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ABSTRACT

The present communication deals with the impact and contribution on livelihood sustainability based on forest resources and sacred places in nine fringe villages of Pangolakha Wild Life Sanctuary (PWLS), located in Sikkim Himalaya. Populations density in villages varies from 23 at Nayabusty and 274 at Padamchen. Populations were categorised under three age groups viz. minor (15-25 yrs), major (26-36 yrs) and elder (over 36 years). Approximate by 27.6% populations had minimal primary education. Agriculture is the main activity in Suvaneydara (86.7%), Agamlok (85.3%) and in Nayabustyy (82.3%). Villagers in Padamchen (12.5%) and in Nathang (12.5%) are either dependent on Government job (38.2%) or seasonal flow of tourist (25%). The educational qualification in these villages is classes 5 to 10 standards. 91.1% of people rely on forest resources. About 70% of the villagers depicts that forest cover of the region is improving. The availability of fodders (70%) and fuel woods (60%) are still in abundance. People depend on tirja (private), khashmal and goucharan areas for grazing and fuel wood collection. Forty nine economical economically by valued plant species belonging to 46 genera and 35 families were documented. Subtropical ecosystems had high number of plant species. Poaceae was the dominant family (17%). Tree life form is abundant (51%). Total 24 species are harvested for edible purpose, 24% are freely sold in the local haats (market) for their livelihood sustenance. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of nine villages with respect to forest resources indicated the village specific use pattern of plant resources. Indigenous inherent knowledge of local plants is decreasing in Lingtam. PWLS and its adjoining villages have important places with religious importance, heritage sites managed by the people. It was observed that exploitation of plant resources, lack of maintenance and fast changing concept of traditional ethics among youths, plant resources were degraded and in regenerating stage.

6.1 Introduction

The state of India’s forests is important in many ways, whether it be as a source of fuel and fodder for rural citizens, of industrial inputs for a growing economy, as a habitat for thousands of plant and animal species, a sink for carbon dioxide emissions, or as a protective cover for its soils.

The forest resources forms an ecological system consisting of tree dominated vegetative associations. Forests not only provide timber, fuel wood, pulpwood fodder and fiber grasses, and non wood forest produce and support industrial and commercial activities but also maintain the ecological balance and life support systems essential for food production, health, and all round human development. The innate complexity and inherent diversity of forest ecosystems make it difficult to establish clear cause-and effect relationship or to predict the outcomes of a given intervention accurately. Figure 6.1 shows that the percentage of land mass with forest covered and non forest area in India

Abstract

Knowledge of  seed biology is crucial for proper management of  seed sources as well as the handling of seeds. In broadest sense seed technology includes the development of superior crop plant varieties, their evaluation and release, seed production, seed processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed quality  control, seed marketing and distribution and research on various aspects. Vegetative propagation has also become popular for the propagation of some tree species, but seed propagation remains the principal mode of propagation in both the temperate and the tropical region. Forest plantations are a powerful tool in the continuing efforts of foresters to increase productivity per unit area apart from mitigating the climate change and global warming issues. Hence to improve the existing stock in terms of yield, quality, disease resistant and desired traits, seed technology can play a major role in providing quality genetic material.

Abstract
Better seed production technology is vital to furnish quality seed of improved varieties. Trees are generally propagated from seeds and the suitability and quality of the seeds have a big effect on the success of the plantations, afforestation and reforestation programmes raised from them. It must be stressed that good seed implies seed which is both of high viability and vigour and is genetically well suited to the site and to the purpose for which it is planted. The use of sound seed from stands of high inherent quality is widely recognized as the best means of ensuring fast-grown and healthy plantations capable of yielding high quality wood. Quantity, as well as quality, of seed production is important. Seed quality depends on factors like source, time and techniques of harvest, processing and storage practices. Unlike agriculture, the forestry seeds have great variation in size, shape, dormancy, viability, moisture content, etc.

Abstract

Seed is the most important input component for productive forestry. Large quantities of quality seed are needed every year to raise the nursery stock for propagating the desired plant species.  Commercially important species like Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Pinus roxburghii and Populus deltoides have become more important. Superior genetic qualities of seed have profound positive impact on growth rates and productivity of plantations and quality of the produce. To save and multiply the entire lot of valuable forest plants it is very essential to preserve and multiply those plants for which special type of nurseries are to be established. There is necessity to have special techniques and methods to meet the demand of seed and only hi-tech nurseries can satisfy this type of demand.

