eBook Chapters

1. Background
The growing global population, industrialization, and urbanization have driven rising energy demand, with primary energy use increasing by 5.8% in 2024 (BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2024). The need for secure, affordable, and low-carbon energy is critical due to fossil fuel depletion, global warming, and geopolitical tensions. Clean energy sources like solar, wind, and biofuels are being explored, with biodiesel standing out as the only biofuel capable of fully replacing fossil fuels (Aizouq et al., 2020). Many countries, including India and China, are advancing biofuel production, with the latter viewing it as a key to energy security. Biofuels, derived from various sources like algae, crops, and waste, include biodiesel, bioethanol, and biogas. They are categorized into four generations based on feedstock. First-generation biofuels, made from edible materials, face food vs. fuel competition. Second-generation biofuels from non-edible sources are more sustainable but still face resource limitations (Lv et al., 2019). Thirdand fourth-generation biofuels from microalgae offer higher yields and better land use, with species like Chlorella vulgaris and Nannochloropsis oceanica showing promise for biodiesel production. Microalgae’s fast growth and efficiency have led to advances in biodiesel production, although challenges remain, such as species selection and production scale-up (Arora et al., 2021). But there is a constraint for commercial availability of these biofuel which are the economic and environmental obstacles that are creating problematic condition for approval and use of genetically engineered microalgae for their potential to enhance lipid yields. This chapter delves into the current opportunities and challenges in microalgae biofuel production, focusing the need for regular research and innovation (Maliha and Abu-Hijleh 2022).
2. Choosing the Different Classes Of Microalgal Strains
The achievement of huge-scale microalgal culture relies on picking appropriate species. The production of various lipids greatly affects the selection of strains and biofuel properties. For the biodiesel, Triacylglycerol (TAG) is the preferred lipid but compared to green algae its content is typically low in cyanobacteria. with the average lipid content of 25.5%, green algae (Chlorophyceae) stand as the largest class of oleaginous microalgae, which can rise under nutrient stress (Saini et al., 2021). Also, the biomass productivity is equally important for high lipid productivity as high lipid content is beneficial. For biodiesel production, strain selection should focus on both lipid content and biomass. Chromochloris zofingiensis shows the highest lipid productivity among all classes of green algae. The saturated (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) fatty acid (FA) being dominant, their composition also plays a vital role in biodiesel quality. It has seen those high levels of C16:0 and C18:1 in microalgae is ideal for biodiesel production (Bharti et al., 2021). Therefore, for improved biodiesel performance, strain selection should consider both lipid productivity and FA composition (Bagchi and Mallick, 2016).

1. Introduction
One of the foremost environmental challenges the world faces today is airpollution. As industrialisation, urbanisation, and transportation continueunabated, harmful substance levels in the atmosphere have becomealarmingly high (Thanvisitthpon et al., 2024). This general contamination inthe air is not just a serious risk to humanity but also harms ecosystems whilcontributing to global climate change. Controlling airpollution has becomea critical necessity at this stage, with the need for innovative solutions inthis respect. Bioremediation is one of the innovative solutions, where certainmicroorganisms break down or neutralise pollutants in the air.

Abstract
The aquafeed industry is a cornerstone of modern aquaculture, providing essential nutrients to support the growth, health, and productivity of farmed aquatic species. This chapter provides a thorough overview of the industry, focusing on its evolution, current trends, challenges, and future directions. The formulation of aquafeeds has progressed from simple raw ingredients to sophisticated, nutritionally balanced diets tailored to meet the specific requirements of diverse species at different life stages. Critical components, including proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, are discussed in the context of their roles in promoting optimal growth and physiological functions. The importance of optimum ratio of the digestible protein: digestible energy (DP:DE) is also explained in the section along with the nutritional requirement of commercially important Indian major carps (IMC), Chinese major carp (CMC), trout, catfishes and crustaceans.
Keywords: Aquafeed, Plant-based protein, Feed formulation, Precision feeding, and Protein utilization

1. Introduction

Education is undergoing a digital transformation. The incorporation of digital technologies into the educational scene over the last two decades has radically changed the way we teach and learn. This transition has started a revolution with far-reaching repercussions, both positive and negative, for students, educators, and institutions alike.

The growing adoption of digital technologies in educational settings has created a world of possibilities. Online platforms, learning management systems, educational apps, virtual reality, and augmented reality are just a handful of the innovations that have transformed the educational experience. This comprehensive investigation tries to investigate the intricate and multifaceted impact of various digital technologies on schooling.

