record-Features of a lab record - Contents of lab record-Guidelines for keeping a lab record

Definition

It is a primary record of research. Researchers use a lab note book to document their hypotheses, experiments and initial analysis or interpretation of these experiments.

Laboratory Record

The following is a general description of how to keep a proper laboratory notebook. Requirements for different teaching, research, clinical, or industrial labs will most likely vary. Some institutions/labs will require less stringent record keeping, others will hold you to a very strict protocol. A well kept notebook provides a reliable reference for writing up materials and methods and results for a study. It is a legally valid record that preserves your rights or those of an employer or academic investigator to your discoveries. A comprehensive notebook permits one to reproduce any part of a methodology completely and accurately.

Derivation & Meaning-Skills required-Method or procedure-Guidelines; Summarising-Meaning-Steps to write a summary.

Derivation

‘Precis’ is a French word which means to cut off, to be brief.

Meaning

A precise is a summary or the gist of the main ideas of written matter. Thus, precise writing means summarising. It is an exercise in concentration, comprehension and condensation. In order to make a summary of an article, a speech or a story, one has to read it carefully and grasp its meaning. Precise-writing forces one to concentrate on the material which is to be summarised. In summarising a passage, though the length of the precise is not fixed, it is generally expected that the it should be one third the length of the passage. The summary is known as precise and precise writing means summarising. A precise is not a paraphrase. At the same time, the essential points of the main passage must be presented in the precise in such a manner that reader may easily grasp the main ideas of the passage.

A better precise can be written with more and more practice. Before writing a precise, it is important that you take care of a few essential points.

Also, make sure that all the important points of the passage are conveyed in the precise. Focus on language and try and make it as clear, crisp and concise as possible. There is no fixed pattern to write a precise. But we must follow certain rules and procedure so that the precise can be more effective. Follow the right diction and you will be able to write a good precise.

Definition-Purpose of abstract-Types of abstract-Abstract Styles-Steps for Writing Effective Abstracts- Some Do’s Don’ts in preparing abstracts.

Definitions

The word abstract comes from the Latin word abstractum, which means a condensed form of a longer piece of writing. Abstracts are important parts of reports and research papers and sometimes academic assignments. The abstract is often the last item that you write, but the first thing people read when they want to have a quick overview of the whole paper. We suggest you leave writing the abstract to the end, because you will have a clearer picture of all your findings and conclusions.

An abstract is a paragraph that provides an overview of a paper. Abstracts should be between 100 and 200 words long and usually contain a list of keywords at the end to help readers identify the main points of the paper. While abstract requirements differ across academic disciplines, there are two main types of abstracts: humanities abstracts and scientific abstracts.

Purpose of abstracts?

Abstracts typically serve five main goals:

Male sterility refers to a condition in which pollen is either absent or non functional or unable to produce functionally viable pollen in flowering plants. Since it was first reported by Kolreuter as early in 1763 that anther abortion occurs naturally in some plant species or in their inter specific crosses, its occurrence was observed in several species. In the 19th century, Gartner (1844) and Herbert (1847) reported the occasional recurrence of anthers rudimentariness or abortion in many ornamental and vegetable crops in normal populations. During the early 20th century, a large number of species were shown to possess male sterility, for example, Suturela hortensis, Lathyrus odoratus, Merculalis annua, Solanum tuberosum, Vitis vinifera, Linnum usitatissimum, Zea mays, Antirrhinum majus, Prunus persicaer and Rubus idaeus. Following the rediscovery of Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance, study of the genetic main basis of inheritance of male sterility attracted the attention of several workers. The main impetus for the study of inheritance of male sterility came from the elucidation of heterosis in maize by G. H. Shull, in 1908 and its exploitation through the use of male sterility by Jones and Clark (1943). The male sterility based scheme of hybrid seed production in corn opened up a new era for the hybrid corn industry as it could overcome the necessity of detasseling of female (parent) lines in the hybrid seed production process.

The male sterility may arise due to malformation of male sex organs, lack of normal anther sac, and inability of anthers to release mature pollens, lack of development of normal microspore.

Mutagenesis is the process whereby sudden heritable changes occur in the genetic information of an organism not caused by genetic segregation or genetic recombination, but induced by chemical, physical or biological agents.

Mutations were first identified by Hugo de Vries in the late nineteenth century, while experimenting on the ‘rediscovery’ of Mendel’s laws of inheritance. He coined the term ‘mutation’. Radiation-induced mutations as a tool for generating novel genetic variability in plants, advanced as a field after the discovery of the mutagenic action of X-rays demonstrated in maize, barley and wheat by Stadler. The discovery of X-rays by Rontgen in 1895 led to the application of X-rays for inducing mutations in fruit fly by Muller (1927). Mutation is of two types

Advances in molecular biology have sharpened the tools of the breeders, and brighten the prospects of confidence to serve the humanity. The application of biotechnology to field crop has already led to the field testing of genetically modified crop plants. Genetically engineered Rice, Maize, Soybean, Cotton, Oilseeds like Rape seed, Sugar Beet and Alfalfa cultivars are expected to be commercialized in the late of 20^th century. Genes from varied organisms may be expected to boost the performance of crops especially with regard to their resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses

Genetic engineering involves isolation of DNA fragments within a cell recombining them outside. The basic technique is quite simple. Two DNA molecules are isolated and cut into fragments by one or more specialized enzymes, the fragments joined together in a desired combination, then restored to a cell from replication and reproduction. This method also referred to as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering developed in the mid 1970 when it becomes possible to cut DNA and to transfer particular pieces of DNA containing specific bits of information, from one type of organism into other.

Biostatistics are the development and application of statistical methods to a wide range of topics in biology. It encompasses the design of biological experiments, the collection and analysis of data from those experiments and the interpretation of the results.

Quantitative traits are polygenic meaning they are controlled by many genes and gene interactions. Examples: height, weight, length etc.

Qualitative character

Qualitative traits are under the controlled of one or few genes, also called oligogeneic traits. For example, black or red coat color, horned or polled, coat color dilution, leaf color are all qualitative traits.

Importance of training and pruning

1. To control the habit of vegetative growth and regular bearing.
2. Remove all limbs and dead branches.
3. To improve flowering, fruiting and fruit quality
4. Remove all broken shoots, diseased, or pest infection branches from all trees and shrubs.
5. It is usually best to prune temperate fruits and shrubs during early spring before full leaf.
6. Maintain balance between shoots and roots at planting and nutrients uptake
7. Provide the basic tree form and to aid the development of a strong tree framework by encouraging strong wide crotch angles
8. Stimulate shoot growth near a cut.
9. Permit proper light distribution and penetration to the tree canopy.
10. Increase insect and disease control by allowing for better spray penetration.
11. Facilitate harvesting.
12. Achieve orchard uniformity.
13. Produce the proper amount of well distributed fruiting wood.
14. Encourage a structurally sound tree by removing branches with weak narrow crotch angles or those with diseased, damaged, or unproductive wood. Invigorate and renew the bearing area of older trees.