1. Forest soils are_____________ in nature. (Acidic)
2. The term soil originated from latin word ‘Solum’ which means_____________. (Floor)
3. Most commonly used sources of N fertilizer in forestry is_____________. (NH₄)₂SO₄
4. _____________ is considered as the father of pedology. (V. V. Dokuchaev)
5. _____________ is considered as father of soil testing. (Troug)
6. Land capability class was given by_____________ and_____________. (Klingebiel and Montgomery)
7. The law of the minimum was given by_____________ in 1862. (Liebig)
8. Law of restriction was proposed by_____________. (Liebig)
9. The soil structural classification followed in India is according to_____________. (USDA)

1. A measure of the items in a random sample is known as_____________. (Statistics)
2. Most commonly used measure of central tendency is_____________. (Arithmetic Mean)
3. Mean deviation is the_____________, when calculated about median. (Least)
4. Arithmetic mean of central tendency is applied for calculation of_____________ and _____________. (Regression and Correlation coefficient)
5. Arithmetic mean and variance are always equal in_____________ distribution. (Poisson)
6. Geometric mean of central tendency is appropriate for_____________. (Index number)
7. _____________ is the sum of all values/ number of values. (Arithmetic mean)
8. Middle most item of all values is_____________. (Median)
9. _____________ measure of central tendency requires data arrangement in ascending or descending order for its estimation. (Median)

The forest manager aims at producing maximum forest produce of desired quality from the unit forest area in a shortest possible period at a reasonable cost. There is a wide gap between production and requirement from forests. Increasing population and improved standard of living increases demand for forest products. Achieving this in a natural forest is more arduous job. Actual growing stocks in natural stand are poor in terms of vigour, size and quality. The regeneration from these poor stands will produce inferior quality trees. Hence management of forest is inevitable for its improvement.

Introduction

Tree improvement through the application of genetic principles is directed towards modifying the heredity of tree populations so that they are able to meet the needs of the forester and the wood based industry. The breeder of annual crop plants resorts to hybridisation, selection, testing of the improved strains, multiplication of improved seeds and finally their release for commercial planting in that logical sequence. But the tree breeder, whose career may be shorter than the life cycle of the tree species taken up for improvement, tends to carry out the above operations in a modified form and often some of the operations are carried out concurrently.

Many of our tree species are wild unselected populations. They are, therefore, expected to exhibit considerable natural variability for many characters and also to respond well to selection for further improvement. Further, altitudinal and latitudinal variation in many characters between populations are expected for those tree species which have a wide geographical distribution. So, the selection of desirable seed sources or provenances is an essential step that is basic to all tree improvement programmes. The right provenance is identified through well laid out provenance trials at a number of locations in the area where the improved selection is to be grown. Further improvement is then planned and executed for exploiting the naturally available intrapopulation variation. The variation normally measured is the phenotypic variation which is the result of interaction of the genotype of the individual with the environment. However, what is essential for selection to be effective is genetic variation for the character under consideration. Genetic variation is assessed by appropriate progeny trials. Since many of the economically valuable characters of tree species are polygenically controlled and exbibit continuous variation, measurements have to be in metric units. The use of biometrical techniques for assessing and analysing this variation, therefore, becomes an essential requirement.

1. Introduction

Lac and other non-timber forest products (NTFPs) provide vital sustenance, employment, and financial revenue to producers and collectors as well as serving a raw material for a range of businesses. They are also important for ecological balance and long-term growth. Weather and price fluctuations have a significant impact on the production of such natural items. Food, fodder, and medication are all ingested straight from these plants. The Indian subcontinent is a significant centre of animal and plant biodiversity. In tropical climates, a variety of forest products play an important role in social and economic life. Wood and Non-Wood Forest Pro

1. The term extension is __________ word. (Latin)
2. _____________ is the father of extension. (Leagnes)
3. The term extension was first used in _____________. (U.K.)
4. The goal of the extension is to promote ______________. (Scientific out-look)
5. The success of rural projects depends upon ______________. (Agricultural Extension)
6. The National Extension Service was started in the year ___________. (2nd Oct., 1953)
7. Training of Rural Youth for self employment was started in the year _____________. (1980)
8. Agriculture extension was first started in ________________. (Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour)
9. T & V programme was introduced in ____________. (1974)

A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Many definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function. Although a forest is usually defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future, or was legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, forests covered 4 billion hectares or approximately 30% of the world’s land area in 2006. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of earth, and are distributed around the globe. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the earth’s biosphere, and contain 80% of the earth’s plant biomass.