Chapter Overview

This chapter provides a comprehensive understanding of the intersection of gender and animal husbandry, emphasizing the influence of culture, society, and history on our perceptions of gender and sex. It explores the interconnectedness of these concepts and their significance in shaping roles and expectations of the members of a society in livestock production. This chapter delves into the complex concepts of gender and sex, shedding light on their intricate nature and exploring their implications for animal husbandry.

Abstract

Cyanobacteria have gained a lot of attention in recent years because of their novel applications in biotechnology, besides their well recognized role as inoculants for rice crop. They represent favourite model organisms for a deeper understanding of several plant and microbial metabolic processes and efficient systems for the production of recombinant compounds of pharmaceutical and commercial value. They have been identified as a rich source of biologically active compounds with antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer activities, which illustrate their potential as biocontrol agents. The genus Anabaena assumes significance not only as a diazotroph, but also as a rich source of pharmacologically active and structurally interesting secondary metabolites with diverse applications in agriculture and industry. The present compilation aims to present an overview of the literature available globally, and studies undertaken in India illustrating the diversity and potential of Anabaena strains, besides their significance in biology and evolution.

Society

Human societies are intricate networks of individuals engaged in continuous social interaction within a shared geographical or social space, typically under the governance of the same political authority and cultural norms. These societies are characterized by complex patterns of social relations, cultural practices, and institutional structures, collectively shaping the fabric of human existence. Social sciences often reveal underlying stratification and dominance patterns within these societies. Collaborative in nature, societies offer collective benefits that transcend individual gains, facilitating opportunities that would otherwise remain inaccessible. Within a society, subcultures may emerge, governed by their distinct norms and values, coexisting within the broader societal framework. Structurally, societies encompass economic social, industrial, and cultural infrastructures, comprising diverse individuals yet forming a cohesive entity. The term “society” traces its origins to the Latin word “societas,” signifying friendly or civil interaction among parties. It encompasses the entirety of humanity, acknowledging the interdependence and interactions among individuals.

Introduction

A payment gateway is a server that is located between the web server of the merchant and the web server of the acquiring bank. When a merchant receives an order, it is transferred to the payment gateway by the merchant server.

The payments sector in India is set to reach USD 100 trillion in volume and USD 50 trillion in transactional value by the end of 2030. The payment gateways, which are also a part of the payments sector are set to reach USD 1.21 billion in India, growing at a CAGR of 17.6% between 2024-2029. The global payment gateway landscape as of 2024 stands at USD 16.27 billion growing at a CAGR of 16.43%. Payment gateways across the world are credit card-based gateways, with the introduction of card readers in mobile phones. The Fintech and payments sector boom in India cannot be justified without mentioning UPI (Unified Payments Interface), which has encompassed payment solutions for small street vendors to large conglomerates with its user-friendly interface and QR-code-based payments. UPI is one of the major payment gateways in India, in addition to IMPS (Immediate Payment Service), RTGS (Real Time Gross Settlement), and NEFT (National Electronic Funds Transfer) and many more.

INTRODUCTION

It is becoming obvious that the interest of youth in agriculture is declining and this trend is likely to continue if we do not look into this seriously. A large number of young people are migrating to urban centers in the hope of getting employment and for a better life. This is due to lack of jobs and opportunities in rural areas, and a view that working in farming is low status and does not offer good future prospects. Young people play an important role and are required in the agriculture sector. But education or training programs are not always readily available, technologies are not accessible, inputs may be scarce, and other vital services are not accessible. Young people now-a-days are becoming less connected with their food, often making little or no association between the food they eat, who is behind it and it is produced. They may not see beyond the store or market, nor make the connection between the food they are eating and the efforts made by farmers to grow it. This growing disconnection with agriculture implies an uncertain future for sustainable food production to feed the growing population. It is important to make the link between food and agriculture visible. The important role young people play in farming needs to be understood as agriculture is sustainable if it can attract future generation farmers. In fact the young people are the future farmers. Efforts are required to discourage the overwhelming tendency of young people to move out of farming in search of a more comfortable life and better income. It is true that there are major challenges, farming is not an easy or a more glamorous option, but we should be exploring ways of doing agriculture in a sustainable and rewarding manner.

