eChapters

At the point where ammonium is produced, the reactions involved in organic nitrogen mineralization come to a halt. This most reduced form of inorganic nitrogen is the starting point for the nitrification process, which involves the biological synthesis of nitrate or nitrite from reduced nitrogen molecules. The ability of nitrifying bacteria to create nitrate, which is the primary nitrogen source ingested by higher plants, determines their relevance. Nitrate is formed in a variety of places, including soil, marine environments, manure piles, and sewage treatment, where it is the result of the final stage of turning organic nitrogen inoffensive.

Introduction

Phosphorus is only second to nitrogen as a mineral nutrient required for plants, animals and microorganisms. It is a major constituent of nucleic acids in all living systems essential in the accumulation and release of energy during cellular metabolism. Phosphorus is found in soil, plants and microorganisms in number of organic and inorganic compounds. It is the second major inorganic nutrient after nitrogen in term of quantitative requirement for both crop plants and microorganisms. This element may be added to soil in the form of chemical fertilizers, or it may be incorporated as leaf litter, plant residues or animal remains. In cultivated soils it is present in abundance (i.e. 1100 kg/ha), but most of which is not available to plants, only 15% of total soil phosphorus is in available form. Thus, phosphorus occupies a critical position both in plant growth and in the biology of soil.

Introduction

In soil, microorganisms influence not only the availability of carbon and nitrogen, which are important constituents of plants, but also of sulfur (S), phosphorus and many other trace elements for plant absorption. Sulphur is found widely distributed and considered as tenth most abundant element in the nature. Sulfur is considered as an essential element for survival of plant and animals and found as gypsum (CaSO₄.2H₂O), pyrite (FeS₂) and other combined form and also in elemental form (S⁰) in the nature. The requirement of sulphur by plant is comparatively less than the primary nutrients, hence sulfur is recognised as ‘secondary’ nutrient. 

5.1 Introduction

In random sampling it is assumed in prior that the population is divisible into a finite number of distinct and identifiable units and these units are known as sampling units. The smallest unit into which the population can be divide, is called an elementary unit (element) of the population. A group of such units is known as cluster. When such cluster is treated as sampling unit, then the sampling procedure adopted is known as cluster sampling. If the entire area containing the population under study is divided into smaller area segments and each element in the population belongs to one and only one such area segment, the sampling is sometimes known as area sampling.

Generally, identification and location of an element requires considerable time. H

6.1 Introduction

So far we have considered the methods of sampling in which the successive units (elements or clusters) were selected with the help of random numbers. Now, we shall consider a new method of sample selection in which only the first unit of the sample is selected with the help of random number, the rest being selected automatically according to a predetermined pattern. The method is known as systematic sampling. It is operationally more convenient than simple random sampling and which at the same time ensures for each unit, equal probability ofinclusion in the sample. The systematic sampling can also be termed as systematic random sampling because of the first unit of the sample being chosen randomly. The pattern usually followed in selecting a systematic sample is a simple pattern involving regular spacing of units.

Foliage plants are grown for attractive branches and leaves. These plants have several benefits such as improving air quality, promoting better mental & physical health and enhancing the aesthetic value of the immediate vicinity. Some of the foliage plants grown in indoor or in the garden are described in this chapter.

Dieffenbachia

Dieffenbachia is a foliage plant with large and showy leaves. This is native to the West Indies. It is a very popular plant grown in the home gardens due to easy maintenance. The beauty of the plant lies in the unique pattern of colour combination of the leaves. The leaves are yellow near the vein, which turns dark green towards the edge. This combination is random and even within the same leaf, different patterns of ribbons and spots of yellow & green are formed. It can be taken up under various light intensity and growing conditions. Dieffenbachia plants grow up to 2.4 meter height with wide leaves of around 50 cm long and 25 cm wide. 

Agriculture, also known as farming, is the production of food, fiber, animal feed, and other goods by means of growing and harvesting plants and animals. Agriculture is practiced throughout the world. Many agricultural products are used every day, from the clothes we put on in the morning to the sheets we sleep under at night. When you think of agriculture, think of the five F’s: food, fabric, forestry, farming, and flowers.

Agriculture is the science, art and industry of managing the growth of plants and animals to make use by human beings. In general, agriculture includes soil cultivation, growing and harvesting field crops, raising and breeding livestock, dairy and forest trees etc. The word agriculture is the English adaptation of Latin word i.e. agricultura, from ager, “a field” and cultura, “cultivation” in the strict sense of “tillage of the soil”. Thus, a literal reading of the word yields “tillage of a field/ fields”.