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN FORESTRY

Systematic management of forests for a sustainable yield of timber began in Portugal in the 13th century when Afonso III, the king of Portugal planted the trees to prevent coastal erosion and soil degradation, and as a sustainable source for timber used in naval construction. His successor Dom Dinis continued the practice and the forest exists still today. Forest management also started in German in the 14th century and in Japan in the 16th century. The practice of establishing tree plantations in the British Isles was promoted by John Evelyn during second half of the 17th century.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, forest preservation programmes were established in British India, the United States, and Europe. Sir Dietrich Brandis is considered the father of tropical forestry. He brought European concepts and practices to the tropical and semi arid climate zones. The enactment and evolution of forest laws and binding regulations occurred in most Western nations in the 20th century in response to growing conservation concerns. Tropical forestry is a separate branch of forestry which deals mainly with equatorial forests that yield woods such as teak and mahogany. One of the applications of modern forestry is reforestation, in which trees are planted and tended in a given area.

A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Many definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function. Although a forest is usually defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future, or was legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, forests covered four billion hectares or approximately 30% of the world’s land area in 2006. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of earth, and are distributed around the globe. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the earth’s biosphere, and contain 80% of the earth’s plant biomass.

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN FORESTRY

Systematic management of forests for a sustainable yield of timber began in Portugal in the 13th century when Afonso III, the king of Portugal planted the trees to prevent coastal erosion and soil degradation, and as a sustainable source for timber used in naval construction. His successor Dom Dinis continued the practice and the forest exists still today. Forest management also started in Germany in the 14th century and in Japan in the 16th century. The practice of establishing tree plantations in the British Isles was promoted by John Evelyn during second half of the 17th century.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, forest preservation programmes were established in British India, the United States and Europe. Sir Dietrich Brandis is considered the father of tropical forestry. He brought European concepts and practices to the tropical and semi-arid climate zones. The enactment and evolution of forest laws and binding regulations occurred in most Western nations in the 20th century in response to growing conservation concerns. Tropical forestry is a separate branch of forestry which deals mainly with equatorial forests that yield woods such as teak and mahogany. One of the applications of modern forestry is reforestation, in which trees are planted and tended in a given area.

1. General

In this the nature of objectives of the enterprise i.e. setting up a dairy farm, details of proposed investments, specification of the project area, name of the financing bank branch, status of beneficiary: (Individual/Partnership/Company/Corporation/Co-operative Society / Others) details of borrowers profile in terms of capability, experience, financial soundness, technical / other special qualifications are mentioned.

2. Technical Aspects

    a)    Location, Land and Land Development: This involves the site details of the proposed project. The total land area and its cost. Also, particulars of land development such as fencing, boundary wall, gates are mentioned in it. Thus, site map is also mentioned in this subheading.

    b)    Civil Structures: Several structures like sheds, milking room, store room, quarters for dairy farm manager / labourers are also to be constructed. So, their measurements as well as approximate costs need to be mentioned.

A hen can produce eggs without mating by a cock. Such an egg is edible but infertile and will not hatch. If the hen is naturally or artificially inseminated with poultry semen, the spermatozoon unites with the ovum to form a fertile egg that will hatch after incubation. Unlike mammals, the embryo of birds grows independently within an enclosed hard structure called shell and thus, all nutrients required for embryonic development are contained in the egg. The yolk, albumen, shell membrane and shell protect the developing embryo apart from providing well balanced nutrients.

4.1. Registration Procedure

Registering a Producer Company follows a process similar to that of a Private Limited Company. The first step involves obtaining a Digital Signature Certificate (DSC) and Director Identification Number (DIN) for the proposed directors of the company. Following this, an application for name reservation is submitted to the relevant Registrar of Companies (ROC). It’s mandatory for the name of a producer company to end with the words “Producer Limited Company” as per the Act. Once the suggested name is approved, an application for incorporation of the Producer Company is filed in the prescribed format. The Registrar reviews the application and accompanying documents, and if satisfied, approves and issues a Certificate of Incorporation.

Mini seed testing lab analytical register

Communication is the fundamental process of conveying information between two or more individuals or within a group. Communication process involves distinct components: a sender, a recipient, a message, and a medium through which the message is transmitted. Importantly, the exchange of a message frequently carries emotional and cultural connotations. Variations in perception and interpretation among recipients may result in disparities between the intended message of the sender and its actual understanding by the receiver, thereby underscoring the nuanced nature of communication dynamics

Intra-personal Communication

Intra-personal communication involves an individual engaging in self-talk or internal dialogue. This process is an unconscious act inherent to all human beings, wherein individuals contemplate various plans and problems of daily life within their minds. People often discuss matters internally before sharing them with others or documenting them. Intra-personal communication is so ingrained in our everyday lives that it often goes unnoticed, yet it is the fundamental form of communication. All communication originates in the human mind before being expressed in interpersonal, group, or mass communication.

Inter-personal Communication

Inter-personal communication occurs between two individuals, involving one person talking, discussing, or arguing with another. This one-to-one interaction can take many forms, such as casual conversations between friends, information exchange, persuasion, problem-solving, counseling, or simple chatting. This method is widely used in extension work, particularly with poor farmers who are often illiterate and have limited access to other modes of communication. Despite being time-consuming, inter-personal communication allows for meaningful interaction between farmers and extension workers, facilitating mutual understanding and ensuring the accurate transmission of information through feedback.

