eChapters

Introduction

Status of Tuberculosis : Tuberculosis is a complex and multispecies disease since the origin of human civilization. Evidence of tuberculosis (TB) exists in 3000 years old Egyptian mummies and about 17,000 year old fossilized bison (Fareed et al., 2024). Now, every year, 10 million people fall ill with tuberculosis. Out of 10 million people currently with new active TB, 1,40,000 (range, 69,800–235,000) are estimated to be new cases of zTB (1.4%) of which an approximately 11,400 (8.1%, range 4,470-21,600) died (WHO, 2020).Despite being a preventable and curable disease, 1.5 million people die from TB each year – making it the world’s top infectious killer (WHO, 2023). Disease is still in an increasing scenario as evident that in 2018, an estimated 10 million people fell ill with TB and 1.5 million died of the disease whereas in 2021 there were an estimated 10.6 million new cases of TB and 1.6 million TB deaths (Ayalew et al., 2023). COVID-19 has further increased the projection of TB and increased the expected case number. As it is predicted that between 2020-2050, 31.8 million will have died of TB, More than half million cases of TB annually are classified as drug resistant, as a result, TB is becoming more difficult to diagnose and treat.

1. Prosthogonimus pellucidus is found in

a) Fowl

b) Duck

c) Both

d) None

2. Heterakis gallinarum is found in

a) Fowl

b) Pea fowl

c) Guinea fowl

d) All

Endocrine glands are organs which secrete chemical substances called hormones into the blood stream. Hormones are substances produced by specific glands, secreted directly into the blood and transported to various organs and tissues where they exert their effects. The term hormone is derived from the Greek root meaning to excite. The organs/cells where there hormones bring about their actions are called target organs/cells. The target organs (hormone binding receptors) posses specific receptors for bringing about the action of these substances. The term neurosecretion signifies the production and reiose of hormones by nerve cells that have the cytological characteristics of secretory cells.

Several hormones are the product of nervous mechanisms hence the term neurosecretion is used and neurohumour for such substances.

Hormones act as a mode of transmitting information in the body in addition to the nervous system. Their mode of action is slow but more prolonged. Chemically the hormones are either proteins or steroids. Hormones are secreted in very small amount but their actions are profound. Early investigators were hampered by the non availability of suitable methods for their estimation. The availability of radioimmunoassay, radio-receptor assay, enzyme linked immunological assay have greatly facilitates researches in the field of endocrinology.

The mode of action of these hormones has been elucidated in several instances. Involvement of membrane permeability and cyclic AMP has been implicated in several cases.

Most of these hormones have been of therapeutic interest for several decades. The mode of administration of steroid hormones can be both oral or parenteral while protein hormones are active only when injected. Several of these hormones are used for increasing the production potential of meat animal, for improving the reproductive efficiency of domestic animal, hence are of direct economic importance to the farmers. Chemical characterization and their synthesis including their more potent analogues in several cases, have greatly facilitated their widespread application in the animal production and animal health strategies.

Endocrinology is the study of the structure and function of the endocrine glands and their secretory products, including the consequences of excessive or deficient production of these hormones.

Pituitary gland (Hypophysis cerebi)

The pituitary gland (hypophysis cerebri) lies at the base of the skull and is housed within a bony structure called the sella turcica in the body of the besisphenoid bone. It is a small pea shaped gland which is attached to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk. The pituitary gland has two distinct parts called the lobes. These are the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe which is also called as anterior pituitary consists of five types of cells, each of which secretes different hormone or hormones. The types of cells, the hormones secreted by each type and the functions performed by them are narrated below.

The thyrotrophs secrete thyroxin called as Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH). It stimulates production of thyroid hormone.

The gonadotrophs secrete leuteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). The LH stimulates the production of oestrogen and progesterone by the ovaries in female and testosterone by the testes in male. The FSH stimulates the production of oestrogen and the growth of egg cells (oocytes) in the ovaries in female and sperm cells (spermatozoa) in the testes in male.

The corticotrophs secrete the Adreno-Cortico-Trophic Hormone (ACTH) which stimulates the production of cortisol and adrenogenic hormones by the adrenal cortex.

The somatotrophs secret Growth Hormone (GH). The GH is a growth promoting hormone which regulates the growth and differentiation of the skeletal system.

The lactotrophs secrete the Prolactine Hormone. The prolactine hormone is responsible for initiation of milk secretion by the acinar cells of the mammary gland.

The defined endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, the pineal gland, the adrenal glands, the thyroid gland and the parathyroid glands. The organs which contain groups of endocrine cells include the pancreas, the testis, ovary and placenta. The Hassall's corpuscles of thymus secrete hormone which contributes to the maturation of T-lymphocytes. Hence the thymus can be considered as having an endocrine function.

Pituitary : Refer to Part II, Chapter 2

Thyroid gland : Refer to Part II, Chapter 2

Pineal gland (Epiphysis cerebri) : Develops as a dorsal neuro epithelial diverticulum of the caudal part of the roof of the diencephalon. After its formation the gland remains attached to the diencephalon by a stalk. The neuroepithelial cells differentiate into pinealocytes and glial cells. The developing gland is surrounded by a thin layer of piamater.