Essential elements for plant growth

A large number of mineral elements are present in plants, but they do not require all these for growth. Out of the 107 elements in the periodic table, 90 elements are naturally occurring in plants and out of which only 17 elements are essential for plant growth.

Although common sense goes a long way in defining the concept of an essential element, Arnon and Stout in 1939, stated that an essential element should fulfil following criteria:

1. A deficiency in absence of the elements should make it impossible for the plant to complete its lifecycle.
2. Must not be replaceable by another element.
3. Must be directly involved in plant metabolism, that is, it must be required for a specific physiological function.

   To Arnon and Stout’s three requirements for essential elements should be added a fourth:

Introduction

India has moved from an era of chronic food deficit during 1960s to food self-sufficiency and surplus in some sectors, because of the massive national efforts made to generate appropriate technologies, policy support and infrastructure development. Agriculture will remain central to India’s economic security, which in turn, depends largely on scientific developments and interventions made in the area. As the largest private enterprise (130 million farm families) of India, the share of agriculture in GDP increased to 19.9% (2020-21). This sector engages around 54% of the workforce. Hence, it is critical to visualize interventions to facilitate growth in agriculture and allied sectors to enable its GDP contribution commensurate with involved workforce. While the annual food grain production has increased from about 50.83 m tonnes in 1950-51 to over 305.44 m tones at present. The horticultural production has increased from 96.56 m tonnes to 329.80 m tonnes during the same period through science-led research interventions and development. The animal and fish sectors have

Agriculture and its allied sectors support the livelihood of a large section of India’s population and these ultimately play a pivotal role in life. National Agricultural policy describes predetermined goals, objectives and pathways set by the national government for the purpose of achieving a specified outcome, for the benefit of the society and the nations’ economy at large. Effective policies are the best beginnings for driving effective programs that deliver to the people. The best policies are those that take a realistic view of our context, needs, priorities and future challenges. Government initiated economic reforms in 1991, which involved deregulation, reduced government participation in economic activities, and liberalization. Much of the reforms did not affect the agriculture sector. But agriculture was affected indirectly by devaluation of the exchange rate, liberalization of external trade. T

Plant structure

• Peach – In leaf axils is called – as (blind bud).
• Pecans and walnut, 2-4 buds development at one bud.
• Plants which grow from adventitious buds on the roots are called suckers.
• Some are broad-leaved evergreen: Citrus, mango, litchi, avocado.
• Narrow-leaved evergreen – (coniferous trees)
• Deciduous plants: apple, pears, grape, apricots, pecans.
• Monoecious: Walnut, pecan nut, hazelnut, Tung coconut, cucurbits.
• Dioecious: Papaya, date palm, pistachio nut muscadine grape pointed and snake gourds asparagus.
• Spike inflorescence: Banana
• Catkin: is a spike pecan nut, oak, mulberry, dates and walnut.
• Raceme: Pear
• Corymb: Cherry, pear, candytuft.
• Fascicle Inf.: Phlox and apple.
• Panicle: Mango, grape, litchi.
• Self-pollination (autogamy)
• Cross-pollination (autogamy) (gait gamy)
• Dischongamy: Walnut, pecan nut, macadamia nut.
• Self sterility: Almond, some fruit, onion, marigold.
• Incompatibility: Mango, ber, loquat, apple.
• Wind pollination: Walnut, pecan, nuts, coconut, dates.
• Insect pollination: Apple, mango, peach, fig, coconut.
• Birds: Pineapple and banana.
• Water: Water lily, water chestnut.
• Seedless fruits: Banana, pineapple.
• When plants set and mature fruits without pollination, it is called as vegetative parthenocarpy. Banana, Japanese person, fig, orange, grapefruit.
• Monocarpic: One crop of seed and then dies.
• Polycarpic: One crop of seed and then does not die.
• Media for propagation: 5.5-6.5 pH.

Annual rainfall requirement- 75-190 cm

Common names of Malda - Fazli in Calcutta Bombay green in UP Sehroli in Delhi

• The ‘Portuguese Jesuits in Goa started Inarching about 300 years ago. (90% success)
• The seedlings can be inarched when they are three months old as is done in the “Philippines”.
• The Indian nurserymen usually practice inarching in one-year-old seedlings.
• Grafts onto older seedlings result in poor root system.
• There should be no rain; otherwise, water gets inside the union and causes rotting of tissues.
• The name Mangifera was given for the first time by “Bontus” in 1658 when he referred to this as arbor Mangifera (the tree producing mango). Linnaeus also referred it as Mangifera arbor in 1747 before changing the name to its present form “Mangifera indica” in 1753.

