eChapters

5.1 Mass Multiplication Techniques
Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are currently produced by different methods either in vivo or in vitro (solid and liquid culture) (Friedman, 1990). Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages relative to production cost, technical know-how required, economy of scale, and product quality, and each approach has the potential to be improved. Following production, a variety of formulation and application alternatives are also available (Shapiro- Ilan et al., 2012). Mass multiplication of EPNs can be achieved through in vivo (using insect hosts) and in vitro (using artificial media) methods, with the latter being more efficient for large-scale production.
1. In Vivo Multiplication
Method: Involves rearing insect hosts (like Galleria mellonella or Corcyra cephalonica) and infecting them with EPNs, allowing the nematodes to multiply within the host’s cadaver.
Process
• Rearing of insect hosts.
• Inoculation of host larvae with EPNs.
• Collection of dead, infected larvae.
• Extraction of infective juveniles (IJs) from the cadavers using methods like the White trap.
Advantages: Simpler and requires less capital outlay.
Disadvantages: Labor-intensive and may not be as efficient for large-scale production.

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are obligate parasites that infect and kill insects. Their short life cycles, simple rearing requirements, and straightforward molecular manipulations render them ideal to study host– parasite interactions. Additionally, their efficacy in reducing herbivore damage in the field contributed to their use as biological control agents in agriculture (Xi Zhang et al., 2021). EPNs comprise three genera, Heterorhabditis, Steinernema, and Oscheius. Infective juveniles (IJs) are third-stage free-living nematode larvae (iL3) that locate, select, and infect a host by entering through
a natural orifice or by penetrating through the cuticle. Upon infection, IJs release venom proteins and regurgitate an endosymbiotic entomopathogenic bacterium, leading to a fatal toxemia and septicemia of the host. Juveniles then undergo a transition from free-living to parasitic lifestyle and resume growth and development by feeding on the infected flesh. Adult nematodes reproduce inside the host generating several new generations of nematodes. Resource depletion and elevated nematode densities induce the production of ascaroside C11 ethanolamine, an ascaroside triggering the production of next generation IJs, often through Endotokia matricida. The newly hatched IJs emerge from the resource-depleted host and search to infect new hosts.
Juvenile host-seeking strategies are typically classified along a gradient ranging from ambushing to cruising (Xi Zhang et al., 2021). Ambusher nematodes are stationary and infect mobile hosts. Attachment to a mobile host can be achieved through nictation, which corresponds to the nematode standing on its tail, curling, and propelling itself in the air. Cruiser nematodes disperse in the soil and locate sedentary hosts. Nematodes with intermediate strategies can ambush or disperse depending on the soil matrix and host presence. Additionally, recent studies highlighted that EPNs can attract insects to infected cadavers just before emergence (Zhang et al., 2019). Being the first step of host–parasite interactions, host-seeking is critical in determining the success of a parasite.

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are obligate parasites that infect and kill insects. Their short life cycles, simple rearing requirements, and straightforward molecular manipulations render them ideal to study host– parasite interactions. Additionally, their efficacy in reducing herbivore damage in the field contributed to their use as biological control agents in agriculture (Xi Zhang et al., 2021). EPNs comprise three genera, Heterorhabditis, Steinernema, and Oscheius. Infective juveniles (IJs) are third-stage free-living nematode larvae (iL3) that locate, select, and infect a host by entering through a natural orifice or by penetrating through the cuticle. Upon infection, IJs release venom proteins and regurgitate an endosymbiotic entomopathogenic bacterium, leading to a fatal toxemia and septicemia of the host. Juveniles then undergo a transition from free-living to parasitic lifestyle and resume growth and development by feeding on the infected flesh. Adult nematodes reproduce inside the host generating several new generations of nematodes. Resource depletion and elevated nematode densities induce the production of ascaroside C11 ethanolamine, an ascaroside triggering the production of next generation IJs, often through Endotokia matricida. The newly hatched IJs emerge from the resource-depleted host and search to infect new hosts.
Juvenile host-seeking strategies are typically classified along a gradient ranging from ambushing to cruising (Xi Zhang et al., 2021). Ambusher nematodes are stationary and infect mobile hosts. Attachment to a mobile host can be achieved through nictation, which corresponds to the nematode standing on its tail, curling, and propelling itself in the air. Cruiser nematodes disperse in the soil and locate sedentary hosts. Nematodes with intermediate strategies can ambush or disperse depending on the soil matrix and host

Nematodes and insects probably have influenced the shape of each other’s evolution from as early as the Devonian (409 million years ago). Over the course of their shared history, nematodes have established many different types of associations with insects.
2.1 Evolution and Types of Insect–Nematode Associations
The majority of nematodes associated with insects (Rhabditida, in particular) are not true parasites, but have established only phoretic relationships. These phoretic nematodes usually are referred to as insect “associates.” Nematodes in phoretic relationships with insects usually rely on their host to transport them to food resources or improve their chances of finding a mate (or both) (Adams and Nguyen, 2008). Bacterial feeding soil nematodes often are found associated with insect cadavers and incorrectly inferred to be contributing factors to insect pathology. However, it has been proposed that nematode parasitism in some groups may have been initiated by necrogenous nematodes. Early stages in the evolution of insect parasitism may have involved necrogeny (feeding and reproducing on the bacteria of decaying insect cadavers). The association with decaying environments or insect cadavers may have become successively more intimate, as the nematodes began to utilize other saprophagous insects for transportation to new sources of food. Eventually, the nematodes could have changed from being passengers to parasites, invading and feeding on the tissues of their hosts.