13.1. Forms of business organisations

Factors to be given weightage for choice of a suitable form of organization

Type of business - service, trade, manufacturing.

Selection of industry and area of operation.

Scope of operations, volume of business and market size, including its expected growth potential.

Amount of capital funds required – initial capital, working capital.

Infertility or reduced fertility in male animals particularly in bulls had considered being a rare occurrence, but now infertility in males is being considered a common and severe problem. Still there is lack of information concerning the male’s infertility.

Reduced capacity or incapacity to fertilize by males/Impotentia generandi: Fertility is the normal functioning of the testes, accessory sex glands and ducts to deliver sperm of normal quantity and quality. Infertility or sterility in males is usually characterized by normal sexual desire and the ability to copulate and ejaculate but a complete or abnormally high percentage of failure of fertilization or conception. It may be seen when semen is normal on examination and on the other hand, the semen is abnormal in sperm morphology, concentration, motility and other qualities.

Miscellaneous causes of male infertility 

1. Failure of proper delivery of semen into the vagina

It may be secondary to lacerations of the ventral caudal portions of the glans penis with a fistulous opening of the urethra ventrally. In such case, at the time of ejaculation, neither semen is deposited in the middle portion of the vagina nor sprayed over the cervix. In addition, it is observed in rams following necrosis of most of the urethral process secondary to urinary calculi or lacerations or injury.

Formulation of meat and sea food products requires various ingredients which are commonly known as food additives. Food additives are those non-meat ingredients which are used to enhance colour, flavour, aroma and texture of the meat and sea food products. These food products can fulfil the demand of modern consumers. As per the definition of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food additives are those substance which are used to provide a technical effect in foods. The use of food additives has become more prominent in recent years, due to the increased production of prepared, processed, and convenience foods. Additives are used for flavour and appeal, food preparation and processing, freshness, and safety. These additives can be classified as curing ingredients, extenders and binders, flavour enhancers and other additives. For the formulation of different products both raw materials and ingredients should be of food grade and sound hygienic strength. In the starting of this chapter we will discuss about ingredients used then the specific formulations will be discussed for better understanding of meat and sea food processing.

Curing Ingredients

Curing agents such as salt, phosphate, sugars, nitrite and nitrate, sodium ascorbate and erythorbate etc. have traditionally been used in various meat formulations from long back. The details of these ingredients have already been discussed in chapter-8 of this book. So we will try to discuss other ingredients which are relevant for meat and sea food products other than these ingredients. Cure accelerators such as ascorbates and erythorbates are used to speed the curing process. They also stabilize the colour of the final product. The examples are ascorbic acid, erythorbic acid, sodium erythorbate, citric acid, sodium citrate, sodium acid pyrophosphate, glucono delta lactone (GDL) etc. Glucono-delta-lactone (GDL) acts as a curing accelerator in meat and meat products. It is permissible up to 1% in sausages and up to this level it lowers the pH about 0.5 thus inhibits the growth of spoilage micro-organisms. GDL also facilitate the cured colour development.

Introduction

Advances in pesticide were measured exclusively by the assessment of its efficacy in management alone. But today food production has ceased to be a major concern, due to stable increase in population levels and success of innovative agricultural technologies. At this juncture, the agrochemical industry that primarily recognized the farmers as their customers has failed to acknowledge the public as an important client. Perception of the public reflects that, the negative aspects of pesticides seem to outnumber their benefits. The increased reflection on environmental concern over pesticide use has been instrumental in a large upsurge of biological disease control. Development of fungicide resistance among the pathogens, ground water and foodstuff pollution and the development of oncogenic risks has further encouraged for the exploitation of antagonistic microflora in disease management.

Biological control of plant pathogens can be broadly defined as the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant state by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of environment, host or antagonist or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists. The decades of laboratory experiments have led to the explosion in the field of bio-control and introduced more than 50 commercial formulations comprising of fungi and bacteria. To have a successful management of plant diseases and to have a pollution free environment, the biocontrol agents has to be ensured for its availability for commercial use by the end users. To harness the potential of biopesticides by the stakeholders and end users the product has to be registered under Central Insecticide Board authorities concerned of the respective countries.