Mango was firstly grown within glasshouse in 1960 at England.

Chemotherapy in Parasitology deals with the treatment of disease caused by different parasites by specific drugs; meanwhile particular drug has got the particular action against the particular parasite. Recently chemotherapy is a extensively used and emerging branch for the control of different stages of parasites that is normally not killed by the conventional methods of treatment. Thus, chemotherapy plays an important role in the treatment and control of parasitic infections by avoiding the outcome of the danger of the disease by treatment of the affected animals. They should have the maximum parasitotrophic action and minimum organotrophic action. It is mainly divided into two types: 1) Rational therapy: It is a mode of treatment based on the pharmacological actions of drugs with relation to disease. 2) Supportive therapy: It is a method of treatment other than drugs, e.g. giving high protein diet in the oedematous condition such as bottle jaw in fascioliosis and amphistomiosis. The drugs used for the killing or complete removal of the parasites from the body of the host called antiparasitic drugs.

Introduction Fruits and vegetables are basic foods for human physical health since they have a wide range of flavours and are linked to a higher quality of life. Horticultural crops are known to reduce the risk of a variety of chronic diseases. Recognizing the importance of fruits and vegetables in the human diet, demand for these horticulture food products has skyrocketed. The demand for fruits and vegetables has expanded significantly as a result of greater consumer awareness of dietary habits, the benefits of eating fruits and vegetables, and an increase in the global population. According to research by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), horticulture product production for 2019 is expected to be 314.5 million tonnes, which is roughly 1% more than the global fruit and vegetable (F&V) production in 2017–2018. (FAOSTAT-FAO statistical database, 2019). Over 67 % of the world’s horticulture produce is produced in China, India, the United States, Turkey, Russia, Vietnam, and Mexico (Paggiola et al., 2016).

Introduction Sea food processing is one of the major contributors in food processing sector. The purpose of seafood processing is to prevent the wastage and prolong the shelf life of highly perishable commodity. It also increases the economy of the country through exports (Gopal et al., 2014). India produce 9.6 million MT of sea food during the every year and is one of the largest fish producers in the world. 23% of marine products are processed currently in India (Sathianandan, 2017). Pasteurized crab meat is one type of processed marine commodity exported from India. Globally, the pasteurized blue crab and swimming crabs are the major contributors to the economic wellbeing of the seafood industry. In India, pasteurized crab meat industries are significantly contributing to the export markets. Among the crab export, 70-80% is exported as pasteurized crab meat (Jebadurai17, 2014).

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.

Introduction Noodles have received importance worldwide due to their particular taste, flavor, convenience, consumer acceptance, and low cost. The noodles generally come under the category of unhealthy and junk food because of high carbohydrate content and low vitamins, minerals, and fiber content (Park et al., 2011). Due to the increasing popularity of instant noodles, many people are becoming more prone to various health problems. The substitution of various ingredients to wheat flour noodles is increasing by incorporating different pulses, cereals, and pseudocereals to improve the nutritional properties and also make them health food. Among the pseudocereals, the use of amaranth and chia seeds in food products has been increasing because of their high nutritional value and good health benefits. Their proteins have well-balanced amino acids with a high content of essential amino acids and also good bioavailability (Lopez et al., 2019). These pseudocereals are also gaining importance due to their high content of phytochemicals and other macromolecules. The amaranth (Amaranthus sp) seeds are spherical and small, having approximately 1 mm diameter with a creamish to light reddish color. The composition of amaranth flour includes amylose (7.05%), proteins (15.27%), fat (7.33%), crude fiber (2.04%), and ash (2.93%) (Siwatch et al., 2019).

Introduction Flavour has a significant impact on consumer pleasure and subsequent food intake. Chemical synthesis or extraction are used to create the majority of accessible fragrance molecules. Synthetic flavourings are frequently shunned by customers who believe that hese compounds are harmful or pose a health risk to them. (Teixeira et al., 2004). The association between flavour stability and food quality and acceptance has piqued researchers' interest, yet it's tough to control. Food manufacturing and storage procedures, packaging materials, and ingredients frequently alter overall flavour by lowering the intensity of aroma compounds or introducing off-flavor components (Lubbers et al.,1998). Because there are so many variables in flavours, they constitute extremely complicated systems. Some are more stable in water soluble carbohydrates, whereas others are more stable in lipid-based coatings. Physico-chemical characteristics, concentration, and interactions of volatile aroma molecules with food components are just a few of the aspects that determine the overall quality of the food. It's a good idea to encapsulate volatile components before using them in foods or beverages to prevent fragrance degradation or loss during processing and storage. Encapsulation is the process of coating or encasing one material or a mixture of components into another material or system. The coating substance is known as shell, wall material, carrier, or encapsulant, and the coated material is known as active or core material.