Pituitary gland

The pituitary gland (hypophysis) lies at the base of the skull and is housed within a bony structure called the sella turcica in the body of the basisphenoid bone. It is a small pea shaped gland which is attached to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk. The pituitary gland has two distinct parts called the lobes. These are the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe which is also called as anterior pituitary consists of five types of cells, each of which secretes different hormone or hormones. The types of cells, the hormones secreted by each type and the functions performed by them are narrated below.

Healing of fracture is a consequence of cellular behaviour in a living organism and as such can be modified by almost all endogenous or exogenous factors that affect the metabolic function of cells. These factors include transforming growth factor-β, bone morphogenetic proteins, hormones, vitamins and prostaglandins. The anabolic hormones like thyroxine and insulin accelerate bone formation in experimental animal. Hence, this chapter is proposed to evaluate the effects of thyroxine and insulin therapy in the management of tibial metaphyseal fracture in dogs.

Clinically healthy, adult mongrel dogs (15) of either sex are randomly divided into three groups (A₁, A₂ and A₃) of 5 animals each. In all the animals, unilateral metaphyseal fracture is created in the proximal tibia and then immobilized with cross intramedullary pinning with interfragmentary wiring under thiopental (5%) anaesthesia. All the animals are administered broad-spectrum antibiotic (streptopenicillin @ 1 g intramuscularly /dog/day) and analgesic (5 ml I/M daily) and surgical wounds are dressed daily with Povidone iodine and Lorexane cream for 5 days postoperatively. In group A₂, thyroxine sodium tablets (0.013 mg/kg body wt, orally) and in A₃, insulin injection (2 IU/kg body wt, s/c) are given on day 7 and then on every alternate day till day 45 postoperatively, at one specific time. Group A₁, is remained as control, in this group no hormonal therapy is given.

Craniocaudal and mediolateral radiographs of the fracture site are taken immediately after surgery and subsequent on days 15, 30, 45 and 60 postoperatively. The radiographs are observed for status of fracture reduction and fixation immediately after surgery and subsequently for the maintenance of reduction, progress of fracture healing and complication, if any, at different intervals.

Endocrine glands secrete their products into the bloodstream and body tissues in conjunction with the central nervous system to control and regulate a variety of body functions (Fig. 26.1). Various endocrine glands described below have been discovered in fish that are associated with various tasks and functions.

26.1 Pituitary Gland

26.1.1 Introduction

The pituitary gland (=Hypophysis) is a central and discrete organ of the neuro endocrine system in fish playing critical roles in various physiological processes such as stress response and behaviour.

Endocrine glands are organs which secrete chemical substances called hormones into the bloodstream. Hormones are chemical substances that are produced in one tissue, released into the bloodstream, and carried to other tissues, where they act through specific receptors to bring about changes in cellular activities. The term hormone is derived from the Greek root meaning to excite.

• In male animals, endocrine regulation of reproduction is mainly controlled by pituitary gonadotrophins and gonadal androgens. It is not the same as in females as there is only negative feedback controls in case of male while it is positively as well as negatively feedback control in females. In other words, the synchrony of pituitary gonadotrophins with gonads in male is non cyclic while in female it is cyclic i.e. even after castration (absence of androgen) the pulse frequency of LH and FSH is retained. • Sex Hormones are sex specific e.g. estrogen and progesterone work primarily in females and testosterone in males but sex specificity is limited as far as sexual behaviour is concerned. As estrogen injection in castrated ram recovers the maleness while testosterone injection in ovariectomized female maintain the receptivity for male up to a certain extent.

Introduction

Fruits play a vital role in improving human health which are called as protective foods rich in vitamins, minerals, fats, oils, proteins and improves in economy of producers, exporters and industrialists. Fruit crops can be classified into two broad categories i.e. ever green and deciduous trees.

1. Evergreen fruit trees grow under tropical and subtropical climate and they are not dependent on chilling requirement for floral bud differentiation and flowering. Ex: Mango, Citrus, Guava, Sapota, Papaya etc.,
2. Deciduous fruit trees require dormancy during winter season and chilling units for floral initiation and have specialized modifications to protect sensitive growing tissue from unfavourable conditions. Ex: Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Apricot, Cherry, Grapevine, Walnut, Almonds etc.,

Endometritis in cow is actually the inflammation of endometrium that is inner lining of the uterus. It occurs after bacterial contamination of uterus at calving, during A.I. following dystocia, retention of placenta, abortion etc. There is expulsion of white or whitish-yellow muco-purulent discharge from vagina. The animal does not shows systemic signs like increase in temperature, increase in respiration rate, anorexia, toxemia etc as in metritis. However, the animal fails to conceive even after repeated inseminations.