Introduction

In developing countries, ruminants thrive mainly on poor quality feeds and pastures, whose nutritive value is poor. They are having a low content of nitrogen, energy, minerals and vitamins and high content of lignin and silica, which limit their efficient utilization by ruminants. Therefore, these poor quality feeds and fodder needs to be upgraded in terms of their nutritive value using various treatments like physical, chemical, physico chemical and biological methods to improve intake and utilization of nutrients from poor quality roughages. However, supplementation of critical nutrients like energy, protein, minerals, vitamins also improved the productivity and health of the ruminants (Dass et al., 2011). Availability of oil cakes as protein supplement in developing countries is very poor and at a very high price, This has led to use of non-protein nitrogen source as urea, to compensate for the nitrogen deficiency of fibrous feeds (Dutta et al., 2009). Thus, enhancing intake, digestibility and availability of nutrients from poor quality roughages are only possible through optimization of rumen fermentation. The use of solid multi-nutrient block supplementation /urea-molasses blocks/ multi nutrients blocks/ pashu chocolates to provide optimum levels of various nutrients primarily for better growth of rumen micro organisms. They need rich sources of fermentable nitrogen, minerals and vitamins, which are lacking in the fibrous feeds like cereal straws (Sahoo et al, 2009). This offer several advantages such as easy transport, storage and handling, and reduced risks of poisoning as compared with other approaches, such as giving a small amount of urea in drinking water, sprinkling of urea solution on fibrous feeds before feeding, or urea-ammonization of crop residues (Dutta et al ., 2009).

A single active ingredient often is sold in several different kinds of formulations as follows:

(a) Dry Formulations
1. Granule (G)

Granule is, a ready-to-use, dry mixture of a small amount of active ingredient with inert carriers. Most are made by applying a liquid formulation of the active ingredient to coarse particles (granules) of some porous material such as clay, sand or plant material. Granule particles are much larger than dust particles; will pass through a 4-mesh sieve but not through an 80-mesh sieve (the number of wires per inch). The herbicide is absorbed into the granule, or coats the outside of it, or both. Inert ingredients may be added to make the formulation handle well. The amount of active ingredient usually ranges from 1 to 15 percent.

A premixisa mixtureofvitamins, trace minerals, medicaments, feedsupplements and diluents either individually or in a combination. It is a value added solution for feeds with sustainable safety and quality.

The main objective of premixes is to deliver the micro-ingredients in a manner desired by customer. These blends of Micro-ingredients need to be carefully selected, analysed and homogenously manufactured in controlled conditions.

Good quality premixes are manufactured as per following four fundamental principles that determine premix quality and performance :

1. Understanding the chemical and physical attributes in the microingredient to be incorporated.

2. Testing to ensure that all microingredients meet specifications.

3. Controllingthe inclusionin fullproof and secure method.

4. Blending together in speciality mixers to achieve a homogenous mix.

The formulation of ration for various categories of livestock depends upon the nutrient requirements for a particular animal or group of animals and the feeds and fodders available for the purpose. Livestock feeds can be grouped into two major categories – Roughages and concentrates, on the basis of bulkiness and chemical composition and combination of both is essential for a balanced ration.

Roughages are the bulky feeds having crude fiber more than 18% and TDN less than 60% while, Concentrates are feed or feed mixture having crude fiber less than 18% and TDN more than 60%. They are rich in either energy or protein and accordingly are called as energy concentrates (when CP is less than 18%) or protein concentrates (when CP value exceeds 18%). Various energy concentrates are grains and seeds (maize, barley, sorghum etc.), milling byproducts (brans and chunis), roots (tapioca tubers, turnip, potatoes) and molasses.

Introduction

It refers to action which are taken with an aim to provide value to customers developing a competitive advantage by encashing upon the strength areas. In case of business Organisation with multiple business, where each business is considered as Strategic Business Unit (SBU).

• It address the following issues

 • Satisfying the Customer needs

 • Achieving an edge over its competitors

 • Avoidance of competitive disadvantage

Michal Porter Generic Competitive Strategy aim to develop position in long run to outperform the competitors. The three strategies includes:

• Cost Leadership: Providing quality product at low cost

• Differentiation: Providing unique goods and services

• Focus: Cost and differentiation focus

When two or more chemicals can be used in combination or mixed safely, they are said to be compatible. These combinations can be a pesticide mixed with another non-pesticide chemical, or can be two or more pesticides that are combined in the same tank mix. The reasons for combining pesticides are:

1.To control different types of pests with a single application. Often, several types of pests need to be controlled at the same time. It is generally more economical to combine the pesticides needed and make a single application.

2.To provide superior control than that obtained from one pesticide. Applicators at times combine active pesticides to kill a pest that has not been effectively controlled by either chemical alone. Many combinations are quite effective, but in most cases it is not known if the improved control is a result of an additive effect or a synergistic action of the combined chemicals on different segments of the pest population. One should always check the label prior to verify the safety and legality of mixing pesticides.