Anatomically the male reproduction system comprises of testes, scrotum, duct system, accessory sex glands, prepuce, and penis. Production of spermatozoa and male sex hormone are the main functions of male reproductive physiology. The Male reproductive system can be categorized as: • Primary sex organ – Testicles • Secondary sex organ – Epididymis, vas deference, urethra, and penis. • Accessory sex glands – Seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands/cowper’s gland. 1. Testes (Paired male gonads) (Singular: Testis or Testicle) • Testes are the primary sex organs. They are situated in the scrotum at the inguinal region with the help of tunics and spermatic cord. Opening of the scrotal pouch into the abdominal cavity is called as inguinal canal. The testis is covered with an extra abdominal tunic named as tunica vaginalis, tunica albuginea, and tunica vasculosa from outside to inward. The fluid filled in between the parietal and visceral layers of tunica vaginalis is responsible for the movement of the testis within the scrotum. The upper end of a testicle is occupied by the caput epididymis and the lower end is connected to the cauda epididymis.

1.1 Introduction Millets are nutri-cereals that have been the oldest food since time immemorial and are decisively the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millets generally include small seeded members of the Poaceae family globally used for food and fodder purposes. The word “millet” emanated from the French word “Mile” which means “thousand” signifying that a small quantity of millet may contain thousands of grains. Millets were erstwhile produced in marginal or degraded terrains with very low soil nutrients and semi-arid conditions with very little rainfall. After the green revolution, there was a shift away from millet in favour of wheat, rice, and maize as a result of more land becoming irrigated to alleviate extreme poverty and malnourishment in the country and to feed millions. Most of the millet crops possess the C4 photosynthetic pathway and are therefore able to withstand frequent changes due to environmental stresses. Consequently, millet production has declined and within a few decades post-green revolution, crops that were once eaten by every household were transformed into fodder crops. Millets are considered as ‘good for the planet crops’ as they take less to give more, due to such multi-faceted qualities millets are considered as miracle crops.

Introduction The world recently celebrated the birth of its eighth billionth baby, a major milestone in the development of the human race and the doubling of our numbers in 47 years. This tremendous growth has been driven by ambitious advances in technology and health care, soaring achievements of global prosperity and a longer life expectancy that has come to a staggering 72 years. However, the glory of these achievements is marred by how we are failing the lion’s share of the global population in meeting their basic requirements. Almost one in seven people on our planet do not have enough to eat. Food and nutritional insecurity are detrimental to human development and are a major brake on overall socio-economic development which downplays any major accomplishments we have made since not having enough to eat is an international security issue. Adequate food production, easy access and the capacity to buy food, relevance concerning nutrition and stability of these elements are all necessary for sustainable food security (Helland and Sorbo, 2014).

Introduction The leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum L.) belongs to the Alliaceae family and is a non-bulb-forming crop. It is consumed raw by itself, combined with other foods in salads, and cooked as flavoring in soups and stews. It is a preferred vegetable in a kitchen garden but is not commercially farmed in India. Leek has chromosome 2n=4X=32, which makes it an autotetraploid in nature. It is a vigorous biennial herbaceous cultivar that has never been discovered in its wild form. For their blanched stems and leaves, leeks are grown. It is a biennial plant that is used to flavor soups and eaten as a salad. The leek was first domesticated in the Eastern Mediterranean, where it was later brought to middle Europe by the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. Leeks may have originated in Central Asia and/or Europe, according to several theories. Since the majority of the Allium species are found worldwide, their distribution within the northern hemisphere is not uniform.

Introduction Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a very popular herbaceous biennial root vegetable mainly grown for its edible roots and leaves, it is commonly known as Chukander in Hindi, but also has different local names depending on the area, for instance, it is called Bita gacha in Bengali, Bita in Marathi, Beet in Punjab, Salada in Gujarati, Dumpamokka in Telugu, and Bit in Malayalam etc (Kumar, 2015). It belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae (now Amaranthaceae). The chromosome number of beetroot is 2n = 18. It is used as a cooked vegetable, salad, and for pickling and canning. Origin and distribution The origin of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) can be traced back to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East.