Abstract

Variously defined endophytes are highly diverse in plants in natural ecosystems, and most of them are symbiotic with of them are Asymptomatic presence of endophytic fungi in internal tissues on healthy host plants are able to play vital roles in physiology and biochemical processes. As a result of this interaction endophyte produces chemical substances having various applications. This chapter provides a brief review of certain grass and non-grass endophytes capable to extend beneficial impacts on host plants to sustain the unfavourable conditions of abiotic stresses. However, biotic stresses are also a matter of great concern, where endophytes can play important roles in combating the unfavourable situation. Endophytic fungi used in bio-control and other agriculture related sectors are also  highlighted in this review. Endophytic fungi producing volatile organic compounds reported from all over the world and their various applications find place in this article which has opened new frontiers of bioprospecting of endophytic fungi.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical public health problem globally, which can shake the foundation of modern healthcare. Infections caused by drugresistant organisms could lead to increased mortality and prolonged duration of hospitalization, causing a huge financial burden to the affected persons, healthcare systems and hinder the goals of sustainable development. With rising AMR, antibiotics are increasingly becoming ineffective for treating diseases.The post antibiotic era is not a dreadful imagination but a potential reality unless effective global actions are initiated now (1). AMR is not the only problem of human health, it widely affects the animal husbandry as well as environment. In India in 2019, there were 297,000 deaths attributable to AMR and 1,042,500 deaths associated with AMR. India has the 145th highest age-standardized mortality rate per 100,000 population associated with AMR across 204 countries.The number of AMR deaths in India is higher than deaths from neoplasms, respiratory infections and tuberculosis, enteric infections, diabetes and kidney diseases and maternal and neonatal disorders.Out of 10 million projected human deaths in 2050, one-fifth may be from India (2).Annually, more than 50 000 new-born are estimated to die from sepsis due to pathogens resistant to first-line antibiotics. The median cost of treatment of a resistant bacterial infection in India is estimated to be more than a year’s wages of a rural worker. There are five pathogens to be aware of in India (number of deaths associated with AMR in parenthesis): Escherichia coli (152,700), Klebsiella pneumoniae (123,200), Staphylococcus aureus (111,400), Acinetobacter baumannii (103,500), and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (98,600).If there is no timely containment, AMR is likely to cause nearly 10 million deaths by 2050 and resulting in significant economic losses. It would also impact nutrition security, livelihood and hinder the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals. In 1928, penicillin was developed and socalled magic drug was subsequently commercialised and used globally. When antibiotic resistance ?rst emerged, novel antibiotics to treat these bacteria were developed. However, it is dif?cult to develop effective new antibiotics every time as it is time consuming and costly and if developed a new resistance mechanism emerges in bacteria. There is a demand for new strategies to treat bacterial infections, such as endophytes therapy, phage therapy, antimicrobial peptides, CRISPER cas and so on.

Microbes that live inside plant tissues without causing disease are termed as endophytes. Endophytes have been found in all parts of plant viz., seeds, roots, stems, leaves, fruits etc. Within these organs, there is evidence of endophytes living in apoplastic intercellular space within parenchyma tissues and xylem vessel apoplast. Endophytic bacteria have been isolated from both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, ranging from woody tree species to herbaceous crop plants. Further, a single plant may be a host for several different bacterial species. They are consistently present in the root, stem, leaf, fruit and tuber tissues of a wide range of agricultural, horticultural and forest species. All plants in nature harbor a diverse community of endophytic bacteria which can positively affect host plant growth.

The potential of endophytic bacteria to fix nitrogen, promote plant growth and suppress plant diseases has renewed interest in such associations. It is advantageous to have the endophytic plant growth promoting organisms safely inside the plant, which could supply substantial amounts of nitrogen and other nutrients, growth hormones and other beneficial effects to the crop plants without the interference of the rhizosphere soil environment. Furthermore, plant growth promotion is often greater when it is induced by endophytes rather than by rhizosphere bacteria.

Wings develop internally 

Metamorphosis complete 

Immature stages (larvae) differ from adults in structure, habitat and feeding habits 

Pupal stage present, e.g. all holometabolus insects

ABSTRACT

The totipotency of triploid endosperm tissue is exploited in many vegetatively propagated crops. Hevea brasiliensis, the most important commercial source of natural rubber, is a highly heterozygous perennial tree with a long breeding cycle. Conventional method of triploid production by crossing a diploid with an artificially induced tetraploid is a lengthy and laborious process. Hence in vitro regeneration of plants from endosperm tissue provides an easy and direct approach for the production of large number of triploids. Hevea fruits at different developmental stages were collected and sterilized using 0.1% HgCl₂ for 15 minutes. Seeds were dissected out and the embryos and inner integuments were removed. Endosperm is cut into small pieces and cultured over MS medium supplemented with various levels of sucrose, phytagel and growth regulators viz BA, Kin thidiazuron, 2,4-D, IBA, NAA, zeatin & GA. Organic supplements viz. yeast extract, casein hydrolysate, coconut milk and banana powder were used for callus and embryo induction. Optimum callus induction was obtained in media supplemented with 2,4-D (2.0 mg ^-1) and Kinetin (3.0 mg^-1). On further subculture of the primary calli to medium containing zeatin (1.0 mg ^-1), embryogenic calli could be obtained. Embryos were induced in MS medium supplemented with ABA (0.3 mg ^-1) , Kin (0.3 mg ^-1) and GA (0.5 mg ^-1). Maturation, germination and bipolar differentiation of the embryos were achieved in MS medium devoid of growth regulators. Root tips from the germinating embryos were subjected to cytological analysis and found to be triploids (3n=54). Regeneration from Hevea endosperm is being reported for the first time. The results indicates that like many other crops, Hevea endosperm responds well under in vitro conditions and endosperm culture could be utilized as a viable technique for triploid plant production.