Introduction

Seafood demand has grown over the years due to its numerous nutritional advantages, acting as a primary contributor to global nutritional security, and the industry supports the livelihood of several million people. Persistent growth in demand for animal protein keeps the fisheries and aquaculture an important role. The average annual seafood demand growth across countries varies between 6 % and 7.5% (Kidane et al., 2021). Hence, Increased fish production, increased the per-capita fish consumption of the respective country (Garlock et al., 2022). Global average fish consumption has increased from 9.9 kg in 1961 to 20.5 kg in 2019 (FAO, 2022). The coastal countries of Iceland and Maldives are leading in per capita fish consumption with 92 kg and 85 kg respectively. While, landlocked countries such as Afghanistan, Ethiopia, and Tajikistan are the least in per capita fish consumption with less than 1 kg of fish per annum. The leading fish producers China (39 kg) and India (6.8 kg) positioned 7th and 15th place respectively in 2019 (World Economic Forum, 2022). India plays a significant role in export as like production with a global share of 5.2 % after Norway (10.4 %) and China (8.6 %). Shrimp is the primary commodity of export in India’s seafood basket with a share of 25 % of the World’s shrimp export next to Ecuador (44 %) during 2021-22. Frozen f ish is the second largest exportable item of India’s seafood export which contributed 22 % in quantity and 8.6 % in earnings next to frozen shrimp with 41 % in quantity and 67 % in export earnings. Followed by frozen cuttlefish & squid and dried items had an export share of 9 % and 5 % respectively during 2022-23 (MPEDA, 2023). Shrimp farming in India is also extending from 1.17 lakh hectares during 2010-11 to 1.67 lakh hectares during 2020-21 in India with production of 1.3 lakh tons to 8.4 lakh tons of shrimps respectively to meet the trade advantage.

Abstract
India, recognized as leading producer of fruits, holds a significant position in global grape cultivation. This chapter comprehensively examines the export performance of fresh grapes from India, focusing on growth patterns, market diversification, competitiveness, and trade direction. During 2019-20, India exported over 193 thousand metric tons of grapes worth Rs. 2,176.88 crores, with the Netherlands, Russia, and the UK being key markets. Using compound annual growth rate (CAGR) analysis, the study finds significant positive trends in grape exports across major destinations. Instability indices reveal moderate fluctuations, with Bangladesh and Hong Kong showing the highest volatility, whereas the UAE demonstrated market stability. The decreasing trend in the Hirschman index indicates growing diversification in India’s grape exports. Comparative advantage analysis (RSCA) suggests India gained competitiveness post-2015. Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC) values below unity further underscore India’s export price advantage. Mark Chain analysis reveals stable future prospects, with Netherlands projected to remain India’s top grape importer through 2022-23. The findings provide strategic insights for exporters and policymakers to strengthen India’s position in global grape markets by aligning trade efforts with loyal importers and emerging high-value destinations.
Keywords: Fresh Grapes Exports, Instability Index, Geographical Concentration Index, Export Competitiveness and Markov Chain Analysis

Export

India is one of the largest producer of the pomegranate. Apart from India, Spain, Iran, Egypt, Peru, Israel, Pakistan, Afganisthan, Turkey and America are the countries where the crop is cultivated. World production of Pomegranate is around 10 Lakh tones out of which India’s share is 40-45 percent .At present Spain is the maximum producer and exporter of pomegranate due to high quality and low transport cost capturing most of the European market. The total demand for pomegranate in the world is around 1.5 Lakh tones, which is increasing day by day. Spain contributes 75,000 to 80,000 tones (75%)of the total demand followed by Iran 25,000 tones and India 10000 tones (5%). Thus to increase the export there is only one way to improve the quality.

Introduction
Exporting video is the final stage in the production pipeline and serves as the bridge between the editing environment and the audience. To ensure quality and compatibility across various devices, formats, and platforms, it is essential to understand the nuances of video export settings, including video resolution, bitrate, codec, and file size. This chapter provides a detailed overview of exporting video files in different formats and sizes, covering a variety of settings used in professional video editing software.
Understanding Video Formats and Codecs
• Definition of Video Formats: Video formats define how data is stored within a file. The most commonly used formats are MP4, MOV, AVI and MKV.
• Role of Codecs: Codecs, short for coder-decoder, compress and decompress video files to save storage space. Common codecs include H.264, H.265 (HEVC), and VP9.
• Choosing the Right Format: Different platforms may require different formats, e.g., MP4 for YouTube and social media, MOV for Applebased environments, and AVI for Windows environments.
• Compatibility Across Devices: Devices and platforms vary in compatibility. Selecting the right codec and format ensures smooth playback on target devices without sacrificing quality.

Exporting a video is the final, crucial step in the video editing process. Whether you’re producing content for social media, YouTube, or a personal project, exporting optimally ensures that the video plays seamlessly across different devices and platforms. This chapter will guide you through the export options available in popular mobile video editing apps, describe file formats and compression settings, and discuss ways to retain quality while optimizing file size.
Understanding Export Basics
When exporting video in a mobile editing app, several key factors affect the final output quality and compatibility. These include:
• Resolution: The clarity and detail of your video. Common resolutions include 720p (HD), 1080p (Full HD), and 4K (Ultra HD).
• Frame Rate: Number of frames per second (fps), affecting the smoothness of the video. Typical frame rates are 24, 30, and 60 fps.
• Compression: Reduces file size but can impact quality. Apps often offer adjustable compression settings.
• Format: Determines compatibility with devices and platforms. Standard formats include MP4, MOV, and AVI.