Nematodes and insects probably have influenced the shape of each other’s evolution from as early as the Devonian (409 million years ago). Over the course of their shared history, nematodes have established many different types of associations with insects.
2.1 Evolution and Types of Insect–Nematode Associations
The majority of nematodes associated with insects (Rhabditida, in particular) are not true parasites, but have established only phoretic relationships. These phoretic nematodes usually are referred to as insect “associates.” Nematodes in phoretic relationships with insects usually rely on their host to transport them to food resources or improve their chances of finding a mate (or both) (Adams and Nguyen, 2008). Bacterial feeding soil nematodes often are found associated with insect cadavers and incorrectly inferred to be contributing factors to insect pathology. However, it has been proposed that nematode parasitism in some groups may have been initiated by necrogenous nematodes. Early stages in the evolution of insect parasitism may have involved necrogeny (feeding and reproducing on the bacteria of decaying insect cadavers). The association with decaying environments or insect cadavers may have become successively more intimate, as the nematodes began to utilize other saprophagous insects for transportation to new sources of food. Eventually, the nematodes could have changed from being passengers to parasites, invading and feeding on the tissues of their hosts.
i. Facultative Parasitism: Nematodes that are facultative parasites can infect a healthy insect and receive nourishment at the expense of its host, yet retain the ability to complete its life cycle independent of its

Nematode associated with insects are referred as entomophilic, entomogenous and entomophagous nematodes. Generally they belong to the superfamilies Tylenchoidea, Rhadbitoidea, Oxyuroidea and Mermithoidea of the phylum Nematoda.

Nature of parasitism

Christie (1914) divided the nematodes associated with invertebrates into three groups.

• Those nematodes which live in the alimentary tract of he invertebrates.
• Those nematodes which are more or less closely related to free living species and often have a combination of saprophagous and parasitic habits.
• Those nematodes which parasitizes the body cavity or tissue of their host.

Entomophilic nematodes are group of parasites that cause debilitation, sterility or death of insects. Entomophilic nematodes vary greatly in size and shape having the insects as intermediate or as definite hosts. Many group of insects are parasitised by nematodes.

Nematode associated with insects are referred as entomophilic, entomogenous and entomophagous nematodes. Generally they belong to the superfamilies Tylenchoidea, Rhadbitoidea, Oxyuroidea and Mermithoidea of the phylum Nematoda.

Livestock sector is an important subsector of the agriculture of Indian economy. It forms an important livelihood activity for most of the farmers, supporting agriculture in the form of critical inputs, contributing to the household, supplementing incomes, offering employment opportunities, and finally it acts as a supplementary and complementary enterprise. Livestock plays a vital role in the economic development of the country. Livestock Sector has continuously been growing and contributed 4.90% (at constant prices) of total GVA (Gross Value Added) in 2020-21 (Annual Report, 2021-2022). India ranks first among the world’s milk producing nations, achieving an annual production of 230.58 million tonnes of milk and with per capita availability of 459 gms/day during the year 2022-23 (Annual Report, 2022-2023). In India, livestock population includes cattle (193.46 million), buffalo (109.85 million), sheep (74.26 million) and goat (148.88 million) (20 th Livestock Census, 2019). The rapidly expanding demand for livestock products offers an opportunity as well as a challenge to livestock production. The livestock sector is moving towards specialization with the increasing involvement

Entrepreneur is a person who takes the responsibility of initiating and establishing an enterprise or an organisation under conditions of uncertainty.

Some of the essential qualities of entrepreneurs are as follows

1. Creativity
2. Passion
3. Motivation
4. Product or service knowledge
5. Ability to network
6. Self-confidence
7. Optimism
8. Vision
9. Goal mindset
10. Risk-taking
11. Persuasiveness
12. Decision-making
13. Tenacity
14. Money management
15. Adaptability

Introduction

India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of turmeric in the world. Indian turmeric is considered to be the best in the world market because of its high curcumin content. India accounts for about 80 per cent of world turmeric production and 60 per cent of world exports. Major turmeric exporting countries are India, Thailand, Taiwan, and several other Southeast Asian, Central and Latin American countries. The major turmeric importing countries include Japan, Sri Lanka, Iran, UAE, US, UK and Ethiopia.

Turmeric is native of India and china. The word turmeric is derived from the French word ‘Terre-merite’ meaning merit of the earth. Its botanical name is Curcuma longa L. and belongs to family Zingeberaceae, it is also known as ‘Indian Saffron’ is an herbaceous perennial plant growing up to the height of 60 – 90 cm with short stem. The plant is propagated from rhizomes. The leaves are long, broad lanceolate and bright green. The flowers are pale yellow and born on dense spikes. The pseudo stem are shorter than leaves. The rhizomes were ready for harvesting about 7 to 9 months after planting.

India is popularly known as the “Spiced Bowl of the World” as a wide variety of spices with premium quality grown in a country since ancient times. Indian turmeric is considered to be the best in the world due to presence of high curcumine content. Turmeric contains up to 5.00 per cent essential oil and up to 5.00 per cent curcumine, a polyphenol.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship has become a major driver of economic development in recent years. It involves starting new businesses or revitalizing existing ones, often through recognizing and seizing new opportunities. Entrepreneurs are individuals who organize, manage, and take on the risks of a business venture with the aim of making a profit. They identify market opportunities and introduce new technologies and organizational improvements. Entrepreneurs constantly innovate and create value from these opportunities. According to Hisrich (1990), entrepreneurs are proactive and creative individuals who can organize resources and manage risks and failures to succeed.

