eChapters

Objective: To extract and perform enzyme assay of polyphenol oxidase from plant.

Background information:

Polyphenol oxidase (PPO or monophenol monooxygenase or polyphenol oxidase I, chloroplastic) is a tetramer that contains four atoms of copper per molecule, and binding sites for two aromatic compounds and oxygen (www.worthington-biochem.com). The enzyme catalyses the o-hydroxylation of monophenol molecules in which the benzene ring contains a single hydroxyl substituent to o-diphenols (phenol molecules containing two hydroxyl substituents). It can also further catalyse the oxidation of o-diphenols to produce o-quinones.

PPO causes the rapid polymerization of o-quinones to produce black, brown or red pigments (polyphenols) that cause fruit browning. The amino acid tyrosine contains a single phenolic ring that may be oxidised by the action of PPOs to form o-quinone. Hence, PPOs are some time referred as tyrosinases (Mayer, 2006).

Jolley et al. (1974) referred to PPO as 4 electron-transferring phenol oxidase and oxygen. It is responsible for browning reactions throughout the phylogenetic scale.

Enzyme histochemistry constitutes a link between biochemistry and morphology (Hardonk et al., 1976) and provides important information complementary to conventional histology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology (Meier Ruge and Bruder 2008). It helps to detect any metabolic changes in tissues and thus can aid in disease diagnosis. It is based on the principal that, the substrates added to tissue are metabolized by enzyme and the reaction is visualized by an insoluble dye product. It is a very sensitive technique that detects even an early metabolic imbalance in the tissue. For example, alkaline phosphatase activity represents tissue barrier functions in brain capillaries, duodenal enterocyte and proximal kidney tubule brush borders and a decrease in enzyme activity will indicate some functional impairment. Similarly, an increase in lysosomal acid phosphatase activity is an early marker of ischemic tissue lesions and acetylcholinesterase enzyme histochemistry has been used for the diagnosis of Hirschsprung disease (Meier Ruge and Bruder, 2008). ATPase methods are used in combination to distinguish between type1 and type 2 muscle fibres and NADH diaphorase is used to detect very minor or early structural abnormality in the sarcoplasmic reticulum network of the fiber, as well as mitochondrial abnormalities eg. Mitochondrial myopathies (Sargaiyan and Bansal, 2014). It has been clearly shown that tumor tissue with high glycolytic activity is particularly resistant to radiotherapy (Mathupala et al., 2007). Enzyme histochemistry for dehydrogenase provides a quick, efficient and inexpensive orientation on the actual energy metabolism of a particular tumor and thus aid in therapeutic strategy (Nakagawa et al., 2002).
For the histoenzymic localization, fresh frozen unfixed tissues preferably 2 to 5 mm square size should be collected immediately after death/slaughtering of animals. Fixation in formalin will inactivate most of enzymes but formalin fixation is also employed to stop enzyme activity of lactic dehydrogenase and

Among various immunodiagnostic tools enzyme immunoassay becomes increasingly popular for the detection of humoral immune response (seroconversion) or microbial antigens for the purpose of diagnosis. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is widely used in studies of infectious diseases.Despite several merits of ELISA, it has some limitations such as requirement of ELISA reader to obtain accurate measurements. To overcome this, the dot immunobinding assay was developed .In Dot Immunoassay nitrocellulose membrane is used as an adsorbent matrix instead of plastic surface.The antigen is dotted onto the nitrocellulose membrane and the membrane then incubated with test antibody, and secondly with enzyme conjugated antibody directed against the first antibody.In case of positve
reaction, (specific antigen –antibody reaction) color dot is developed against the white background at the site of antigen deposition.In case of negative reaction, no color development takes place at the site of antigen deposition .
Principle
• In direct ELISA antibody is directly attached to solid phase and targeted by added antigen (detecting antigen).
• These added antigens are targeted by antispecies antibodies linked to enzyme termed as conjugates.
• The bound enzyme is developed by the addition of substrate /chromogen, then stopped and finally read using a spectrophotometer

Early and accurate diagnosis of disease is of prime importance for both the successful treatment of the patient and in limiting the spread of disease in the community. It is in this context that immunodiagnostic methods are now being used extensively since they can be extremely sensitive and highly specific. Among the most successful methods are those utilizing labelled antibodies or antigens. Examples of these are immunofluorescence in which antibodies labelled with fluorescent dyes are utilized and radioimmunoassay in which antigens or antibodies are labeled with isotopes. Both of these procedures have proved to be of great value for particular purposes.