Endotracheal intubation is the placement of a tube in the trachea to provide a patent airway.

It is a valuable technique that enables to attach an animal to a breathing circuit or, just as importantly, to secure an airway during an emergency such as respiratory or cardiac arrest.

It is important that time be taken to learn the anatomy of the laryngeal area and the skill of intubation so that intubation may be performed quickly and with little chance of misplacement.

Abstract

In its natural environment, a plant faces various types of stressors. In fact, stress in moderation is a welcome event in plants. Only when it is in excess, would it compromise the productivity of plants. Beyond a threshold, stress (biotic and abiotic) has a detrimental effect on plant growth causing extensive yield losses in crop plants worldwide. Plants being sessile, have evolved a complex set of mechanisms to perceive the changes in the environment. Plants respond to minimize the potential damage due to stress while simultaneously preserving resources vital for their growth and development. The chapter presents an overview of various types of biotic and abiotic factors that act as plant stressors and the mechanisms by which plants respond to these stresses. The chapter concludes with a perspective on how the plant’s innate stress response machinery can be exploited for achieving higher tolerance to stress in crop plants.

Over the period of time, the dairy sector has added distinct significance to growing Indian economy. India contributes nearly 19.54% to the global annual milk production with an impressive upliftment of 3.6% in yearly production rate as per the latest available data from FAO International.

1. Introduction

Energy balance means keeping an account of how the flow of energy is taking place in and out of any system or process. It helps the engineers to estimate the total energy requirement and identify the area for conservation of energy in any process. In food processing the concept of energy balance is applicable in unit operation such as blanching, drying, evaporation, freezing, refrigeration, distillation, crystallization. The scopes of energy balance in food industry are:

i) Streamlining and reduction of energy consumption in the existing process.

ii) Selection and sizing of any equipment and process.

iii) Economic analysis of alternate process/technology.

iv) Designing new economically viable process/technology

Introduction

Over the years, processed food industry has become the largest growing industry in the world. The convenience food industry with the state of the art technology has been proved very successful in reaching every household and have started replacing fresh and healthy foods with the processed ones (Srinivasan and Shende, 2016).

Demand for processed and convenience foods are constantly on rise and convenience food segment is rising by leaps and bounds. Changing life style, food habits, displacement of rural population to urban centres, insufficient time to prepare healthy food and changing socio economic needs have led to the industrialization of the food supply and resulted in the development of convenience foods and today a great variety of the same are available for sale to the consumer throughout the world (Tillotson, 2003).

These convenience foods are available readily, convenient, inexpensive with pleasing organoleptic quality, requires minimal or no preparation before consumption. Varieties of convenience foods which are available in the market play a prominent role in the food choice of today’s consumer, and they include frozen and canned vegetables, bakery products, soups, sauces, prepared meat and fish, chilled and frozen dairy products as well as ready to eat and shelf stable products (Tillotson, 2003).

Rapid switchover of the consumer from the traditional dining practices to fast food centres, generally feed on quick and easily made products called fast foods, often termed as unhealthy junk foods. These foods are rich in saturated fatty acids, several refined components, high carbohydrates etc., which ultimately lead to the negative impact on physical and mental health of the consumer, contributing to several chronic diseases such as cardiovascular complications, cancer, atherosclerosis, liver disease, type 11 diabetes (Veggie et al., 2018) etc.

Therefore, focussing much about the health of the consumer, there is a great need for a healthy and a balanced diet to meet the basic needs of the human body (Mendes et al 2013) with an appealing organoleptic properties and appearance.

Introduction

The basic needs of life are food, clothing and shelter. In the 21^st century a fourth need added to mankind is energy. According to the laws of physics, energy is defined as capacity to do work. Energy, economics and the environment are mutually dependent. Also, there is very close relationship between agriculture and energy. The level and pattern of energy use in agricultural production system depends on variety of agronomic and socio-economic factors. Energy use in agriculture encouraged maximization of yields from limited available arable land, minimization of labour intensive operations and improving standard of living. Efficient and effective energy use in agriculture is one of the conditions for sustainable agricultural production, since it provides financial savings.

Abstract

Design, operation and optimization of dryers demands the calculation of energy consumption, in most cases in the form of thermal energy, equipment sizing, temperature and moisture distribution of solids as well as temperature and humidity distribution of drying air. Energy calculations are very important as drying is a widespread process in a variety of industries and is highly energy demanding. In the energy analysis of the process the first step is the estimation of the minimum energy requirement followed by the estimation of energy rejection through solids stream and especially through drying air. Increase of thermal efficiency is always willing and the two most common ways for its achievement is the application of heat exchange between cold feeding air and relatively hot rejecting drying air and hot air recirculation. The later is also employed for the adjustment of air temperature and humidity gradient through the dryer. The combination of a heat pump with the dryer decreases considerably the thermal energy consumption but demands electricity and the method can be beneficial in cases of excess electricity production in the process plant, e.g. by cogeneration. Utilization of exhaust hot air from the main drying unit for the predrying of wet solids can also decrease the total energy requirement. The application of humidity adsorption from the feed air increases its drying potential, but regeneration of adsorbent is required. Grand composite curve of the process plant can reveal potential heat sources from different unit operations.