To grow as an entrepreneur, it is essential to develop and refine key entrepreneurial traits. These traits shape an entrepreneur’s skills and abilities, aligning with their motivations and guiding them to drive their business forward. Entrepreneurial characteristics are a mix of personal, social, and environmental factors that influence a business ecosystem. These traits play a key role in shaping a company’s goals and strategies, ultimately affecting its performance.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship plays a vital role in ensuring our country’s economy as well as social welfare. Entrepreneurs are considered national assets to be motivated, cultivated and remunerated for the greatest possible outcome. It is a fact that our societies today give importance to entrepreneurship and have higher income levels, and are self-reliable. Entrepreneurs have the highest potential to change the way how people work and live on a local and national level. Along with the creation of wealth and entrepreneurial projects, entrepreneurs have the ability to create jobs and employment opportunities which will contribute to the growing economy of India. These reasons it signifies the importance of entrepreneurship. In the current era of science and technology, many youths are not afraid to try out their idea, talents, skills and knowledge to become an entrepreneur. The present entrepreneurs are well established with the recent technologies and are prone to the effects of changes. The majority of society has access to the internet, and the youth are reintegrating their technological powers into their passion for bringing changes into society with entrepreneurship. India is facing a major issue regarding employment generation; however, with its rich, resourceful, distinctive geographic and demographic advantage, it has a major prospective to raise and innovate the entrepreneurs resulting in employment generation and hence contributing to the nation’s economy. 

Entrepreneurial climate depends on the existing economic system. Existing social and political establishment and existing economic policies of Government determine the economic system. Entrepreneurial development is largely due to the existence of this economic system. Business development functioning as a new component, economic structure and economic transformation. The economic system varies from country to country, so the business development process varies.

The term entrepreneur is derived from the French word entreprendre, which translates to “to undertake. “In the context of business, this refers to the initiation of a business. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, an entrepreneur is defined as an individual who organizes, directs, and takes risks in a business or enterprise. An entrepreneur can be described as “a person who establishes, organizes, and directs any enterprise, particularly a business, typically involving significant initiative and risk. “ Peter F. Drucker (1985) characterizes an entrepreneur as a person who continuously seeks change, responds to it, and leverages it as an opportunity. Innovation serves as a unique tool for entrepreneurs, enabling them to perceive change as an opportunity for launching another business or service. An entrepreneur is often regarded as an innovator – a creator of new ideas and business processes. Essential leadership skills and effective team-building abilities are frequently considered crucial traits for successful entrepreneurs. Economist Robert Reich (2002) regards leadership, management skills, and team building as vital attributes of an entrepreneur. The realm of entrepreneurship is influenced by a variety of combinations of socio-economic, psychological, cultural, and additional factors, including caste/religion, family background, educational level, level of insight, professional experience, migration capabilities, entrepreneurial spirit, nature of the business, investment capacity, and ambition/moderation. Entrepreneurship is often defined as “the ability and desire to develop, organize, and manage business activities and associated risks for profit”.

Abstract

Entrepreneurial training was offered to village women in the field of agriculture especially for women members of Self Help Groups. These women were trained in the production, utilization and marketing of Bio dung compost and vermicompost from agricultural wastes. They were also trained in the production, utilization and marketing of vermiwash (a liquid foliar spray), Panchagavya, biopesticides and herbal pest repellents using locally available plant materials. An attempt was also made to educate the people on the importance of food and nutrition through diet counselling and the importance of nutrient (kitchen) gardens. They were trained about Circular (Ring) Gardens and Double Digging gardens. The women were given these trainings as part of converting them from dependence on chemicals in agriculture to organic farming. There was overwhelming response, and the women now use these agricultural products in their own fields.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship refers to the capability and willingness to develop, establish and run an enterprise and manage uncertainties to profit. It can also be defined as a process concerned with the creation and extraction of economic value. Entrepreneurship is more than just starting a business purely to make money. The person who bears the risk of starting a new enterprise is an entrepreneur. In this chapter, we will discuss entrepreneurship and its development in detail.

Entrepreneurship development is a process involving several phases and steps. The process has been viewed at the level of individual-developing entrepreneurial quality in an individual and the group of community-creating an environment in which entrepreneurship activities can grow.

Pandemic brought in tough times, especially for different business sectors. However, the floriculture business was one such sector that people embraced, especially in India. In the current scenario, the floriculture industry in India has emerged as a huge trend setter and a survivor, albeit with a drop in earnings and the convenience of working from home. Flower Market report summarizes top key players overview as Syngenta, Floret Flowers, among others. The Indian economy has been starved of sustainable ideas, especially when the outbreak of COVID-19 saw the loss of jobs and the reverse migration of rural people. The floriculture business provided a vast opportunity that involves specific technical know-how and provided flower and allied business as a medium to earn income and generate opportunity for others.

According to a recent study, over 94% of new businesses fail during first year of operation. Lack of funding turns to be one of the common reasons. Money is the bloodline of any business. The long painstaking yet exciting journey from the idea generation to revenue generating business needs a fuel named capital. That’s why, at almost every stage of the business, entrepreneurs find themselves asking – How do I finance my startup?

Now, when an entrepreneur require funding depends largely on the nature and type of the business. Here is a comprehensive list of funding options for startups that will help the entrepreneur to raise capital for business.

Abstract

Peri-urban horticulture is fast catching on as a viable business proposition. Participation of women is envisaged as a significant input in such an enterprise. Tissue culture propagation or ‘’Micro propagation’ is a good candidate in this context among several biotechnologies available today. Micro propagation as a means of rapidly multiplying plants in a relatively small space irrespective of the season of the year has steadily gained popularity. Planting material in horticultural crops like banana and several other vegetatively propagated crops like ornamentals is in perpetual demand and can be met economically if women launched micro propagation as a peri-urban cottage industry. As against low rates of multiplication with conventional technologies, it is possible to raise thousands of propagules from a single starter-culture in a year’s time using newer technologies. Details of setting up the industry on a home-scale and participation of women in peri-urban areas in this enterprise are discussed in this plenary talk.