Introduction

The entire living organism from the smaller creatures viruses to the advanced human beings are composed of a set up of biochemical reactions which form the metabolism. These set of metabolic reactions are responsible for the life of organism. The rate of these reactions is a major concern for effective working of organism which is governed by biocatalyst. These biocatalysts are known as enzymes, which accelerates rate of biochemical reaction. These are not utilized in reaction. In 1877, Wilhelm Friedrich Kuhne (Kuhne, 1877) proposed the term enzyme which means ‘in yeast’ and is derived from the Greek word; inzume “leavened” or “in yeast”. At the molecular level of study it is observed that enzymes are proteins which are functional as tertiary and quaratanary structures. Enzymes have active site for the binding to substrate. The active site has two positions; binding and catalytic site (Ogeston, 1948). The former help to bind the substrate with the enzyme followed by the catalysis of reaction by the catalytic site.

Introduction

During last four decade poultry has taken giant step and become corporate sector with double digit growth. Especially in India poultry play pivotal role in fight against malnutrition, unemployment and also contributing in women empowerment. In poultry production the biggest single expense is of feed, which accounting for 70% of total production cost per bird (Kumar et al., 2011). So, obviously more Research and Development focus and new innovative technology need to be implemented in poultry nutrition area. Since last 40 years, feed enzymes have played a major part in helping radically to improve the efficiency of meat and egg production by changing the nutritional profile of feed ingredients. 

Introduction

Billions of chemical reactions are happening inside human body and that too with lightning speed. However, the same reactions if carried out in laboratory, they take a very long time. The reasons behind it are the biocatalysts, also known as enzymes, which are synthesized by living cells. Chemically, they are proteins(except ribonucleic acids: RNA), colloidal in nature, thermo-labile in character and very specific in their action. For example, hydrolysis of proteins by a strong acid at 100°C takes a couple of days; but same proteins can be digested within couple of hours inside human body at 37°C. Similarly, carbonic anhydrase is used as a catalyst by living cells to transfer carbon-di-oxide from cells to blood. This process is 107 times quicker than the same process if occurs without the help of enzymes. Therefore, enzymes can be defined as the biomolecules or biocatalysts which can speed up the rate of the chemical reactions. The substance upon which an enzyme acts is called as substrate and the one which is produced as the result of enzyme-substrate reaction is known as product.

Enzymes are remarkable biological macromolecules that catalyze chemical reactions with extraordinary efficiency, playing an essential role in sustaining life. These large protein molecules and certain catalytic RNA molecules known as ribozymes accelerate reactions by lowering activation energy, enabling them to occur at rates necessary for biological processes. Their specificity is just as impressive as their speed as enzymes are often highly regioselective and, in many cases, absolutely stereospecific, traits that synthetic chemists strive to replicate. They are vital in metabolism, DNA replication, signal transduction, and cellular respiration, operating under mild physiological conditions. Factors such as temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and the presence of inhibitors or activators influence their activity. Given their significance, enzymes have garnered attention in fields like drug design, disease treatment, and industrial applications. The modern study of enzymes continues to provide groundbreaking insights into chemistry and biology, advancing both scientific understanding and human welfare. Brief History of Enzymes The existence of enzymes was first inferred when specific biochemical reactions were observed to occur only after the addition of cell extracts, even though the enzymes themselves could not be directly identified like typical molecules. In the early days, enzymes within these extracts were highly impure and present in low concentrations, as advanced protein

1.    The organic molecules which increase the rate of metabolic reactions are referred as

(a) Coenzymes

(b) Enzymes

(c) Reactants

(d) Apoenzymes

2.    Enzymes are

(a) Organic compounds produced by living organism

(b) Inorganic compounds

(c) Both (a) & (b)

(d) None of these

ENZYMES

Enzymes are the heart of Biochemistry

Protein based catalysts.

Enormously effective catalysts: typically enhance rates by 10⁶ to 10¹² fold.

Operate under mild conditions: 0 - 100 °C (or perhaps even 300+ °C for some bacteria in deep ocean), 20 - 40 °C for most organisms; and low pressures (atmospheric).

Very specific: Generally catalyze reaction for a very restricted group of molecules, sometimes for a single naturally occurring molecule of a single chirality.

1. INTRODUCTION

Enzymes are proteins with highly specialized catalytic functions responsible for many essential biochemical reactions in microorganisms, plants, animals and human beings. Enzymes play an important role in many aspects of life since the dawn of civilization that have used enzymes for thousands of years without understanding what they were or how they work. Food processing through the use of biological agents/enzymes is historically a well-established approach. The earliest applications go back to 6000 BC or earlier, with the brewing of beer, bread baking, cheese and wine making. Whereas the first purposeful microbial oxidation dates back 2000 BC, with vinegar production. In the late 19^thcentury, Christian Hansen reported the use of rennet for cheese making and production of bacterial amylases was started at Takamine (latter became part of Genencor). Pectinases have been used for juice clarification in the 1930s and during World War II, invertase was also employed the production of invert sugar syrup in a process that pioneered the use of immobilized enzymes in the sugar industry. Still, the large-scale application of enzymes could only be really established in the 1960s, when the traditional acid hydrolysis of starch was replaced by an approach based in the use of amylases and amyloglucosidases (glucoamylases) and glucose (xylose) isomerase. From then onward, the trend for the design and implementation of processes and production of products by the use of enzymes has steadily increased.