3.To increase the effectiveness of one of the chemicals. As mentioned above, this is called synergism. The material added to increase the effectiveness of the primary chemical is called a synergist. The synergist may not necessarily be pesticidal by itself, but increases the effectiveness of the pesticide with which it is combined.

The word biscuit is derived from Danis biscoctus which is Latin for twice cooked bread and refers to bread rusks that were made for mariners (ships biscuits) since the Middle Ages. The dough pieces were baked and then dried out in another cooler oven. All biscuits are made with flour (usually wheat flour) and all have low moisture content and thereby have long shelf life if protected from moisture and oxygen. It includes items also known as crackers (that make a noise of cracking when broken), Hard sweet and semi –sweet biscuits, cookies (which is the name that originated from Dutch word koekje meaning a small cake) and wafers, which are baked between hot plates from a fluid batter. The name cookie was adopted in North America where the term ‘biscuit’ can be confused with small soda raised breads or muffins. In other countries the term cookie is used primarily for wire cut products of rather rough shape, which often contain large pieces of various ingredients such as nuts, etc. The term ‘biscuit’ is used in Britain to describe a flat, crisp, baked product; the term cookie is reserved for something softer and thicker. Cookies are made from soft wheat flour and are characterized by formula high in sugar and shortening and relatively low in water. Similar product is known as biscuit in our country. In USA the term ‘cookie’ covers any flat, crisp, baked good. Cracker is a term reserved for biscuit of low sugar and fat content, frequent bland or savoury. Crackers are usually made from developed dough whereas cookies are made from weaker flour. These foods have in common their ability to stay palatable for a long period of time. Their ease of transportation and their ready consumption without any further preparation make them high on the list of staple snacks

All bread is made by baking a dough that has two basic ingredients, flour or meal and a liquid. Bakers can use a wide variety of both components. The most common type of flour used for bread and most other baked goods is made from wheat. Wheat flour has a pleasant taste and contains a large amount of an elastic protein substance called gluten. Gluten aids in baking uniformly light bread that rises (swells) properly. Other baking flours are made from barley, rye, corn, rice, oats, soybeans, and potatoes. These flours, particularly soybean flour, may equal wheat nutritionally, but none can match wheat for creating light, even-textured bread. Hard wheat flour makes lighter bread than does soft wheat flour because it is richer in gluten. Rye and whole wheat breads are made lighter by adding white flour. The liquids used in baking include water, sweet or sour milk, yogurt, wine, and beer.

Bread is either leavened or unleavened. Leavened breads contain some substance that produces bubbles of carbon-dioxide gas. These gas bubbles inflate the dough, causing it to rise and become light and porous. Most kinds of basic breads are leavened with a fungus called yeast. Biscuits, muffins, and cakes and other pastries are leavened with either baking powder or baking soda. Unleavened bread is dry and hard. Familiar kinds of unleavened breads include water crackers, the rye crisp of Sweden, and Jewish matzoth. Whether leavened or unleavened, most breads contain other ingredients in addition to flour and a liquid. An almost limitless variety of breads can be made by adding a sweetener, shortening, cheese, eggs, meat, fruit, vegetables, seeds, or nuts. A sweetener, either sugar or syrup, is used in almost all bread for its taste or as an aid to yeast growth. Bread may also have an external sweetener in the form of a decorative glaze. The high fat content of shortening and cheese increase tenderness and flakiness in bread. Perhaps the best example is the French croissant. Eggs help leaven bread dough by adding to the bread’s lightness. They can be brushed on top of the dough before baking to create a shiny crust, as in the Jewish hallah. Some breads from many nations contain fruit, a vegetable, meat, seeds, or nuts. Examples include the fruit scone of Great Britain, the spinach paratha of India, the Southern sausage bread of the United States, the Easter sesame bread of Greece, and the almond sweet bread of Finland.

Cakes are sweet baked products characterized by high level of sugar in the formulation and hence are foods of high calorific value. Among the various ingredient used flour, sugar, shortening and egg are the essential ingredients for cake manufacture. The optional ingredients are baking powder, milk, fruit etc. For cake manufacture the selection of ingredients is of paramount importance.

Major advantage of chemical herbicides over other methods of weed control is its ease of application, which saves the cost of labour for the farmer. Effectiveness of herbicide depends on how long it remains in active form in the plant /soil. The form in which any herbicide is available in the market is known as herbicide formulation. The technical active ingredient (ai.) of the herbicide is converted to a formulations so as to improve easiness of handling, retention on leaf surface, absorption and movement in the plant. Herbicides are available in different formulations.