7.1. What is Energy Conservation?

In order to protect resources for future use and to lessen environmental degradation, energy conservation refers to actions performed to limit energy use.

.2. What is Energy Efficiency?

The definition of energy efficiency is the use of less energy to carry out a task or achieve a goal. Homes, buildings, and manufacturing facilities that use less energy to manufacture things require less energy to heat, cool, and operate appliances and electronics.

13.1 Introduction

At a national level, the agricultural sector is one of the major potential users of energy in the Indian context. Further, it is often highly dependent on the supply of electricity and fuel in order to function properly. The term “agriculture” refers to all on-farm activities required for farming, raising animals, and associated activities associated with farmers, growers, and entrepreneurs. Fuels such as petroleum and electricity are primarily used for the operation of pump sets and other operations. In the future, this may result in problems with supply and price. Moreover, India has relatively small reserves of crude oil and will eventually be forced to import more crude oil to make up for the lack of reserves. In order to save energy and money on the farm, farmers must identify opportunities for energy conservation on the farm in order to maximize energy efficiency. 

Introduction

Energy Consumption is considered as the energy used to do any task in any kind of a simple domestic building to a complicated manufacturing industry. For instance, in a household, energy is consumed in the form of electricity used to run an Air Conditioner to make a room cool, gas used to cook a dish etc. In a car industry, energy is consumed in the form of electricity to manufacture a car part. In the transport sector, petrol or diesel or gasoline is used as a run a car or bike or other vehicles.

2.1 Time and Energy Requirements of Work
The time and energy requirements of work can vary significantly depending on several factors related to the nature of the work, the worker’s capabilities and motivation, and the workplace environment. Let’s explore each aspect:
1. Nature of the Work
Complexity: work that requires high levels of skill, expertise, and problemsolving will generally demand more time and energy.
Physical demands: jobs that involve manual labor or physically strenuous activities can be more energy-intensive.
Cognitive demands: intellectual or creative work can be mentally taxing, requiring concentration and focus for extended periods.
2. Worker Factors
Physical health: a worker’s overall health and fitness level can impact how much time and energy they can dedicate to their job.
Skill set and experience: experienced workers might complete tasks more efficiently, reducing time requirements.
Motivation: highly motivated individuals tend to invest more energy and time into their work.
Work-life balance: if a worker is dealing with excessive stress or personal issues, it can affect their ability to concentration and perform optimally.
3. Workplace Factors
Work environment: a comfortable, well-designed workspace can contribute to increased productivity and reduced fatigue.
Technology and tools: access to advanced tools and technology can streamline tasks and save time and energy.
Support and collaboration: a positive work culture and supportive colleagues can enhance job satisfaction and productivity.
Workload and deadlines: unrealistic workloads and tight deadlines can lead to stress and exhaustion.

The rapid growth of Large Language Models has produced remarkable advances in artificial intelligence but has also increased computational requirements, energy consumption and environmental impact. This chapter examines the relationship between large-scale AI development, energy efficiency and sustainable computing. Modern AI models may contain billions or even trillions of parameters and require extensive datasets, powerful accelerators and energy-intensive data-centre infrastructure for training and inference. The chapter investigates the environmental consequences associated with model development, including energy consumption, carbon emissions, cooling requirements and resource utilization. It examines model-level optimization techniques such as pruning, quantization and knowledge distillation as methods for reducing computational demands. System-level approaches, including specialized hardware accelerators, energy-efficient data centres, improved cooling systems, renewable energy and intelligent workload scheduling, are also considered. The distinction between energy efficiency and broader sustainability is emphasized, with attention to metrics such as energy per inference, total energy consumption, carbon emissions and hardware lifecycle impacts. The chapter further highlights the importance of transparent sustainability reporting, green computing and governance policies. Sustainable AI development requires balancing model performance and innovation with responsible resource use and long-term environmental objectives

5.1. Introduction

The energy equivalent can be considered to be an alternate energy unit, precisely related to units such as the joule, calorie, or Btu. In energy talks, many units are employed. They are divided into two categories: (a) basic units and (b) source-based units.

Introduction
The study of energy flow through the ecosystem is known as Ecological Energetic. Ecological Energetic is the scientific discipline that investigates the movement ofenergy within an ecosystem. The process of energy transfer that takes place within a food chain is referred to as energy flow. The functioning of all species in an ecosystem is dependent on the energy they derive from the energy flow. The ecosystemsustains itself and achieves stability through the process of energy transfer.
Energy Transfer/Flow
Solar energy is the primary source of energy that enters the food chain at the level ofproducers, which are plants. Through the process of  photosynthesis, plants utilize solar energy to transform it into chemical energy, which is then used to produce various components of plants such as leaves, flowers, fruit, branches, trunks, and roots. Plants are referred to as producers in the ecosystem because they have the ability to transformthe sun’s energy directly into their tissues, allowing them to thrive. Herbivores consume the plants as nourishment, so obtaining energy. A significant portion of this energy is expended on the metabolic processes of these organisms, including respiration, digestion, tissue growth, blood circulation, and body temperature regulation. Energy is also expended in activities such as foraging, seeking refuge,reproducing, and nurturing offspring. The predators rely on the herbivores as their source of food.