Food and beverages and household care industries represent the largest application areas of enzymes, followed by animal feed, biofuels, textile and other technical industries. Recently, several new developments have taken place in the application of enzymes in fruit and vegetable processing. Fruits and vegetables are consumed as fresh or processed into different type of products. Commercial enzyme preparations are used as processing aids in fruit and vegetable processing to improve the process efficiency and product quality, because enzymes show activity on specific substrates under mild processing conditions. Therefore, there has been a striking growth in the enzyme market for applications in the fruit and vegetable industry.

Enzymes are biocatalysts that change the rate of reaction without being changed themselves. All (Most) enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes. Ribonuclease is the enzyme which is non- protein in nature.

Properties of Enzymes

Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living organisms. They make possible biochemical reactions. Hence they are called biocatalysts. They are mostly a specialized class of proteins. However, there are some non-protein enzymes like ribozymes, which are RNAses. Enzymes speed up reactions at ambient temperatures. This is in contrast to chemical reactions like saponification of lipids which take place when lipids are boiled for a few hours with concentrated alkali. Enzymes, namely, lipases, hydrolyze lipids at body temperatures in minutes. They are superior to chemical catalysts by a factor of 10⁷ to 10¹⁴ . An enzyme may be a simple protein or a complex protein. They are produced by cells and are mostly globular proteins. Each cell contains an estimated 3000 different enzymes.

The term enzyme was coined in 1878 by Friedrich Wilhelm Kuhne to designate these biological catalysts that had previou-sly been called ferments. As they quicken most of the chemical reactions occurr-ing in the body, the enzymes have been designated as the “manifestations of nature’s impatience”.

Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living organisms. They make possible biochemical reactions. Hence they are called biocatalysts. They are mostly a specialized class of proteins. However, there are some non-protein enzymes like ribozymes, which are RNAses. Enzymes speed up reactions at ambient temperatures. This is in contrast to chemical reactions like saponification of lipids which take place when lipids are boiled for a few hours with concentrated alkali.  Enzymes, namely, lipases, hydrolyze lipids at body temperatures in minutes. They are superior to chemical catalysts by a factor of 107 to 1014 .  An enzyme may be a simple protein or a complex protein. They are produced by cells and are mostly globular proteins. Each cell contains an estimated 3000 different enzymes.

Feed accounts for a significant cost of production in livestock and poultry. In case of poultry, it represents 65% cost of the production in broilers and 75% in layers. Presently the live stock industry faces a huge challenge due to the high cost of feed ingredients and shortage of the conventional feed ingredients. Over the years, efforts have been made to use unconventional feed ingredients. However, such feed ingredients have many anti nutritional factors that adversely affect the performance of livestock and poultry. Due to the presence of these incriminating factors, the unconventional feed ingredients are poorly digested in livestock and poultry. These poorly digested feed ingredients results in bacterial overgrowth, which becomes a potential substrate for bacterial fermentation leading to intestinal disorders and disease. Application of antibiotics and other anti-microbials help to overcome the ill effects. However, the ban on the use of sub therapeutic level of antibiotics in many countries has increased the relevance of use of exogenous enzymes in the feed of livestock and poultry. These exogenous feed enzymes improve the nutritive value of different feed stuffs, economize livestock and poultry rearing and reduce environmental pollution.

Enzymes are biocatalysts that play a crucial role in accelerating chemical reactions without undergoing any changes themselves. Enzymes enhance the rate of a reaction by reducing its activation energy without affecting the equilibrium position of the reaction. These catalysts specifically target molecules called substrates and convert them into different molecules known as products. Most enzymes have a proteinous nature, and some have a ribonucleic acid nature (like ribozymes and peptidyl-transferase), showing high substrate and stereo-specificity. Enzyme catalysis is indispensable for the majority of metabolic processes in cells, as it ensures that these processes occur at a rate that is sufficient to sustain life. The progression of metabolic pathways heavily relies on the catalytic activity of enzymes to facilitate individual steps.

The proteinous enzymes are classified into simple and conjugated enzymes.

1. Simple enzymes: Enzymes are made up of only protein components.

2. Conjugated enzymes: Enzymes comprise both protein (apoenzyme) and non-protein components (cofactor).

Etiology

It is a relatively rare skin disease or dermatologic condition. Hypersensitivity reaction is one of the suggestive cause for this condition characterized by nodules or plaques which are seen in the skin, oral mucosa and external ear canal.