Introduction

The term horticulture first appeared in English literature in 1678 in the treatise “The New World of English” authored by E. Phillips in London. In ancient scriptures, the garden is mentioned in Vatsayan. During the ancient period, gardens were the sole means of recreation, leisure, and pleasure. The planting of trees was undertaken for the purpose of shade, shelter, and fruits. It is quoted the queen of Raja Dashrath made a question that “What is the meaning of planting trees and garden”. Raja Dasharath responds that “the very meaning of planting trees and taking fruit plantation is the shade and fruits to the passersby”

Horticulture accounts for about 30% of India’s GDP from 13.08% of the cropped area. It stands for about 37.1% of the total export of agricultural commodities. The country shares about 13.6% of the fruit production and 14% of vegetable production (Indian Hortic Database, 2014). Horticulture shares for more than 33% of agricultural production. The horticultural production touched the mark of 300.64 million tonne during 2016–2017 which marks the sixth straight year horticultural production outstripping that of food grain production estimated at 276 million tonne in 2016–2017. It stands witness to structural changes in Indian agriculture in which the farmers have increasingly adopted the cultivation of commercial horticultural crops due to increasing market demand and quicker cash flow.

Introduction

Consumption of milk is deeply rooted in our traditions, and it is an inevitable part of the Indian diet and even has ritualistic and medicinal uses. Milk is the first and one among the most nutritious foods that every mammal consumes on earth. It supplies all the nutrients needed to ensure proper growth and development in the postnatal period. Dairy foods in general are commonly considered balanced and nutritive, being frequently included as important components of a healthy diet (Pereira, 2014). Four components of milk are dominant in quantitative terms: water, fat, protein and lactose; while the minor components are minerals, enzymes, vitamins, and dissolved gases (Guetouache et al., 2014). On an average, bovine milk is composed of 87% water, 4 to 5% lactose, 3% protein, 3 to 4% fat, 0.8% minerals, and 0.1% vitamins. Milk and milk products contribute not only nourishment to the consumers, but also livelihood opportunities to farmers, processors, shopkeepers and other stakeholders in the dairy value chain.

Introduction

Rice is the major staple food for more than 70 percent of the Indian population. India cultivates more than 4,000 varieties and hybrids of rice to cater to varied consumer preferences. A portion of the total cultivated rice is also used for processed products like snacks, savouries and bakery items. India was the largest exporter of rice in 2015-16 followed by Thailand, Vietnam and Pakistan. Rice production forecast is higher at 105 MMT in 2016/17 compared to 2015/16 production of 103 MMT (India Grain and Feed Annual, 2016). Rice milling is the oldest and the leading agro processing industry of the country. Paddy grain is milled either in raw condition or after parboiling, mostly by single hullers of which over 82,000 are registered in the country. Further, over the years, there has been a steady growth of improved rice mills in the country. Most of these have capacities ranging from 2 tons /hr to 10 tons/ hour. At present, it has a turnover of more than 25,500 crore per annum. It processes about 85 million tons of paddy per year and provides staple food grain and other valuable products required by over 60% of the population. Though, rice milling is a wide spread business undertaken in India, commercializing value added products is now gaining customer attraction paving way to merge milling and value addition under a single roof. The desirability of the working population to get foods, particularly rice based products in RTE and RTC forms has thrown a positive approach to new and emerging entrepreneurs to take up a venture in commencing rice based food processing industry.

Introduction

India ranks second in global silk production next to China and first in raw silk and silk fabrics consumption, accounting for 70% with a production of 34,923MT in 2021-22. In total silk production traditional crossbreed silkworms contribute 3/4th and 1/4th bivoltine breed (CSB reports). An important strategy for creating jobs and offering a variety of entrepreneurial prospects for rural development is sericulture, which has a solid agricultural foundation. Sericulture is comprised of both agro-based and industry-based activities.

The SCSP training programme on biofloc-based fish farming in Manipur aimed to promote entrepreneurship in fish farming by providing training on modern and innovative techniques. The training programme was sponsored by MANAGE, Hyderabad, and was conducted by two organisations in Manipur: AOC Manipur and Green Biotech Ecosolutions Pvt. Ltd. The programme was held over a period of three days at Khurkhul Village, Imphal West, Manipur. The programme focused on biofloc-based fish farming, which is an innovative and sustainable method of fish farming that uses microbial flocs as a source of nutrition for fish.

Introduction

In an era of liberalization of world trade where there is a continuous inflow and outflow of goods into and from a country, the need for developing competitiveness to sustain in global markets is extremely important. Technological progress and scientific advancements go hand in hand for the economic growth of a country and the Global Competitiveness index (GCI) which was revised in 2006 includes several factors such as institutions, infrastructure, health, primary and higher education, business sophistication, innovation, training etc. of nations to categorize them on the basis of competitiveness (Baig, 2006). Successful entrepreneurship development is a primary driver for the sustainable economic progress of any nation. The term ‘entrepreneurship’ has been defined by Cole (1968) as ‘“Entrepreneurship is the purposeful activities of an individual or a group of associated individuals undertaken to initiate, maintain or organize a profit oriented business unit for the production or distribution of economic goods and services”. An entrepreneur is an enthusiastic individual committed to bring change in the society through the successful implementation of innovative ideas. However, bringing together a package of resources by an entrepreneur for effective transformation into a profitable venture may require inputs from several institutions such as research and development sectors, financing organizations, and training and education providers. The role of R & D institutions in providing innovative technologies having commercial value and the requisite capacity building for prospective entrepreneurs is of prime significance. In this context, ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute under the aegis of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi is a premier research organization dedicated to the research and development of tropical tuber crops and has developed a plethora of technologies for the processing and value addition of tuber crops.

Introduction

To provide a good standard of living, food and eco-friendly natural resources are essential. It is commonly acknowledged that in the current situation, attention must be given to sustainable development, conservation, and management of natural resources if we are to ensure the future of food, living, and ecological security. By the end of the twenty-first century, it’s predicted that there will be 8 billion people on the planet, which means that 120 million tonnes of food will be needed to feed everyone (Gill et al., 2009). By the year 2050, there is expected to be a 60% global increase in food demand and a 100% increase in developing countries.