6.1 Introduction

Energy planning is possible only with knowledge of past and present energy consumption and future energy demand. There are number of factor which affects the energy consumption pattern significantly. These include energy prices, availability, reliability of supply, uniformity of quality, convenience in use, technical and economic characteristics of energy using equipment & appliances, population growth, income rate of urbanization, educational status, social acceptance, social habit, present knowledge of beneficiary etc.

The energy planning differ in planning sectral wise and planning sources wise. For sector planning purposes, estimates are needed of the short and long run price elasticity for every specific energy resource. Where as in planning sources wise, one must consider its long term availability & its costs.

In general, to cope up future risk and uncertainty, we need to predict the future event. The likely future event has to be given from and content in terms of projected course of variables i.e. the forecasting. Projection is of two types – forward & backward. It is the forward projection of data variable, which is named as forecasting.

10.1 General

The term “biomass” generally refers to renewable organic matter generated by plants through photosynthesis. Materials having organic combustible matter is also referred under biomass.

Biomass is an important fuel source in our overall energy scenario. Biomass is produced through chemical storage of solar energy in plants and other organic matter as a result of photosynthesis. During this process conversion of solar energy in sugar and starch, which are energy rich compounds takes place. The chemical reaction of photosynthesis can be written as:

Our animal companions are our family members. We want the best for them and want them to be healthy and happy. However, just as it is with everyone else, our companion animals can also fall ill and suffer from emotions such as grief, fear, and anxiety. And while we follow all expert medical advice, sometimes we may wish for something more – something that will make life easier for them as well as us. This is where the concept of energy healing for animals comes in – to comfort and support our animal companions. With joy, we watch them relax with a sigh; we see our nervous dogs calm down, and those recovering from an acute illness get back on their paws in no time. Energy healing for animals involves a holistic approach to ensure the physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being of our animal friends. It is based on the fundamental concept that just like us, our animal companions too have a subtle energy layer, and they too have vital life-force energies or Prana or Qi. And just like us, they, too, have chakras and meridians through which the Qi flows. Energy healing is a set of powerful techniques practiced to calm and restore the balance of the body. This system is largely based on the removal of energetic blocks and helps restore the body’s energy levels. It is crucial for those living with companion animals to understand the importance of energy healing for their animal companions, as it encompasses a broad range of alternative and complementary therapies designed to support the natural healing process of animals. Here are some proven, popular, non-invasive energy healing techniques that bring relief and comfort to companion animals.
1. Animal Reiki: The word Reiki means “mystical energy.” The system of Reiki for healing was revealed by Japanese Buddhist practitioner Mikao Usui in the early 1900s. And while it was initially meant for humans, practitioners soon discovered that animals responded much more swiftly and effectively to this gentle, non-invasive energy work.
2. EFT Tapping: This involves tapping on specific points on the body to free up emotional blocks. EFT Tapping for animals brings powerful transformations when an animal is struggling with emotional distress, such as grief over the loss of a loved human or animal.
3. Scalar Wave Healing: Scalar Wave was discovered in the 1900s by James Maxwell and later Nicolas Tesla. Scalar Wave harnesses the healing power of high vibrational frequencies meeting to create a standing wave, and practitioners use this to bring about healing at a cellular level.
4. Shamanic Healing: In this ancient technique, practitioners work with the elements of nature, such as plants, trees, and stones, as well as beings in other dimensions, to bring about healing. Shamanic healing can reach beyond space and time and has been very effective in releasing old trauma or emotions that are often hidden beneath layers of survival mechanisms.
5. Healing Mantra: Ayurveda, the Indian system of medicine, advocates about different types of Chikitsa. Daivavyapashraya Chikitsa is one of the treatment approaches concerned with Spiritual way of treatment. It includes so many approaches, amongst all Mantra Chikitsa is described in Ayurveda at various places as a potent approach. It is discussed for both the healthy and unhealthy conditions. Mantra comes from Sanskrit word which means sacred message or text, spell. The word Mantra is derived from Man+Tra, man—mananaat---just by chanting and tra—trayate---- we can protect ourselves. Means, just by chanting one can save himself in the universe. i.e. it is saved from onset of disturbances. Mantras are the words loaded with power and sounds capable of penetrating our body into deep levels. Mantra chikitsa is the ancient science originated from Vedas, this is a parallel science to Ayurveda also called alternative medicine system.Mantra Chikitsa is one among the Daivavyapashraya Chikitsa highlights the importance of concept of Mantra. In Atharva Veda and Kaushikasutra, the two most ancient and authentic sources of Daivavyapashraya. Mantra Chikitsa is mainly used for both preventive and curative aspect. It is also used for the enhancement of the Gunas of Aushadhi. Effect of Mantra is described as Prabhavajanya action. Prabhava means the specific and characteristic action of substances, it is called as Acintya. Mantra Chikitsa cure the Karmaja Vyadhi and Agantuja Vyadhi. In the Vedic period, Daivavyapashraya Chikitsa was followed in various rituals.

1.1. Types of energy

1.1.1. Potential energy

Stored energy and the energy of position (gravitational).

1.1.2. Kinetic energy

Energy in motion - the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and substances. It exists in various forms.