INTRODUCTION

In India, medicinal plants have traditionally occupied an important place in the socio-cultural, spiritual and health related aspects of peoples’ life. As much as 34% (ca. 6000) of total plant wealth have some known medicinal value (Ved, 2008). The genus Ephedra is one such important group of medicinal plants, from which the drug Ephedrine and a range of medicinally active compounds such as ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, norephedrine, norpseudoephedrine, methyl ephedrine, methyl pseudoephedrine, alkaloids, phenols, terpenoids are obtained. Owing to its medicinal properties, genus Ephedra is in high demand by pharmaceutical industries. It is currently facing heavy extraction pressure from its restricted habitat in the wild, and utterly lacks effective proper conservation and management efforts. For long-term conservation management of this genus, a better and comprehensive understanding of the species remains a top priority, for which detailed studies on its biology, habitat ecology, and agro-technology are required.

Veterinary epidemiology is the study of disease within a livestock population, dealing with the investigation (including identification, quantification, and examination), of the direct and indirect determinants of disease distribution in animal populations. Any epidemiological investigation starts with whether there is an animal health problem in a population, which requires data collection on animal, management, economic, and environmental factors. These data are then analyzed descriptively to assess the frequency of disease occurrence. The results are then used to decide whether investigations of causal relationships between disease occurrence and potential risk factors are necessary for the development of control or prevention policies. Once the relationships are understood, necessary interventions for the disease are then planned and their impacts assessed. Hence, the goal of epidemiological investigations is the control and prevention of animal disease problems by integrating the available pieces of evidence into the decision-making process for disease control policy development.

True/False

Q.1.    The purpose of most medical research is to identify the causes of disease and search out the ways to prevent or cure them.
Q.2.    Now a day, epidemiology has become a basic science for public health
Q.3.    The studies of diagnostics therapeutic and prognostic procedures have successfully incorporated into growing stream of “Clinical Epidemiology”.

Epidemiology is the study of diseases in a population in its natural setting. In epidemiology, the population is the patient and hence epidemiology is population medicine. All epidemiological studies are field based. In aquatic epidemiology, aquaculture ponds serve as the laboratory. This can be a great advantage over laboratory studies, which cannot be easily extrapolated to field conditions.

Diseases are among the greatest deterrents to the sustained production in aquaculture. Diseases such as Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) in fishes and White Spot Syndrome (WSS) in shrimps have devastated aquaculture with bad impact on productivity and profitability. Various diagnostic and health management tools are being used to devise disease control strategies. It is becoming increasingly difficult to manage pathogens that have become endemic. Epidemiological approaches which have been very successful in human and veterinary medicine are now being increasingly recognised as important weapons that can be used in aquaculture to formulate disease control programmes.

Concept of Cause for a Disease

Cause from an epidemiological perspective is interpreted in quite a wide sense. This is somewhat different to the more traditional view of the role of cause being restricted to etiological agents. An epidemiological definition of a cause of a disease is “an event, condition or characteristic that plays an essential role in producing an occurrence of the disease”. Epidemiologists avoid defining the word cause for any disease outbreak, but prefer to use words such as determinants, exposures and risk factors. Alternatively, they will categorise causes as direct or indirect; necessary or sufficient; and single or multiple rather than defining primary etiology.

Epidemiology

Vanderplank has called epidemiology the science of disease in population. Epidemiology puts its emphasis on population phenomena. The important populations are those of the host, on the one hand, and of the pathogen, on the other. But further, epidemiology is concerned with host-pathogen interactions that lead to disease and crop losses. These interactions are often environmentally dependent. So epidemiology deals with effects of the biotic and abiotic environments. Finally , man has had important effects on hosts, pathogens and the environments, effect that today are increasing in magnitude and scale of importance. Epidemiology therefore also deals with the effects of man on disease and sometimes with the effects of plant disease on mankind. All of this can be symbolized by the disease tetrahedron.