Introduction Potato, scientifically known as Solanum tuberosum, is a starchy tuberous crop that belongs to the nightshade family, Solanaceae. It is one of the most widely consumed and important food crops worldwide. Potatoes are native to the Andes region of South America and have been cultivated for thousands of years. They have since become a staple food in many countries and have significant cultural and economic importance. Potatoes are known for their versatility, as they can be prepared and cooked in various ways. They are typically harvested from underground stems called tubers, which come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and colours. The most common varieties have brown or yellowish skin and white, yellow, or creamy flesh. However, there are also red, purple, and even blueskinned potatoes available. The cultivation of potatoes is widespread, with major potato-producing countries including China, India, Russia, the United States, and Germany. Potatoes are adaptable to different climates and can be grown in diverse environments. They are an important crop for food security and economic stability in many regions. Beyond their culinary significance, potatoes have also contributed to scientific advancements.

Introduction The Indian economy depends heavily on agriculture, which is also key to its expansion and advancement. In India, agriculture and related industries support more than two thirds of the people either directly or indirectly. 85 percent of Indian agriculture’s growers are small and marginal farmers (GOI, 2010-11). It is difficult for them to access markets, knowledge, loans, and agricultural extension services. As a result of the high transaction costs, the food sectors, finds challenges to buy agricultural products directly from farmers. This renders the supplychains ineffective and raises issues with food safety, lack of transparency, and traceability. Although debt is frequently stated as the direct cause of their misery, deeper problems including low scale operations, a lack of information, inadequate communication links with the wider market, etc., are also involve in these phenomena.

1. Introduction Millet is a heterogeneous group of small-seeded cereal crops classified based on their morphology as major millet and minor millet. Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) are small millets generally categorized as minor millet cereal crops. It is a self-pollinated crop that belongs to the family Poaceae and subfamily Panicoideae with a chromosome number of 2n=36 (Nandini and Bhat, 2019). It is a traditional cereal grain crop widely produced in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Western Myanmar. Little millet is widely cultivated in the tribal belt of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu in India for food and feed (Ganapathy, 2017). Indigenously, it is commonly known as samai (Tamil), kutki (Hindi), savior same (Kannada), chama (Malayalam) (Table 1).

1. Introduction Millets are the oldest crops known to mankind. They are mostly cultivated for human consumption however; some are also used as animal fodder. Barnyard millet Echinochloa frumentacea is a multi-purpose crop belonging to the kingdom plantae, order-poales, family-poaceae, subfamily-panicoideae, genus-Echinochloa & species-E. frumentacea. It was domesticated about 4,000 years ago with two main species: Echinochloa esculenta (Japanese barnyard millet) and Echinochloa frumentacea (Indian barnyard millet). The former species is mainly grown in Japan, Korea, and northeastern China, while the latter is grown in Pakistan, India, and Nepal. In India, barnyard millet is grown in the Himalayan region from the north to the Deccan plateau in the south and is popularly known as jhangora or sawan millet.

1. Introduction According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 780 million of the estimated 792.5 million malnourished people globally are in countries that are developing. Despite expanded agricultural production, “hidden hunger,” which is often caused by a shortage of vital micronutrients in daily meals, affects around 2 billion people worldwide. Majority of the population is relying on plant-based diets which are critical for sustaining nutritional security and are the primary source of nutrients required for optimal growth and development. Most of these diets are found deficit in major nutrients such as proteins, iron, calcium and Vitamin B12.However, a considerable number of Asian and African populations suffer from nutritional inadequacies as a result of consuming plant-based diets (Tripathi et al., 2019). Earlier, the main concern of farming systems was crop productivity and yield. However, there has been a shift in emphasis toward human health and well-being.

Introduction A few decades back, no one would ever consider the potential danger posed by an ocean overrun with jellyfish? But many researchers around the world assure us that we can turn that danger into an asset with the help of scientific ideas and careful management. Gelatinous zooplankton like jellyfish are thought to have existed millions of years before the dinosaurs did. There are cases where these emotionless, mindless, bloodless organisms kill an adult human (Wilson, 1947). Despite being an annoyance, they could greatly benefit human society in many ways. The unfortunate truth is that even though they have 500 million years of history, they still appear to be an untapped opportunity. Jellyfish are not only edible, but also extremely nutritious due to their low calorie, fat, and protein/collagen content. Jellyfish are known for their refined taste, which can lean toward the salty side. The texture is more of a factor; it's not as gelatinous as one might think, falling somewhere between a summer squash and a glass noodle. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report published in 2019, human activities have had an impact on virtually all marine organisms, including corals, oysters, and other marine organisms. However, jellyfish are more resistant to the acidic effects of the world's oceans. This does not necessarily imply that these organisms are highly immune, but they are doing better than average. There are about hundred known venomous jellyfish species out of an estimated 10,000 worldwide.