Energy is defined as the capacity of doing work and is necessary for survival. It is basic input to any society’s development and economic growth. Everything happens in the world is the expression of flow of energy from one form to other. There are different sources of energy, i.e., chemical, mechanical, fossil, nuclear and renewable energy.

The following products are obtained from refining of crude oil

ALL MATTER IS IN MOTION

Everything moves:

In the atom electrons rotate around the nucleus

In gases, liquids and even solids molecules move away from other molecules

An accumulation of matter (i.e., a baseball) can move as a unit

The average velocity of movement is the distance travelled divided by the time

Bodies in motion have energy; the faster the velocity the more energy

2.1 Energy Consumption Pattern and Energy Resources in India

Energy is vital commodity in economic development of the world and any country. India also experienced a greater shift from non-commercial to commercial energy use after independence over the period. Industrialization and increased population has increased the consumption of commercial energy sources. The mechanization in agriculture and access to clean energy for household application also increased the consumption of the energy. however, the per capita energy consumption remains lower compared to the developed countries. In broader view, the energy used can be categorised in Non-commercial and Commercial energy sources that are used in India.

4.1 Introduction

The energy census survey has become the basis for planning & implementation of the village development based on conventional and non conventional sources which are appropriate to the local needs. The continuous and widespread use of non commercial sources of energy in the rural area is resulting in the large scale destruction of the environment. While the rural people get non conventional fuels at almost zero private cost, the social cost for meeting their energy needs has been increasing over the year. Hence the non conventional fuels acquired a special significance in the energy context.

The rural energy problem is multi dimensional & needs to be tackled through a multi dimensional integrated approach which would include augmentation of energy supply resources, technology transfer for optimum & productive use of resources, R & D inputs in particular for developing low cost energy options for the rural poor, education & training for rural users, linkage with various rural development programmes including village & small scale industries programme and adequate institutional & financial support. The multi dimensional approach for making a village self sufficient in energy planning is illustrated in Fig.4.1.

3.1 Introduction 
The continuous rise in CO2 levels is poised to culminate in a profound global warming impact. Projections suggest that by 2030, CO2 levels could nearly triple, driven by the burgeoning population of motor vehicles. This pressing issue underscores the urgency for the current generation to scrutinize its fuel choices and explore alternative options. Biomass emerges as a pivotal contender, offering a trinity of fuel phases. Escalating petroleum prices and growing apprehensions about the role of fossil fuels in contributing to global warming have spurred a quest for biofuels, recognized for their environmentally friendly attributes. The worldwide energy consumption has increased by an astounding 4 to 5% due to the combination of industrialization and the growing human population. Energy insecurity presents a number of puzzles, including rapidly decreasing fossil fuel reserves due to rapid industrialization, skyrocketing gasoline prices, growing dependence on Middle Eastern oil supplies, and the deleterious effect of fossil fuels on greenhouse gas emissions. (Fig 3.1). Figure 1. Air pollution due to fossil fuel smoke from industries & transportation The UN's June 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro set the stage for addressing environmental issues such as acid rain and the greenhouse effect caused by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The goal of the Kyoto Protocol, an agreement between Russia, Japan, and Europe, is to reduce CO2 emissions. The ability of first-generation biofuels to lower CO2 emissions has drawn attention. But there is a lot of criticism about how they use land and how it affects the supply of food. A more complex option is provided by secondgeneration biofuels, which are made of leftover animal fat and lignocellulosic biomass. The third generation focuses on algae, namely single-celled organisms (SCO), as a viable substitute in the fuel industry. Within this discourse, "biofuels" refer to chemicals that are enhanced with energy. When burned, biofuels release fewer toxic emissions than fossil fuels, making them renewable resources. Furthermore, no carbon dioxide (CO2) is emitted into the environment by them; instead, any carbon released during combustion is absorbed by plants as they grow.

10.1. Acts, Policies and Schemes that Benefit Farmers
10.1.1. PM-KUSUM

As part of its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), India agreed to increase the installed capacity of electric power from non-fossil fuel sources to 40% by 2030. The Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan Scheme aims to ensure energy security for Indian farmers while also upholding this commitment. The PM-KUSUM Scheme was launched in 2019 with 3 components:

Introduction

In order to keep pace with the development there is rise in energy use but it has adverse effects on climate due to greenhouse gas emissions from burning of fast depleting fossil fuels. In this context, we need to harness and use more and more renewable forms of energy, especially solar energy that is plentiful on most part of India. Also, at several locations harnessing wind power and utilizing biomass could be effective alternatives. Solar based devices may also work in an integrated manner with small wind turbines as hybrid devices. At present, about 20% of the country’s installed electricity generation capacity is contributed by renewable sources e.g. wind, solar, bioenergy, hydro etc., which is about 71.325 Giga Watt (GW) as on 30^th June, 2018. In agricultural sector, energy is directly used for pumping irrigation water, operating different mechanized farm implements/tools and processing of foods. Share of agricultural sector in total energy consumption is about 7-8% and further increase in energy use from its present value of 1.6 kW ha^-1 to 2.5 kW ha^-1 is expected to meet the production target of next 20 years.

Fishing is the most energy-intensive food production method in the world today and depends almost completely on internal combustion engines based on oil fuels. Energy is spent during the design, construction and operation of vessels. Energy loss can take place during different stages such as design, construction, operation and maintenance of boats and at harbor.