1 Study of distribution of diseases and the factors determining its distribution in a population is known as

a) Ethology b) Epidemiology

c) Ecology d) Etiology

Introduction
The science of epigenomics has emerged as a key area of research across numerous biological disciplines. Epigenomics is the analysis of epigenetic changes occuring across many genes in a cell or entire organism, whereas the concept of epigenetics focuses on processes that regulate how and when certain genes are turned on and turned off. Understanding on the science of epigenetics can be traced back to the early hypothesis proposed by Aristotle to disprove the theory of preformation. Waddington’s initial conceptualization of epigenetics as a “conceptual tool” to integrate genetics and embryology established a foundational framework for subsequent research. Over time, advancements in molecular biology, developmental biology and evolutionary biology have since profoundly expanded and refined our understanding of epigenetics. Waddington further progressed in the 20th century with his introduction of the “Epigenetic Landscape” model (Baedke, 2013), marking a crucial milestone in the evolution of epigenetic theory.
In modern times, epigenetics refers to the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype that do not involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence. Recent genetic and biochemical research has improved the understanding of various epigenetic regulation by three mechanisms including DNA methylation, histone modifications and non-coding RNA regulations. These mechanisms induce changes in chromatin conformation (active-open or repressiveclosed), which influences the gene expression that results in gene activation or gene silencing (Fig.1).
The transition between open and closed chromatin states, along with interactions among various epigenetic mechanisms, is essential to maintain optimal cellular function in diverse cell types, tissues and in response to varying developmental or environmental stimuli (Allis and Jenuwein, 2016).
Extensive studies in Arabidopsis led to a profound understanding of epigenetic mechanisms in plant growth and development. Later, intensive investigations was

Bhuva is a small village in north-west Gujarat – India.  My mother was born there. The loving people of Bhuva called me ‘Bhano’ (Sister’s Son / Nephew) and it was my favourite place to go as a child. I have my fondest memories of Bhuva, but could not visit for several decades, until when I was once at the Junagadh Campus of Gujarat Agricultural University, to inaugurate the International Conference on New Developments in Agriculture. Bhuva was not too far and I decided to go there. Soon as I reached, a familiar face, now aged with time, recognized me from a distance and with tears rolling from his old eyes (and mine) he hugged me, calling out “MaroBhano, MaroBhano” (My sister’s son, my sister’s son)! Now in his eighties, it was overwhelming to meet Nanji Ata, who I always remembered being wise, educated and cheerful. He was a relatively progressive farmer with about 6 to 7 acres of land, a few cows and a buffalo. Though water was scarce and saline, he managed to make a good living and was considered a well to do man.

7.1 Summary

Climate change is a complex global phenomenon that poses significant challenges for agriculture including uncertainty about future weather patterns, soil conditions, and other environmental factors. Farmers are facing the difficult task of interpreting and responding to these changes in order to maintain their livelihoods and ensure food security for growing populations. In this context, mental modelling has emerged as a useful approach for understanding how farmers interpret and respond to climate change. Mental models are cognitive representations of how individuals understand and make decisions about complex systems, and can be used to identify key drivers of behaviour and decision-making.

The present study has explored the social, ecological, and economic factors that influence farmers’ mental models on perception of climate change, level of uncertainty and trend of agricultural change in the selected study area. It argues that farmers’ mental models are shaped by a range of factors, including their own experiences and observations, social networks and interactions, access to information and resources, and broader economic and political contexts. The present study has also highlighted the role of uncertainty in shaping farmers’ mental models and decision-making. Uncertainty about the future impacts of climate change can create significant challenges for farmers, as they must make decisions based on incomplete information and uncertain predictions.

The current research work was carried out in the new alluvial zone which is one of the agro-ecological regions in the state of West Bengal. To conduct the study, three villages located in the Haringhata block of Nadia district were chosen randomly. A total of 90 farmers were selected with 30 respondents each from the villages of Kastadanga, JalkarBhomra and Subuddipur. Initially a list of contact farmers was collected from the Kastadanga SKUS and few contact farmers were selected randomly from the list. Afterwards Snowball sampling method was followed to select respondents.

7.1 Summary

Climate change is a complex global phenomenon that poses significant challenges for agriculture including uncertainty about future weather patterns, soil conditions, and other environmental factors. Farmers are facing the difficult task of interpreting and responding to these changes in order to maintain their livelihoods and ensure food security for growing populations. In this context, mental modelling has emerged as a useful approach for understanding how farmers interpret and respond to climate change. Mental models are cognitive representations of how individuals understand and make decisions about complex systems, and can be used to identify key drivers of behaviour and decision-making.

The present study has explored the social, ecological, and economic factors that influence farmers’ mental models on perception of climate change, level of uncertainty and trend of agricultural change in the selected study area. It argues that farmers’ mental models are shaped by a range of factors, including their own experiences and observations, social networks and interactions, access to information and resources, and broader economic and political contexts. The present study has also highlighted the role of uncertainty in shaping farmers’ mental models and decision-making. Uncertainty about the future impacts of climate change can create significant challenges for farmers, as they must make decisions based on incomplete information and uncertain predictions.