Biofertilizer is already proven to be beneficial for agricultural and horticultural crops. The most important pre-requisite for the success of biofertilizer application is the presence of high population of viable cells which will show the desired effect on plants. Biotic interactions along with competition from native microflora is a major challenge to an applied strains of biofertilizers. The formulation is an important parameter for biofertilizer production containing efficient microbial strain with suitable carrier material and additives. The microbial strain needs suitable protective environment to increase their efficiency at the target site and also make it user-friendly. Performance of biofertilizers under field condition is the major requirement for inoculants. Inadequate formulations and poor inoculant quality are the major hurdles for the successful use of biofertilizers.

Formulation of biofertilizers has to be consistant during production, distribution, storage and transport to the farmer/end users. The shelf-life of inoculated microbial fertilizer depends on the formulation with suitable carrier material. If local production and distribution of an efficient native biofertilizer formulations are developed, the present problems in the field performance of biofertilizers could be significantly solved. Specific formulations of native strains for use in saline soils, acid soils, drought, high temperature and eroded soils requires specific formulations. Therefore,use of native strains of biofertilizer formulations which are tolerant to the abiotic stress is an important approach. The formulations of biofertilizers are challenging and limited success has been observed in the commercialization of new biofertilizers. Hence, the search for new formulations has been a continuous approach. However, the choice of the formulation depends on the application method, available equipment, farmer’s convenience, plant inherent characteristics and developmental stage, cost, mode of action and colonization pathway of the inoculated strain. Conventionally, solid based formulations are used, which have problems of low viability during storage and application.

Fungicide Formulation

Fungicide formulation is the process by which the fungicide is put into a form which can be easily produced, stored, transported and applied by practical methods in order to achieve a safe, convenient economic and effective method of disease control.The mixture of active ingredient and inert (inactive) ingredients is called a fungicide formulation.

INTRODUCTION

Many people confuse fortification with the term enrichment. There is a big difference in between these two terms. Fortification means the addition of those ingredients not normally found in a food and it is added to achieve a particular dietary purpose. Lysine may be added to corn products to increase the biological value of the protein. Salt may be iodised to prevent the occurrence of goiter. Breakfast cereals may be fortified with an array of vitamins and minerals to ensure a completely balanced nutritional meal.

In enrichment, the amounts added are designed to meet specific legal standards of minimum and maximum levels of nutrients. It is recognised that in the processing of cereal products that the removal of bran and germ causes a large portion of the vitamins and minerals naturally found in the product to be lost. During World War II an effort was made to correct this deficiency by government endorsement of the enrichment of bread, flour, and cornmeal. Wheat flour, cornmeal, corn grits, bread, ready to eat and uncooked cereals, and macroni products have been enriched with thiamine, ribo-flavin, niacin, iron and in some cases, calcium and vitamin D.

W.H.O. has defined food fortification as “a process where by nutrients are added to foods to maintain or improve the quality of the diet of a group, community or population”.

Food fortification is the procedure in which micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) are added to the food. As a public health policy fortification can be carried out by the food manufacturers or by the governments to help people in combatting dietary deficiencies within a population. Fortification can be done in food even if these nutrients are originally present or not. However, it improves the nutritional status of a population by overcoming the deficiencies of micronutrients. Deficiency of micronutrients is known as hidden hunger which is a serious health risk. Access to safe and nutritious food is a must.Due to the lack of consumption of a balanced diet, adequate micronutrients are not supplied to the body. Therefore, there is a considerable loss of nutrients during the processing of food. One of the strategies to address this problem is fortification of food.

Introduction

In the existing socio-economic scenario, economic independence is considered as one of the main status indicator in the society. Women especially in rural areas are the deprived section of the society on account of their dependence on others for economic reasons. This necessitates generation opportunities so as to make them economically independent. Moreover, women’s contribution to national development is crucial. The process of development would be incomplete and lopsided, unless women are fully involved in it. Many innovations have failed due to non-satisfaction of women on the perceived attributes of innovations. So, it is necessary that they should be informed, trained, convinced of a technology primarily.

Farm women can’t emerge as a good entrepreneur, if they are not equipped with any skill, knowledge, education and information. So, research studies are essential to assess the training needs of them to become a successful entrepreneur. In order to know the training needs of farm women for entrepreneurial development, and the constraints faced by them to become a good entrepreneur.