The energy costs for a particular fishery is determined principally by the technology in use, the local economic conditions, including taxes, subsidies, labour cost and operational cost. (O. Gulbrandson, FAO, 2012)

Only about one-third of the energy generated by the engine reaches the propeller and, in the case of a small trawler, only one-third of this is actually spent on useful work such as pulling the net.

The approximate distribution of energy created from the burning of fuel.

2.1. Solar energy

States like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, and West Bengal have greater potential for tapping solar energy due to their location.

2.1.1. Advantages

Inexhaustible source of energy.

Environment friendly and inexpensive.

Variety of purposes like heating, drying, cooking and electricity.

Dicotyledons
Ranunculaceae
Juss., Gen. 231. 1789. Type: Ranunculus L.
Ranunculus L., Sp. Pl. 548. 1753. Lectotype: R. auricomus L.
R. sceleratus ssp. sceleratus; Tutin in Fl. Eur. 1: 233. 1964. Ranunculus sceleratus L., Sp. Pl. 551. 1753; Fl. Alld. 1: 2.
Vernacular Name: Jaidhania., Kandira
Description: Annual herbs, erect up to 60-70cm tall. Stem, fistuler simple, glabrescent below, branched and pubescent Leaves 3-5-palmately lobed o partite, lower long-petioled, higher ones panicled. Flowers yellow, Sepals reflexed. Petals oblong. Stamens and carpels numerous. panicled. Achenes with an intramarginal rib. Receptacle pilose.
Distribution: North temperate.
Habitat: A Common-herb during winter near river and pond banks: in wet places in gardens.
 

ABSTRACT

Engaging youth in agriculture has been a prominent topic recently and has risen up the development agenda, as there is growing concern worldwide and also in India that young people have become disenchanted with agriculture. Over 60 per cent of the world’s rural population is made of youth, with half of them being young women and girls. Due to their limited access to assets (in particular land), markets, finance and education and skills training, rural youth are often unemployed or work informally – often in unpaid, very low-skilled, insecure and sometimes hazardous jobs. If young people living in rural areas do not find enough incentives, profitable economic opportunities and attractive environments in which to live and work, they will continue to migrate to cities. This trend would not only contribute to the mega urbanization and growing urban unemployment that is already under way, but is expected to affect global food production: who will then feed the global population that is projected to reach 9.2 billion people by 2050. With most young people around 85% living in developing countries, where agriculture is likely to provide the main source of income it is vital that young people are connected with farming. Currently around the world we’re living in an era where rapid urbanisation has led to a decline in rural populations and for the first time ever the majority of the world’s population lives in a city.

2.1. Introduction

The engine is the source that generates power. It transforms chemical energy in fuel into mechanical energy for power. Diesel internal combustion engines are invariably used in all the tractors. In these engines, very high compression of the air ignites the fuel as compared to spark plug that ignites fuel in petrol engines. The air in the diesel engine is compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15 and 22 resulting in a 40 bar (about 600 psi) pressure as compared to 8 to 14 bar (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine. This high compression heats the air to 550°C (1022°F). At about this moment, small droplets of fuel are sprayed in an atomized form directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber.

2.2. How does it work?

Any engine will work with four strokes, namely suction, compression, power and exhaust (Fig 2.1). It will also complete two revolutions of the crankshaft. In the suction stroke, pure air is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve. The exhaust valve gets closed and the crankshaft completes half a revolution. In the compression stroke, the piston moves up while the valves remain closed. The air which is drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed. There is a rise in temperature. The hot air ignites the fuel injected into the cylinder. The crankshaft again completes half a revolution. In the power stroke, the hot products of combustion, viz., carbon dioxide and nitrogen expand. The piston is forced down. The valves remain closed and the crankshaft completes half a revolution. In the exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve opens while the piston reaches the lowest point of travel. Then the burnt gases are swept out.

INTRODUCTION
Tractors revolutionized agriculture by replacing animal-powered farming with machine-driven efficiency, significantly boosting productivity for millions of farmers globally. However, regular tractor engine maintenance is crucial to ensure smooth and efficient operation.
An engine overhaul is a thorough process designed to restore the optimal performance of an internal combustion engine. Over time, engines experience wear and tear due to constant use, exposure to different conditions, and aging, which can result in reduced performance, efficiency, and reliability. To mitigate these issues and prolong the engine’s operational life, an overhaul becomes essential.
A tractor engine overhaul involves dismantling the engine to diagnose and replace defective components, followed by reassembly. This process aims to enhance the engine’s performance, power, and overall efficiency, ensuring it meets the demands of agricultural work effectively.
WHAT IS AN ENGINE OVERHAUL?
An overhaul is an extensive procedure that includes disassembling, inspecting, cleaning, and repairing various engine components. This process aims to restore the engine to its original condition or enhance its performance. It is applicable to a wide range of engines, including those found in cars, airplanes, boats, and other machinery, with specific procedures varying based on the engine type and the extent of repair required.
An engine overhaul involves inspecting, cleaning, and either repairing or replacing internal components as necessary. Typically undertaken when an engine shows significant performance decline due to wear and tear, an overhaul can restore functionality and efficiency, offering a more cost-effective alternative to complete engine replacement.