Migration is an integral part of civilization. Everyone is born in a location, wherein, for education he/she needs to migrate elsewhere and after completion of education, there would be further migration for jobs. During Covid-19 it was harshly depicted that more than 50 million migratory workers were forced to quit their job place and when the Covid-19 pandemic apocalypse was over they started re-migrating. Both Push and Pull factors are responsible for Migration. Pull factors incubates choices for migration ad push factors creates a compulsion for migration.Young people from all backgrounds are looking into different ways for rural and urban youth to get about in the town of Darjeeling. Urban adolescents are faced with downward mobility and endure disappointment in their hopes for professional professions and ‘modern’ lives, whereas rural kids enjoy certain types of upward mobility when they relocate into the metropolis (Brown, T. 2015). It is recognized that the main driving force behind migration is the pursuit of better job prospects, and the extent and direction of migration are predominantly influenced by employment opportunities (Khan, 1983). Furthermore, rural areas in Darjeeling have experienced a noticeable trend of male-selective migration in search of better opportunities in the past few decades. This migration primarily occurs towards urban environments within the district and major cities such as Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai, to name a few important destinations. Several factors have contributed significantly to this phenomenon, including population pressure, degradation of common property reSources like forests, long neglect of the region, economic and social backwardness, low agricultural productivity, and lack of opportunities. While this migration brings in much-needed income, it also diminishes the available workforce in the home villages.

To understand the movement of a ocean particle, We have to consider different forces. The forces that are working are pressure gradient force, coriolis force, acceleration due to gravity and friction. The summation of all these forces is balanced by total force. As we consider unit mass, the force is equal to acceleration. The total equation is called equation of motion.

Introduction

Hydrogels are loosely cross-linked, highly hydrophilic, organic polymers. They can absorb and retain aqueous fluids up to 500 times of their own weight (Singh et al., 2011). In the field application, such absorbents exhibited a limited swelling capacity within the soil matrix.

Equines are herbivorous monogastric animals. Though, simple-stomached, they can digest considerable amount of fibrous feed in the caecum and are called as hindgut fermenters. Equine includes horse, donkey, zebra and mule which are used as work and pack animal. All three species of equine belongs to the family Equidae. The scientific name of Horse and Donkey is Equus caballus and Equus asinus, respectively. The horse was probably last farm animal domesticated by the man. Horses appear to have been domesticated first in central Asia or Persia, more than 3000 years ago.

The following equipment and types of machinery are generally used in the food processing plant which specifically deals with the processing of fruits and vegetables;
I. Machinery/Equipment for general purpose
1. Weighing Balance (Precision balance for chemical and heavy duty for fruits/raw material) 1-500mg, 1kg,10kg,100kg.
2. Cutting Knife (SS), coring knife, pitting knife, peeling knife
3. Abrasive peeler (carborundum crystal) for potato,carrot,ginger etc.,
4. Working Table with Stainless steel/Aluminium top
5. Buckets/ Water tubs/jugs (Plastic/Stainless Steel)
6. LPG/Diesel Bhatti/furnace/Stove
7. Utensils/Bhagona (Aluminium /Stainless steel); 10, 50,100 kg capacity
8. Spoon, ladle (heavy duty), grater,`
9. Belt conveyors

Introduction
With the dynamic change in the pace of human activity and changing life style, the demand for easy-to-prepare drinks is also increasing. Besides being consumed in the household, these drinks are also served in restaurants, clubs, airlines, railways etc. There has been an appreciable increase in the export of processed foods which includes squashes, cordials, and syrups. With the fast pace of growth in the urban sector and the increase in living standards of the Indian people reaching higher levels by the year, there is a good potential to develop this industry in the small-scale sector. To prepare fruits and vegetable juices at commercial level, several equipments are needed. Some of the important equipment required for processing of specific fruit and vegetables are discussed herein.
Pome Fruit and Small Fruit Processing
Generally, most pome fruit (e.g. Apple, Pear, Quince) and small stone fruit (e.g. Plum, Olive, Peach, Cherry) can be used for juice extraction. No peeling is needed. Small stone fruit such as apricots and plums might have to be destoned (pitted) depending on the grinding, extraction equipment selection. Cherries, although containing a pit, may be pressed with the pit intact. Breakage of the pit will release benzaldehyde, the familiar aroma of maraschino- type cherries.

Calibration is the process of measuring and adjusting the amount of pesticide your equipment applies or delivers to a specific area. The purpose of calibration is to ensure your equipment is applying the correct amount of material uniformly over a given area.

Equipment is manufactured to be adjustable. Charts or tables may be provided to assist the operator in making adjustments to the settings. These recommended settings, however, are only approximate and may not be appropriate for all situations. Therefore, your equipment must be calibrated periodically. This depends on the type of equipment and the frequency of use. The application rate of the sprayer is affected by travel speed, nozzle size, and sprayer pressure. Equipment is calibrated by making a trial run on some premeasured area and measuring the output. For example, using a hand-held sprayer, spray a premeasured test area with water using the same pressure and techniques (i.e., travel speed and equipment) you would use when applying the pesticide. After spraying the test area, determine how much water was used. This volume can then be used to calculate the amount of water and pesticide needed to cover the intended application area.

The time invested in calibrating your equipment is time well spent. Accurate calibration to determine the application rate under your operating conditions is important for cost, efficiency and safety.