Introduction

As India is the leading global economy with livestock contributing 4.66% in total GVA to Indian Economy (PIB, 2024) and ranks 1st in Milk Production, 2nd in Egg production, 5th in meat production (BAHS, 2024). Being the largest exporter of milk and meat in the world , this has led to the intensification of animal production due to the increasing demand of major livestock products (MLPs), which has led to an increasing overall use of antimicrobials. Antimicrobials are invariably used to preserve animal and public health, but also as growth promoters at a sub-therapeutic level. The overuse and misuse of antibiotics can contribute to antimicrobial resistance. The growing resistance to antimicrobial drugs could reverse the therapeutic benefits; animals’ resistance to antimicrobial drugs, reduces productivity and leads to economic losses. Unwanted antimicrobials residues may be present in products of animal origins, in animal waste contaminating soil and water and the environment. Seventy-five to ninety percent of antimicrobials used in livestock are excreted, mostly unmetabolized. AMR poses a serious threat to the safety and quality of animal origin food, food security and livelihoods. Unhealthy and unproductive animals are no longer able to generate food products of acceptable safety and quality for human consumption and can no longer contribute to income generation. Insufficient standards for residues in animal food products, reduces the livestock sectors potential of access to trade and increases public health risks (https://www.fao.org/antimicrobial-resistance/key-sectors/animal-production/ en/).

1. Introduction

A public library is a repository of diversified material that serves as the primary hub for community information the spread. It provides fair access to a wide range of information and data, meeting the diverse demands of users. Services must be inclusive, with information appropriate for all age groups and the incorporation of both classic materials and contemporary technologies across many mediums. In 1987, the ILA defined the purpose of public libraries, stating that they should serve as independent training centers for community activities. Public libraries play a pivotal role in fostering community engagement, welcoming all members to participate in various programs. Initially established by the public, these libraries later received government funding for expansion and other requirements. The systematic development of India's public library system ensued after the establishment of the Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF) in 1972.

Introduction

The procedure of making or building casting in the sand mould cavity or any other material is known as a foundry. This is the cheapest method of shaping the metal. Foundry exercise offers the technique of creating casting in moulds shaped in both sand or different material. A foundry is a manufacturing plant where castings are created by softening metal, emptying fluid metal into a shape, then, at that point, permitting it to harden. Regardless of whether we have not at any time been to a foundry or even know what one resembles, we are encircled by the metal castings. There is a decent possibility that we are perusing this under 10 feet from one.

Moulding

Bhutan has developed the concept of Gross National Happiness (GNH) as a substitute for Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In this theory, GNH comprises spiritual and cultural values, including love of sport, music, dance and spiritual activities. This is a good departure from measuring happiness purely from the view point of money. I would like to elaborate on four pillars that are necessary to uphold sustainable human happiness.

Ecology

There is an increasing awareness of the need for adopting sustainable lifestyles which will not make a heavy demand on our life-support systems of land, water, biodiversity, forests, oceans and climate. In his book titled World on the Edge.1 Lester Brown has described how we still have time to prevent environmental and economic collapse. Recent calculations on the ecological footprint each one of us is leaving behind shows that our per capita consumption of natural resources is exceeding the biocapacity of our earth. Soon we will need two planets to meet the growing demand for land, water, forests and biodiversity. In this context, we should keep in view what Mahatma Gandhi said long ago: 

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (Fig. 1)

Lumbar vertebrae, six in number, are much longer than in the horse.

The body is much constricted in the middle, expanded at either end, and bears a rudimentary ventral crest.

The articular processes are large, and their facets are more strongly cun/ ed than in the horse.

The transeverse processes ail’curve foPA/ard, borders a.^e thin and irregular and often bear projections of variable size and form..

The spinous processes are relatively low wide, the last being the smallest; their summits are moderately thickened.

Disease is worldwide in distribution

Etiology

Pasteurella multocida, a gram negative non spore forming, non motile rods which stain bipolar.

Epizootiology

Most species of birds are infected. Turkeys are more susceptible than chickens, and older chickens are more vulnerable than young chickens. Geese and ducks of all ages are highly susceptible to fowl cholera. Survivors of fowl cholera outbreaks become carriers and are the reservoir of infection. P. multocida isolates of pigs are pathogenic to fowls. Spread of P. multocida in a flock is by feed and water contaminated with excretions. Crates, feed bags and utensils serve as a mechanical carrier of the organism.

Fowl pox is a slow spreading viral disease of chickens, turkeys and other birds characterized by cutaneous lesions on the un-feathered skin of the head, neck, legs and feet and/or by diphtheritic lesions in the upper digestive and respiratory tract. The disease is worldwide in distribution.

Occurrence

Among poultry chicken and turkey are more susceptible. Other birds include pigeons, canaries, psittacines and wild birds. Fowl pox has been reported from more than 200 species of birds. The incidence is severe in multiple age groups and intensive poultry farming areas.

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) is one of the oldest cultivated millet with several varieties throughout the world with grains varying in colour from pale yellow, to gray, white and red. Archaeologists say that foxtail millet is so old that no wild plant of the species is known to exist today. Foxtail millet is known with several names in different parts of world and India (Table 1). Foxtail millet is thought to be native to China and is commonly cultivated in several regions of Africa, India, Russia, USA and Europe. It is an annual grass with erect and robust culms.