ABSTRACT

The ancient fruit “Jackfruit” is one of the most remunerative and important underutilized native fruits of India. It is extremely versatile sweet tasting fruit and vegetable rich in nutritional value. Modern technologies are evolved for the development of value-added products from jackfruit is studied in the present study. To prevent from post-harvest losses the wine production from jackfruit juice which is a very good substrate for fermentationcan be done at larger scale. Popularity of jackfruit from the limited regions can be explored over the country. There is a good scope and possibility of marketing the value added products in the country. Value addition is carried out by minimal processing by changing its form to a valuable product having more shelf life. The developed products enhance good income opportunities for farmers and also entrepreneurship opportunities for small and medium enterprises for the popularization of jackfruit to a wider region.

Keyword: Jack Fruit, Value Addition, entrepreneurial opportunities.

Abstract

This paper is rooted in the issue of the failure of Green Revolution which was intended to achieve self-sufficiency in the agriculturally dominant country of India, following its independence. However five decades later, the current focus of the country is on engaging in a sustainable and economically feasible agricultural practice using principles of agro ecology. This paper tries to explore the potential of application of organic farming in a vast country like India. The author posits that organic farming can help India reverse the damage caused by Green Revolution by allowing for natural methods of agriculture rather than a severely mechanical form. This paper focuses on the modern concept of organic farming combining tradition, science and innovation, and the debatable issues surrounding organic farming particularly dealing with its economic feasibility and sustainability prospects. It is acknowledged that for the successful implementation of organic farming there has to be appropriate matching of the supply and demands the organic products. However, there is a need to address the challenge of adoption of organic farming in a diverse country like India because of its huge variance in education, income, living standards and health of the existing and potential consumers. The prospect of organic farming is discussed from the perspective of consumer awareness and state initiatives, in this paper.

ESTIMATED DAIRY PROJECT OF 12 CROSS-BREED CATTLE FOR 5 YEARS

Dept. of Veterinary & A.H. Extension Education

West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences

Mohanpur, Dist-Nadia, West Bengal, India

Introduction

Agriculture plays a significant role in the economic development of rural networks in India and constitutes a substantial proportion of the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP). Despite experiencing a decline in its GDP share, the agricultural sector in India continues to hold significant importance due to its modernisation efforts, which have led to a substantial boost in government GDP. In the present scenario, there is an urgent requirement for a modification in the agricultural framework within the legislative body to effectively address the challenges encountered by rural areas amidst the evolving domestic and global financial environment.

7.1. Introduction
Entrepreneurs serve as the catalysts for the introduction of innovative technologies and systems that ultimately lead to societal advancements. These innovations are linked to enhanced lifestyles, progressive thinking, morale, and bravery, along with an improved standard of living. National and global changes are greatly influenced by such kinds of social change. Joseph Schumpeter, an Australian famous economist, is referred to as the father of entrepreneurship. Dhirubhai Ambani was the most enterprising Indian entrepreneur. Jamsetji Tata set a bar for entrepreneurship development in India with the foundation of the Tata group. The father of entrepreneurship in India is Ratan Tata. In public health, nutrition-based entrepreneurship and self-employment are also another emerging topic nowadays. Several entrepreneurs are found in this field mostly due to the challenge of building a business and craving to control their destiny. Not only that, financial independence, personal satisfaction, relief from the frustration of working for someone else, and the opportunity to create the desired lifestyle. Nutrition entrepreneurship offers numerous business-related resources and provides services for social well-being. As for example, the transformation of raw food ingredients into consumable food products, entrepreneurship plays a key role in diversifying and commercializing agricultural products. It adds value of food, prolongs its shelf life, promotes the export of processed items, generates employment opportunities, boosts farmers’ earnings, and makes a significant contribution to the general development of rural areas. Health entrepreneurs like nutritionists, dietitians, physicians, and health counsellors run their practice and make it available for the client to listen to their problems and solve their problems through mental support, motivation, diet therapy, medication, and so on. As a result, the health burdens due to noncommunicable and communicable diseases are reduced.

Entrepreneur
The term “entrepreneur” originates from the French word meaning “to undertake” or “to do something.” It was first introduced by Richard Cantillon in 1755, who described an entrepreneur as an agent who procures factor services at fixed prices with the aim of selling the resulting product at uncertain future prices. Joseph Schumpeter later expanded the concept, portraying the entrepreneur as an innovator who fosters economic development by introducing new products, discovering new markets, sourcing raw materials, and establishing novel organizational structures within industries. Schumpeter emphasized profit as the outcome of innovation and a driving force behind economic growth.
Entrepreneurship
Arthur Cole defined entrepreneurship as a deliberate activity undertaken by an individual or a group to initiate, sustain, and enhance profit through the production or distribution of economic goods and services. Entrepreneurship also encompasses the ability to foresee investment and production opportunities, organize and manage enterprises to adopt new production methods, secure capital, hire labor, arrange raw material supply, identify suitable locations, implement innovative techniques, discover new resources, and appoint top-level managers for the daily operations of the business.
Successful Entrepreneurs’ Characteristic Features
Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD), New Delhi, describes an entrepreneur as an individual who blends innovation, risk-taking ability, the capacity to recognize opportunities, the skill to mobilize resources, a drive for excellence, and persistent dedication to achieving goals.

A large portion of India’s population lives in the villages where still against many odds smaller units of village industry sector are struggling for survival. Abject poverty, no year round employment avenues, poor access to basic infrastructure, market, illiteracy and small holdings are few among tangible features of rural India. Desai (2007) has high lighted that poor infrastructural facilities in rural segments has been one of the factor holding back rural industrilisation in India.