The production of premium fish feed involves using specialized equipment across various stages—grinding, mixing, conditioning, pelleting or extruding, drying, cooling, and packaging. Each machine contributes to achieving consistency, efficiency, and high-quality standards in aquafeed manufacturing. Equipment selection depends on production scale, feed type (floating or sinking), targeted aquatic species, and financial considerations. • Hammer Mill or Grinder: The grinding phase reduces raw materials into smaller particles using a hammer mill, which operates with rotating hammers to crush substances like grains and oil cakes. The screen size can be changed to control particle fineness, which is important for effective mixing and digestion. • Mixer :Mixers ensure even distribution of ingredients. Two types are common: • Horizontal Mixers: High mixing efficiency and ideal for large volumes. • Vertical Mixers: Cost-effective, better suited to small-scale operations. Micro-ingredient dispensers and dosing units may be attached for accurate inclusion of additives and micronutrients

1. pH Meter

pH meter/electrode systems are the most common method of measuring pH in the biology laboratory. Although more expensive and more complicated to use than chemical indicators, pH meters provide greater accuracy, sensitivity, and flexibility. When used properly, pH meters can measure the pH of a solution to the nearest 0.1 pH unit or better, and they can be used with a variety of samples.

2. UV Spectrophotometer

Perhaps there is no other technique except UV-visible spectroscopy, which has been so extensively employed and has such a profound impact on progress in biochemical investigations. UV-visible spectroscopy has undoubtedly become an indispensable tool and is routinely used for identification and quantitative estimation of most of the biomolecules. Besides other applications, most of the enzyme assays and the screening of biomolecules recovered in different fractions by separation processes such as column chromatography, density gradient centrifugation etc, rely heavily on spectrophotometer or colorimetric technique.

1. pH meter

pH meter/electrode systems are the most common method of measuring pH in the biology laboratory. Although more expensive and more complicated to use than chemical indicators, pH meters provide greater accuracy, sensitivity, and flexibility. When used properly, pH meters can measure the pH of a solution to the nearest 0.1 pH unit or better, and they can be used with a variety of samples.

Chocolate is a product that requires complex procedures to produce. The process involves harvesting coca, refining coca to cocoa beans, and shipping the cocoa beans to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, roasting, grinding , ref ining , conching , moulding and enrobing operations which are accomplished using wide range of machinery. A few have been discussed in this chapter.

1. Bean Roasters

When cocoa beans were first brought to Europe, the method of roasting was quite simple, often consisting of no more than metal trays suspended by chains over a fire, an ancient Middle Eastern technique for roasting coffee. The beans would be stirred by hand with a long stick or paddle until the roast was complete. Needless to day, this was very labor intensive and inefficient. Clearly, something more efficient was needed. The next development in roasting technology was not that far distant from roasters in use today. Metal cylinders or balls that could hold up to several pounds of cocoa beans would be suspended over the embers of a fire. A rod would run through the center and act as an axis upon which the roaster would turn. A hand crank on one end would allow the cylinder or ball to be turned while the beans were roasting. The result was a much more even roast than was before possible. Aspects of this technique remain in many of today’s roasters.

Plant protection equipment, often referred to as PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) for agricultural or horticultural activities, includes various gear and clothing designed to protect individuals from potential hazards while working with plants, pesticides, or other agricultural materials. These items are crucial to ensure the safety and well-being of workers in the agricultural and horticultural industries. Common types of plant protection equipment:

1. Protective Clothing

Coveralls or suits to shield the body from pesticides, chemicals, and other substances.

Long-sleeved shirts and pants to minimize skin exposure.

Gloves to protect the hands from contact with pesticides, thorns, or other hazards.Safety goggles or face shields to safeguard the eyes.

2. Footwear Sturdy,

closed-toe boots or shoes to protect the feet from potential injuries and exposure to pesticides and plant debris.

Abstract

The present study aims to assess postural and muscular stress among farm women performing weeding and winnowing operations. Postural stress was assessed through postural deviation in spinal curvature, energy expenditure, physical cost of work, cardiac cost of work, pain in different body parts and muscular stress was assessed by percentage decrease in grip strength. Postural deviations were recorded with the help of flexi curve. Heart rate was calculated in 3 phases: before, during and after the work. Energy expenditure, physical cost of work, cardiac cost of work was also calculated. Grip strength of both hands was calculated by grip dynamometer. The mean value of ergonomic parameters were found more in weeding operation which were as follows : -Postural deviation (250), Average heart rate (5.35), energy expenditure (5.70), physical cost of work (3.05), total cardiac cost of work (35.82). After weeding operation farm women perceived very severe pain in lower back, buttocks, and palms, while after winnowing they experienced very severe pain in shoulder, upper back and upper arms.