Introduction Salmonella is a gram-negative, rod shaped bacteria, facultative anaerobe and non-spore forming. Motile by peritrichous flagella, except S. Gallinarum & S. Pullorum. Salmonella is a genus consists two species called S. enterica and S. bongori and six subspecies viz., enterica I, salamae II, arizonae IIIa, diarizonae IIIb, houtenae IV, indica VI and bongori V. the sub species were categorized into serotypes based on serological characters like somatic (O) - lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on the external surface of the bacterial outer membrane, flagellin (H) – globular protein peritrichous flagella and capsular (Vi) – polysaccharide - O acetylated α 1-4, linked N- acetyl galactosaminuronic acids occurs only in S. Typhi, S. Paratyphi and S. Dublin. Salmonella plays an important role in affecting the safety of foods as it survives in a wider range of environmental conditions (Finn et al., 2013). Seafood are often contaminated with Salmonella (Duran and Marshall, 2005) and their presence causes negative impact on seafood export. During 2020-21, India exported 1.15 MMT of seafood worth US$ 5.96 billion mainly to the USA, China and EU, which are the major importers of Indian seafood (MPEDA, 2022).

Introduction The increase in population has led to the demand for good quality food. Consumer food demand is a key factor in the development of many agricultural and food policy and high-quality food products with longer shelf lives is increasing all the time. Over recent years, Packaging has revolutionised the marketing and delivery of food goods, especially fishery products. The introduction of modern packaging technology and innovative packaging material processes paved the way for convenience products. In 2018, the value of fish and fish products exported was USD 164 billion because of improved chilling, packaging, and transportation technology has resulted in increased commerce in live, fresh, and chilled fish, which accounted for around 10% of global fish trade and 78% of the total amount shipped was for human consumption (Sofia 2020). When both fish and terrestrial meat exports for human consumption are considered, fish exports have been larger in value terms since 2016. (51% versus 49%). Furthermore, increased utilisation of fisheries and aquaculture products minimises loss and waste, which can assist reduce strain on fisheries resources and support sector sustainability.

Introduction Feed is a major source of nutrition in semi-intensive and intensive culture systems. Fish fed with formulated feed is used for their growth, maintenance, and reproduction. Feed Energy utilized for maintenance is mainly for health and survivability. In intensive aquaculture, animals almost exclusively depend on an external supply of high protein feed (generally >20%), usually based on fishmeal (Beveridge and Little, 2002) because of its high protein content, better bioavailability of amino acids, palatability, and unknown growth factors. Hence fish fed with a fish meal-based diet exhibits better growth performance, feed conversion, and fish health than fish fed with other animal and plant-based protein sources (Hardy and Tacon, 2002; Pike and Barlow, 2002; Tacon, 2003; Cook et al., 1996). Still, Global fish meal production is annually decreasing since 1994 due to increased human utilization and increased use of fish residues and by-products, increasingly replacing whole fish for fish meal (FAO, 2020). Hence many scientists were passionate about replacing the fish meal with an alternative feed ingredient without compromising growth.

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) may detect and identify chemical and biological species ultrasensitively. Through localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects, metal nanostructures boost analyte Raman signals. This chapter covers current advances and essential principles in metal nanostructures for SERS chemical detection. It discusses SERS fundamentals and enhancing processes, such as metal nanostructure size, shape, and composition. Top-down and bottom-up processes including lithography, chemical synthesis, and self-assembly are used to create repeatable and controllable metal nanostructures. The complex interactions between light, metal nanostructures, and analyte molecules are best understood by combining theoretical modeling and experimental observations. 

Agroforestry systems are not simply systems where trees and crops or animals give useful products to the farmers, rather systems where trees and crops and/ or animals interact. Interaction literally means influence or mutual or reciprocal action. So component interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the performance of other component as well as the system as a whole. In agroforestry systems, trees are grown in close proximity to crops and pasture. Their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Various interactions take place between the woody trees and herbaceous plants (crops or pastures) which is referred to as tree-crop interface. These interactions take place through the media of soil and microclimate and may exert favourable or adverse effects on the crop. Study of interaction helps to know how the components of agroforestry utilize and share the resources of the environment, and how the growth and development of any of the components will influence the others. Interaction occurs both above and below the ground and includes a complex set of interactions relating to radiation exchange, the water balance, nutrient budget and cycling, shelter and other microclimatic modifications.