On the other hand with liberalisation and globalisation of economy and the removal of quantitative restrictions the khadi & village industries including agro based industries are facing stiff competition. The situation has ultimately resulted in continuous migration of unemployed rural youth to nearby urban areas. Very few among immigrated rural youth are getting absorbed due to mechanisation in urban industries, leaving others in distress. Gopu (2007) viewed that unbridled growth of industries in urban areas has accented the regional disparities in India. Despite planned industrialisation efforts in the country agriculture remains largest industry or major occupation providing employment to 65 per cent of rural work force. In this, situation, expansion of rural industrialisation can play a vital role in abating distress migration and create employment opportunities to rural youth.

Abstract

Empowerment strategy is today emerging as a unique Indian response to the challenge of equality and development. As per the population census, women constitute more than 50 percent of total population, but rural farm women are the most deprived in today’s world.  Farm women are poorest among poor. Even though they work the longest hours on farm and have achieved more with lesser resources, they are not recognized and appreciated for their contribution. In India 78 percent of all economically active women are engaged in agriculture. Almost 50 percent of rural female workers are agricultural labourers and 37 percent are cultivators. The rural poor also demand development through creating income generating activities for women in rural areas. Women empowerment gained momentum after independence through different governmental programmes such as education, creating income, self help groups, subsidy programs to women etc. Women can derive income from subsidiary enterprises such as dairy, duckry, poultry, etc., and preparation of vermi-compost, vegetable cultivation, preparation of jam, jellies, papads, pickles, embroidery, tailoring, honey bee keeping, kitchen garden, value addition and food processing etc.

A one -day SCSP training program was organised by Mitraniketan Krishi Vigyan Kendra (ICAR), Kerala on 17 December 2021. The training theme was “Market opportunities for value-added Fish Products.” 4 male and 46 female participants participated in the training program. The training was taken at KVK, Mitaraniketan, Kerala.

The sessions were oriented towards theory and practice. The training modules and session topics delivered on various value-added fishery products were arranged for the beneficiaries to transfer their expertise in fishery products and equip them to establish entrepreneurship in fish and fishery products and market the fishery products. In addition to providing financial support for women, the programme would also help pregnant women and adolescent girls with their nutritional needs

Introduction

Entrepreneurship, known for its ability to drive innovation, economic development, and societal change, is a dynamic force that plays a crucial role in global advancement. However, the path of an entrepreneur is not a straightforward journey from concept to achievement. Instead, it is a complex process influenced by numerous factors, which together form the entrepreneurship development cycle. Gaining a deep understanding of this cycle, along with the entrepreneurial environment and the challenges entrepreneurs face, is essential for cultivating a thriving entrepreneurial ecosystem.

The entrepreneurship development cycle refers to the various stages that entrepreneurs go through as they turn ideas into successful ventures. The cycle starts with ideation, where entrepreneurs identify opportunities and develop innovative solutions to address unmet market needs or problems. This is followed by a feasibility assessment, during which entrepreneurs assess the potential of their ideas, considering market demand, competition, and the resources needed. After confirming the viability of their concepts, entrepreneurs move on to resource acquisition, gathering the capital, talent, and infrastructure necessary to bring their ideas to life. The subsequent phases include launching the venture, establishing a market presence, and pursuing growth through strategic decision-making and adaptability to shifting market conditions.

2.1 Introduction

Women entrepreneurs may be defined as the women or a group of women who take initiative to set up a business enterprise and to run it smoothly. According to Government of India, women entrepreneur is defined as an enterprise owned and controlled by a women and having a minimum financial interest of 51 per cent of the employment generated in the enterprise to women. Women entrepreneur are those women those women who generate business ideas or select the best opportunity, mobilize resources, combine the factors of production, undertake risks and operate the enterprise in the most effective manner with a view to earning profit.

The verb empower means to bestow power. Empowerment of women implies creating conditions for enabling the women to be motivated for task accomplishment by taking personal responsibility. In the context of empowerment through enterprise, empowerment of women involves access to resources and markets, actual ownership and active control. These factors act as the bullwork for empowering women through enterprise.

“The reasonable man adapts himself to the world. The unreasonable man tries to adapt the world to himself. Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable man.”     
- George Bernard Shaw

Generating productive and sustainable employment for growing populations is a challenge faced by many developing countries in Asia. In India, the daunting numbers further compounds the task. Approximately 65% of the country’s billion plus population is below the age of 45. The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007) has estimated that India’s labour force will increase faster than the ability of the economy to create new working opportunities. The average growth rate of employment in India, which stayed above 2% per annum during the 80s and the early part of the 90s, fell to only 1.1% in the late 90s. The country is adding 2 million young people to the ranks of the unemployed every year. The Plan document estimates that open unemployment could be as high as 5% at the end of the Tenth Plan period, from 2.8% at present. This is likely to entail tremendous costs, including social unrest and isolation. India’s planners have set the country a goal to create 100 million employment opportunities over the next 10 years.

Agriculture is the main stay for majority for people in India for their livelihood as 55 per cent of population depends directly or indirectly depends on the agriculture. The farmers still follow the traditional farming system and practices. Food grain crops are dominating in the cropping pattern. The share of commercial crops in cropping pattern though rising is not significant. The condition of the farmers is such that they have lost interest in farming. The new generation has no interest and is away from farming. The new generation does not consider farming as profession and they treat it is traditional activities and family tradition. The present generation thinks that the farming system is not capable to provide a life, therefore, they are diverting from agriculture to other profession. The major problem for rural youth is non-availability of self-employment options except farming in Rural India. Therefore, rural youth are either migrating to urban area or becoming the causal labor.
 
In order to keep the rural youth in agriculture, there is dire need to create the employment opportunities in rural area. In rural area, agriculture is the major primary source of employment. In such condition, development of agriculture based entrepreneurship is the best option to keep the rural youth in agriculture. A number of agriculture based enterprises can be promoted. By introducing elements of entrepreneurship in farm business, the farming community will be able to combine land, labour and capital in right proportions.