Abstract

The present paper examines the effect of fodder cutting and uprooting activity on the cardiovascular system of farm women. The research design comprised of field study conducted on 30 farm women. The activity of cutting and uprooting were studied with the traditional tools as well as with the improved tools. Newly designed and developed slashing knife and uprooter were provided to the respondents for performing the activity of cutting and uprooting. The results revealed significant reduction in average working heart rate (2.08** - cutting and 4.99** - uprooting; Significant at 5% level) and peak heart rate (-3.55**- cutting and 1.70**- uprooting; Significant at 5% level).  It was found that there was significant reduction in muscular stress after use of improved tools over the existing tools.

This chapter applies ergonomic principles to hospitals, clinics, laboratories and other healthcare environments. Healthcare personnel encounter demanding physical tasks, emotional pressures, complex decisions and extended working hours. Common risks include patient handling, repetitive movements, prolonged standing, awkward postures, mental overload and poorly designed workstations. The chapter considers physical ergonomics, workflow design, cognitive support and stress management as complementary approaches to improving healthcare delivery. Safe patient-transfer techniques, adjustable furniture, accessible equipment and logically arranged clinical spaces are discussed. By reducing fatigue and occupational injury, ergonomic interventions can improve staff health, job satisfaction, patient safety, clinical accuracy and organizational efficiency while decreasing absenteeism and employee turnover.

Ergonomics, also known as human factors engineering, is a multidisciplinary f ield that focuses on designing and arranging environments, products, and systems to fit the people who use them. The primary goal of ergonomics is to enhance efficiency, safety, and well-being by optimizing the interaction between humans and their work environment.

Key Aspects of Ergonomics

Physical Ergonomics

Posture : Examining how people sit, stand, and move to prevent musculoskeletal disorders and discomfort.

Repetitive Motion: Addressing issues related to tasks that involve repetitive movements, which can lead to strain injuries.

Introduction

Soil is one of the crucial natural resources that support life on the earth and controls the economic conditions of the nation. Soil erosion has become a serious problem in both rainfed and irrigated areas of India thus it of vital importance to raise awareness about soil erosion and their reclamation / management methods, so that future land management decisions can lead to more sustainable and resilient agricultural systems. In India almost 130 million hectares of land, i.e., 45 % of total geographical surface area, is affected by serious soil erosion through gorge and gully, shifting cultivation, cultivated wastelands, sandy areas, deserts, and water logging.

In India, the soil is eroded at an average annual rate of 16.35 tonnes per hectare which means 5334 million tonnes per year for the country as a whole. Out of this, about 29 per cent is permanently lost to the sea, while 61% is simply transferred from one place to another, and the remaining 10% is deposited in reservoirs (which mean the storage capacity is reduced by 1-2 per cent annually (Narayana and Ram Babu, 1983)). Singh et al. (1990) estimated that the average annual soil loss is about 15.2 tonnes per hectare and at national level it amounts to about 4978 million tonnes annually. The annual erosion rates vary from region to region. In dense forests covers, snow-clad cold deserts and arid regions of western Rajasthan, the annual erosion rates are less than 5 tonnes per hectare. On the other hand, about 64 per cent of the total soil is contributed by highly to very severely eroded areas, such as the Shiwalik hills (annual rate is more than 80 tonnes per hectare), the Western Ghats, black and red soil regions, ravines and other gully eroded areas and the northeastern region. For the first time, Gurmel Singh prepared map of soil erosion in India (Fig. 7.1), on the basis of iso-erosion lines i.e. line joining the place of same erosion rates.

Ergonomics (also known as Human Engineering, Human Factors or Human Ergology) is the scientific study of relationship between a person and his/her working environment. The term environment includes the tools, materials and method of work, ambient conditions and physical environment in which the work is carried out, and also the organizational factors. Ergonomics application can help in increasing the efficiency and productivity, reducing drudgery and occupational health problems, and enhancing safety of workers in various activities.

Flooding and soil erosion are closely connected because concentrated runoff detaches, transports, and deposits soil material throughout a watershed and river system. Raindrop impact initiates splash erosion, while surface flow produces sheet, rill, and eventually gully erosion. Sediment generated from fields and channels reduces reservoir capacity, raises riverbeds, obstructs drainage, and lowers channel conveyance, thereby increasing flood risk. This chapter explains erosion mechanisms, classifications, influencing factors, gully development, sediment yield, sediment-delivery ratio, suspended and bed loads, and sediment-transport models. It also examines soil-loss estimation and agronomic or structural conservation measures that can reduce erosion, control sediment movement, and improve watershed-level flood management

Major 2 types of erosion (i) soil erosion and (ii) wind erosion

2.1. Soil erosion

Detachment of soil particles from the surface • Transportation by water, wind, ice or gravity.