Farmers have been growing trees for different purposes for thousands of years. Tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant function are called multipurpose trees. These functions may be productive such as producing fuelwood, timber, fibre, fodder, food, medicine, etc. and/or protective such as soil conservation, shade, shelterbelt, microclimate amelioration, land sustainability, biodiversity preservation, etc. All trees are multipurpose; some, however, are more multipurpose than others. Tree species can be multipurpose in two ways. 1. A single tree can provide more than one function. For example, Gliricidia sepium is grown as living fences that provide fuel, fodder and green manure for agricultural crops - all at the same time. 2. Trees of the same species, when managed differently, can provide different functions. For example, Leucaena leucocephala is managed so that some trees will mainly yield wood while others mainly produce leaf fodder.

Stress is an intrinsic part of biological systems, and successfully adapting to stimuli that induce stress is essential for the survival of dryland crops and farm animals kept in a complex and ever-changing environment. Here the biotic stresses of crop plants are treated and not that of farm animals to avoid the expansion of the volume of the chapter. Biotic stress in plants is caused by living organisms, specifically viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, arachnids, and weeds. In contrast to abiotic stress caused by environmental factors such as drought and heat. Biotic stress agents directly deprive their host of its nutrients leading to reduced plant vigour and, in extreme cases, death of the host plant. In agriculture, biotic stress is a major cause of pre- and postharvest losses. Plants respond to biotic stress through a defence system (Atkinson and Urwin, 2012).

Statistics: Collection of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data,

and then organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and

drawing conclusions.

Sir R.A. Fisher: Father of modern statistics.

Population: All subjects possessing a common characteristic that is being

studied.

Sample: A subgroup or subset of the population.

Parameter: Characteristic or measure obtained from a population.

Statistic: Characteristic or measure obtained from a sample.

Karl Pearson: Study of correlation and chi-square test of goodness of fit.

W.S.Gosset: Student’s t-test for small sample

Francis Galton: Regression analysis.

Descriptive Statistics: Collection, organization, summarization, and

presentation of data.

Inferential Statistics: Generalizing from samples to populations using

probabilities. Performing hypothesis testing, determining relationships

between variables, and making predictions.

Nitrogen

Most commonly, complex organic compounds, ammonia, molecular nitrogen, nitrite, and nitrate are the forms of nitrogen found in soils. The physical and chemical conditions of the soil control the majority of the microbiological interconversions that change nitrogen.

Ammonia build-up, ammonia loss by volatilization, denitrification, nitrogen f ixation, and leaching losses of nitrogen are the primary changes that occur in submerged soils. The nutrition of rice is significantly impacted by these changes. Given the favourable circumstances for quick soil transformations and nitrogen loss, it is obvious that rice soils are nitrogen deficient.

Introduction

Ideal plant health and productivity of a cropping system depends on an adequate amount of plant nutrients. Fertility of the soil refers to its capacity to support the production of crops. A productive fertile soil can support optimal plant growth, seed germination to plant maturity by providing adequate soil volume for plant root development, essential plant nutrients to meet the nutritional requirements of the plants, and encourage for the consequent plant structure. These attributes of the soil can be distinguished as inherent or dynamic soil quality indicators.Optimum plant health and productivity of a cropping system depends on an adequate supply of plant nutrients. The quantity of nutrients required by plants varies depending on many interacting factors including:

• Agronomic effects

• Soil properties

• Climatic condition

• Management practices

Introduction

Productivity has increased as a result of the significant industrialization that has occurred in India during the past 40 years. However, it has also had detrimental effects on the ecology, particularly in India where soil contamination is progressively becoming more severe. In addition to the effects of man and land use, soil is constantly adapting changes in environmental conditions. A characteristic of soil pollution is the decrease in soil productivity brought on by the presence of soil pollutants. Some changes in the soil will be temporary and reversible, while others will be permanent. Pollutants in the soil have a negative impact on the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil and decrease its production. Soil pollution is a result of a variety of factors, including pesticides, fertilizers, organic manure, chemicals, radioactive waste, abandoned food, clothing, leather goods, plastics, paper, bottles, tins, and corpses. Industrial waste contains chemicals including iron, lead, mercury, copper, zinc, cadmium, aluminum, cyanides, acids, and alkalis, among others, which either directly or indirectly enter the soil.

Introduction

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. ) popularly known as Gram, Bengal gram, Egyptian pea, Chana, or Kabuli chana, Garbanzo bean is one of the first grain legumes to be domesticated by humans in old world (Van der Maesen, 1972). The genus Cicer belongs to the sub-family Papilionaceae of the family Leguminoceae (Bentham and Hooker, 1970) now popularly known as ‘Fabaceae’ and have chromosome number 2n = 2x = 16. The origin of the crop is considered to be Western Asia from where it has been transferred in India and other parts of the world (Rathore and Sharma, 2003). Importance of pulses is relatively more in our country as its contribution in nutrient supply is far more in Indian diet than that in Asia and world as a whole (Ali,2002).