The concept of entrepreneurship has a wide range of meanings. On one extreme, an entrepreneur is a person of very high aptitude who pioneers change, possessing characteristics found in only a very small fraction of the population. On the other extreme of definitions, anyone who wants to work for himself or herself is considered to be an entrepreneur. The word entrepreneur originates from the French word, entreprendre, which means “to undertake.” In a business context, it means to start a business. The Merriarn-Webster Dictionary presents the definition of an entrepreneur as one who organizes, manages, and assumes the risks of a business or enterprise.

Many research studies have contributed to the literature on characteristics of entrepreneurs. Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter’s definition of entrepreneurship placed an emphasis on innovation, such as new products, new production methods, new markets and new forms of organization. Wealth is created when such innovation results in new demand. From this viewpoint, one can define the function of the entrepreneur as one of combining various input factors in an innovative manner to generate value to the customer with the hope that this value will exceed the cost of the input factors, thus generating superior returns that result in the creation of wealth. From an economist’s point of view, an entrepreneur is one who brings resources, labour, materials and other assets into combinations that make their value greater than before.

Introduction

India is the largest consumer and second largest producer of sugar in the world next to Brazil. Among the sugar yielding crops like sugarcane, sugar beet, palms and sorghum, sugarcane is the second most important agro-industrial crop of the country. It is the only raw material for nearly 538 sugar mills (2014-15), producing about 28 million mt of sugar annually from a sugarcane production of 366 million tons in an area of 5.307 mh. Apart from this, it is the predominant source of potable alcohol, industrial alcohol and fuel-ethanol. In India, 35 million farmers are engaged in sugarcane cultivation and another 50 million depend on employment generated by these 538 sugar factories and other related industries using sugar. Sugarcane occupies a very prominent position in the agricultural crops of India covering large areas in UP, Punjab, Haryana and Bihar (sub tropical) and Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu (tropical). On an average, white sugar production accounts for 74% of total cane produced, 14-15% is utilized for jaggery and khandsari production and the rest is utilized for other purposes including seed.

Jaggery and khandsari, the traditional Indian sweeteners are the natural mixture of sugar and molasses. If pure clarified sugarcane juice is boiled, what is left as solid is jaggery, which contains 65-85% sucrose. Khandsari sugar is a finely granulated and crystallized which contains 94 to 98% sucrose. In the early 1930’s, nearly 2/3rd of sugarcane production was utilized to manufacture these two alternate sweeteners. With the introduction of sugar mills and their multiple growth and better standard of living and higher per capita income, the demand for sweetener has shifted to white sugar which contains purely sucrose (99.7%).

Introduction
Bakery industry is one of the largest segments in the food processing sector in India. The bakery industry offers huge opportunities for growth, innovation, and job generation. This industry is separated into three categories such as bread, biscuits, cakes and pastries. The global bakery industry reached a market value of Rs. 42.07 lakh crore in 2024 and around 1.2 lakh crore from the Indian market as India is the second largest producer of biscuits after the USA. Thus, India is a key player internationally and with the entrepreneurial spirit of Indian companies and individuals. Thus, bakery sector is one of the most sustainable business opportunities. Changing consumer habits, increased urbanization, improved standards of living, convenience needs of dual income families and lifestyle are shaping the bakery industry in India. Part of a global trend, there is greater demand for healthier products and alternatives, particularly when it comes to bakery products which are now more commonly consumed daily as compared to being considered as a treat in the olden days. With high consumption rates, consumers are demanding healthy options in bakery products seeking for gluten-free products or goods made with alternative ingredients such as multigrain or whole-wheat flour. Other than healthier options, most of the youths and children are demanding for new flavours, Fibre dense products and rich experiences, making diversified innovations. The industry is consolidating this demand by strengthening bakery products with the aim of satisfying a rapidly growing appetite and creating awareness among consumers with health concepts and nutritional value. While there is a demand and appetite for bakery products in both urban and rural areas, and thus, recently the bakery segment has increasingly matured to a great extent. The industry is generally divided into organised and unorganised, with more than 2,000 organised or semi-organised bakeries and more than 1,000,000 unorganised bakeries. However, the Indian bakery industry faces certain challenges. Operational efficiency is a major issue in the industry, as is the lack of technology and skilled workers. Bakery products due to high nutrient value and affordability, are an item of huge consumption. Due to the rapid population rise, the rising foreign influence, the emergence of a female working population and the fluctuating eating habits of people, they have gained popularity among people, contributing significantly to the growth trajectory of the bakery industry.

The term institutional support refers to provision of economic and social environment for industry and business. Institutional supports are needed in all the three stages of promotion of any entrepreneur i.e. inception stage, operational stage and expansion or diversification stage. It helps in creating awareness, capacity building, hand holding, incubation, mentorship etc. by means of financial support and policy advice. There are three dimensions of Institutional support, viz. Central Government, State Government and Non- government support system.
Central Government institutions providing support for entrepreneurship
development
a) Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
Here are some key institutions under the Ministry of MSME working towards entrepreneurship.
1. Coir Board
Established in 1954under coir industry act 1954
Location: Kochi
Objectives
• Promotes the coir (Coconut) industry and supports coir-based products.
• Provides training, research, and development support.
2. The Small-Scale Industries Board
• It is an advisory body in India aimed at promoting and supporting small-scale industries (SSIs). Year of Establishment: 1954.
• Location: New Delhi
Objectives
• Advise the government on policies related to the development and promotion of small-scale industries.

Abstract
Rural women in India play a pivotal role in economic development, particularly through their significant contributions to dairy farming, a key enterprise in rural economies. Despite their extensive involvement in dairy activities such as fodder collection, milking, and animal care, their labour often remains non-monetized, limiting economic empowerment. Dairy farming, bolstered by initiatives like Operation Flood, has made India the world’s largest milk producer, offering profitable opportunities for rural women. Entrepreneurship in dairy farming can economically empower women, granting them decision-making autonomy and social recognition. Government schemes, NGOs, and institutions like KVKs facilitate this through training, formation of Women Dairy Cooperatives, and Self-Help Groups. Success stories from Chittoor, Jajpur, and Valsad highlight women leveraging dairy enterprises for financial independence and community inspiration. Promoting women’s entrepreneurship in dairy farming through skill development and market access is crucial for their socio-economic upliftment.
Keywords: Rural Women, Dairy Farming, Entrepreneurship, Economic Empowerment, Women Dairy Cooperatives, Self-Help Groups, Operation Flood, Socio-Economic Development, Milk Production, Skill Development

Similarity between an entrepreneur and a self-employed person is that they both own a business, but self-employment means working for oneself as an independent owner of the business rather than being employed. Majority of business owners fall under the category of self-employed. They begin with a skill or particular set of skills and find that the opportunity to make money arises.
An entrepreneur is a self-employed person having additional attributes of undertaking challenges and moderate risk-taking behaviour to achieve his/her goals. Entrepreneur is a person who organizes and operates a business taking on extraordinary financial risks in order to do so and has a growth orientation. Entrepreneurship is all about risks and rewards. Entrepreneurs think outside the box for the best ways to succeed and move on to their next venture. While the businesses might be of interest it is really the passion of the start-up and leading something to success that drives them every day. Often this can lead to selling the business or moving on to start a new one, once they have everything in place as they are always looking for challenges.
Income generation refers to activities undertaken for monetary returns and livelihood. Income generation is common to entrepreneurship, self-employment and income generation. Activities done for sustenance or low profit activities with minimal challenges are termed as income generation.
Phases of entrepreneurship development
There are three stages of establishing an enterprise:
1. Income generation: In the initial stage one tries to generate surplus or profit. This is done on part time or casual basis to supplement income e.g. a man with some surplus money might put his money in a fixed deposit account in a bank or a chit fund to earn some interest.
2. Self-employment: In the second stage an individual’s fulltime involvement is in his Bown occupation, e.g. a person who starts a general merchant or a grocery shop and s/he remains satisfied with it.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship is crucial for economic development, especially during crises when job losses push people to find alternative livelihoods, often turning to entrepreneurship as a means of survival. Its impact is highly beneficial, promoting growth, wealth creation, and better living standards. In developing countries like India, entrepreneurship offers a path to holistic development, particularly for disadvantaged groups traditionally dependent on agriculture. Uplaonkar and Biradar (2015) noted that entrepreneurship development effectively generates employment, increases income, reduces poverty, improves health, and ensures food and nutritional security. Recognizing the importance of entrepreneurship, stakeholders in the agricultural sector now see its positive impact on business sustainability. Verhees et al. (2011) argued that promoting entrepreneurship in agriculture can significantly reduce poverty and boost rural prosperity, directly addressing socio-economic challenges in rural areas (Bhooshan and Ranjith, 2022). Therefore, supporting the entrepreneurial ecosystem in rural sectors through programs and schemes is essential.

Abstract
Ornamental fish farming, or aquariculture, involves breeding and rearing colourful fish species in confined aquatic systems, gaining popularity as a stress-relieving hobby and a viable entrepreneurial venture. The global ornamental fish trade, valued at $18-20 billion, sees India contributing just 0.61% by quantity, despite its rich biodiversity, favourable climate, and low labour costs. States like West Bengal, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu lead in India, with 90% of exports from Kolkata, primarily sourced from the Northeast. Opportunities exist for breeders, growers, traders, and exporters, supported by institutions like SIDO, NSIC, and NIESBUD, which provide training and financial assistance. Challenges include limited infrastructure and awareness, but strategic focus on high-demand markets like the USA and Japan, improved breeding techniques, and proper water and health management can enhance India’s global competitiveness, fostering sustainable economic growth through entrepreneurship.
Keywords: Ornamental Fish Farming, Aquariculture, Entrepreneurship, Global Fish Trade, Biodiversity, India, Export Potential, Institutional Support, Sustainable Agriculture, Self-Employment

Introduction

Agriculture and livestock agribusiness techniques are assessed as the backbone of the Indian economy. Since the livelihood of the population depends on these traditions, the practice is more common in rural regions. Farm owners find it impossible to make a living with traditional farming methods, nevertheless, because of inflation. Integrated farming, a contemporary agricultural practice that increases production and resource effectiveness while lowering the threat to small-scale farming homeowners through crop diversity, is regarded as a sustainable farming approach.

Abstract

Forestry in India is very important for its wood, fuel and many non-wood products which were being used from ancient times by our forefathers for different personal and commercial use. Farmers face lots of problem in forestry because of its long gestation period, dependence on nature, bulkiness of outputs, season oriented production, perishable in nature, lack of processing centres for value addition at farm and intermediate levels, price fluctuation of forestry products, forced sale/distress sale of tree growers, low wage rate to workers in forestry activities and farmers in sufficient knowledge on market information. Establishment of institutional setup to promote forestry is urgent in the recent times.

Introduction

The word entrepreneur is derived from French word “Entreprendre” which means “To undertake”. Entrepreneur represents an individual or a group of individuals, who conceive, initiate and maintain for a sufficiently long period of time, a social institution which produces economic goods (Cole, 1949).

Mushrooms have always been viewed as high medicinal and nutritional food around the world as they are consumed as medicine in Asian countries; also their medical aspects are being researched upon (Halpern and Miller, 2002). The mushroom cultivation market is estimated to account for a value of USD 16.7 billion in 2020. World production increased to 43 MT in 2018-19 (Singh et al., 2020). China is the world’s leader in production, consumption and export of mushroom followed by USA, Netherlands and Poland. Mushroom market is expected to reach USD 69.3 bn by 2024 since the market is expected to record a healthy growth of 8.2 per cent (Harsh and Joshi, 2008).