Introduction

Agriculture is the most important sector of Indian Economy. The agriculture sector accounts for 18 per cent of India’s gross domestic product (GDP) and provides employment to 50 per cent of the countries workforce. India has emerged as the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. Formerly agriculture was more dependent on nature and all the operations were carried out manually, however new technologies have been developed to increase the production and productivity of crops (Rangbhal, 2018).

Introduction

The state of Odisha highly depends on rainfall for the agricultural production. But rainfall distribution is very erratic and uneven which result heavy floods and droughts in different pockets of the state. Thus, the agricultural production is very unstable. It is present in the eastern region of India which is again located in the subtropical belt of medium pressure. Here hot and dry summer welcomes wet humid monsoon which last about few months. Charming autumn and with short and mild winter entertain the human life. But here climate is characterized by high temperature and medium rainfall. Topography however modifies the local climate greatly. The four meteorological seasons prevailing in the state which are: winter (January to February), pre-monsoon season (March to May), south-west monsoon season (June to September) and north east monsoon season (October-December).

7.1 Introduction

The integral calculus is concerned with the opeartion of “integration” which is the reverse process of differentiation. If f '(x) represents the differential coefficient of f '(x), then the problem of integration is to find f(x) from f '(x).

7.2 Integration of a Function Containing a Constant

If we integrate a function containing a constant factor, this factor must also be a factor of final integral.

Philosophy of defence in plants

Plants cannot move and must resist or tolerate co-located pathogens.

Plants have evolved very powerful preformed defense systems in the form of structural and toxic barriers.

Plants cannot keep intruders out, they can only limit (contain) them.

Plants can tolerate more nutrient runoff. They often sacrifice a piece of tissue to contain pathogens.

Introduction

Genetic engineering is the process of using molecular techniques to add, modify and delete genes of interest to the DNA strands of recipient cells or recipient plants. Genetic engineering is also called genetic technology, transgenic technology, transformation technology and recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering consists of tools and techniques used to study, identify, or modify the genes of living organisms. It is also defined as a technique for developing transgenic organisms. The key points of genetic engineering are briefly listed below.

Introduction

The term "nano" is used to define one that has a size in the nanometer range. Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary field of medicine, chemistry, physics, and biology that has emerged during the past few decades as a potential area of study. The goal of this interdisciplinary technology is to transform molecules into entities, then do the opposite. Nanobiotechnology is the term for the fusion of nanotechnology with biotechnology. In nanobiotechnology nanoscale principles and techniques are used to explore biosystems and generate novel biomaterials. Biosensing, cell labelling, and molecular imaging can all gain benefit from nanostructure materials in life science, health and biomedicine.

Introduction

The COVID-19, the Global Pandemic has affected the world and is still continuing with its various mutations even today. This has created a long-lasting impact and many sectors like energy, transport, industries, and residential buildings, have critically experienced impacts from the pandemic (Qarnain, Muthuvel, and Bathrinath 2020). It has directly and indirectly impacted every household’s operations. The mandatory COVID – 19 protocols, lockdowns, Work From Home (WFH) schedules and the major fear of every one of contracting the disease if going out itself has forced people to stay indoors and forced residents to use more energy for their daily routine activities, (routines like watching more TV, using environment control devices like fans, AC, room heaters etc.) giving rise to higher energy usage resulting in high energy bills and subsequent scarcity in the energy supply.

Indian subcontinent is a mega-center of crop plant diversity, as well as wild relatives and other useful taxa (Zeven and de Wet 1982). Diverse agroclimatic conditions, agricultural practices, and ethnic diversification have resulted in the development of a rich diversity of crop plants among native and introduced taxa (Arora 1991). Fruit crops contribute significantly to nutrition and health because they are high in dietary energy and contain a significant amount of vitamins and minerals (Pareek et al., 1998). Most of these species serve multiple functions, such as food, shelter, timber, fuel, medicine etc. As a result of their numerous applications, tropical fruits significantly contribute to food and nutritional security, income generation, ecosystem and environmental sustainability.

Perennial fruit crops are largely cultivated under borderline conditions leading to various physiological disarrays. An environment-friendly technique for escaping or reducing losses in production due to biotic and abiotic stresses is their propagation onto rootstocks, which can reduce the adverse effects of external stresses. The scion and rootstock grow together, although genetically different but working infusion and grow as a single entity. The rootstock provides the root system, thus anchoring the tree and acts as an absorbing organ for water and mineral nutrients. The rootstock also influences the tree size, precocity in bearing, fruit quality and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.