5.1 Present Status

Export of pomegranate has decreased in quantity from 36,027.43 tons in 2012-13 to 20,997.02 tons in 2014-15, whereas in value term it show an increase trend during the same period. There is tremendous potential for exports of pomegranate from India and it is fact that India is largest producer of pomegranates in the world. Moreover, India produces finest edible quality of pomegranates which are available almost throughout the year. The major Markets of India’s pomegranate during the year 2014-15 were UAE, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Netherland.

A. Gram’s Staining
Introduction
The most widely used staining procedure in microbiology is the Gram stain, discovered by the Danish scientist and physician Hans Christian Joachim Gram in 1884. Gram staining is a differential staining technique that differentiates bacteria into two groups: gram-positives and gram-negatives. The procedure is based on the ability of microorganisms to retain color of the stains used during the gram stain reaction. Gram-negative bacteria are decolorized by the alcohol, losing the color of the primary stain, purple. Gram positive bacteria are not decolorized by alcohol and will remain as purple. After decolorization step, a counterstain is used to impart a pink color to the decolorized gramnegative organisms.
The Gram stain procedure enables bacteria to retain color of the stains, based on the differences in the chemical and physical properties of the cell wall.
1. Gram positive bacteria: Stain dark purple due to retaining the primary dye called Crystal Violet in the cell wall. Example: Staphylococcus aureus
2. Gram negative bacteria: Stain red or pink due to retaining the counter staining dye called Safranin

Summary

Expressed sequence tags are small pieces of DNA sequence (usually 200 to 500 nucleotides long) that are generated by sequencing either one or both ends of an expressed gene. Currently various EST sequencing projects are underway for numerous organisms, generating millions of short, single-pass nucleotide sequence reads, accumulating in EST databases. Extensive computational strategies and various databases have been developed to organize and analyse both small- and large-scale EST data for gene discovery, functional annotation of putative gene products as well as transcript and single nucleotide polymorphism analysis. Present chapter provides an overview of the significance of ESTs, their properties, databases, analysis software and the applications of ESTs.

There are three types of systems for expressing the energy value of feeds and many examples have been depicted in each of these systems the world over but here, one example has been taken up in each of these categories.

Digestible Nutrient Type

For example, Total digestiblenutrients (TDN) system: Digestibility coefficients of various organic nutrients like carbohydrate, fat and protein are determined by digestibility trials, which can be utilized to be involved for total digestible nutrients as a measure of nutritive value of feeds. Here only faecal enegy loss has been considered barring losses from other channels. Hence roughages are overestimated bysuchcalculations.Otherwise, thismethodissimple, economical and has some basis for animals to be fed on such standard in India. The TDN value is expressed in percentage as following :

% TDN = % dig. C.P. + % dig. C.F. + % dig. N.F.E. + [% dig. E.E. X 2.25]

Crude protein of feedscontain true proteinandnon-proteinnitrogen. Trueprotein is madeupaminoacids andforthemaximumefficiency, feed musthave essential amino acids in correct proportion, correct balance as well as non essential amino acids should also be in sufficient amounts. About digestion in simple stomached animals, the true protein is degraded to oligo peptides (less than ten peptides) in the stomach, subsequently to mono peptide and amino acids in the small intestine. Thereafter amino acids are assimilated in the small intestine. But in ruminants, the situation is complex in the sense that feed proteins get digested in the rumen but even amino acids are also broken down by microbes and thereafter, amino and carboxylic groups are released. Secondly, synthesis of new amino acids or proteins takes place for the formation of their own microbial body coat. Because of these reasons, the approach for protein evaluationor expressionisdifferent inruminant andnon-ruminant animal.Further, non-protein nitrogen portion of feed can not be utilized effectively by non – ruminants like swine and poultry. These animals are usually fed with oil cakes, cereals and cereal by-products, which are poor in non-protein nitrogen compounds, however, young succulent fodders, clover etc. are rich in such compounds.

Summary

Genes are discrete elements that govern the appearance of specific traits. Morgan Sturtevant and their coworkers demonstrated that genes have specific address. They reside at particular locations on particular chromosomes and these addresses remain constant from one individual of the species to the next. Transcription is the first step leading to gene expression. It is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language that can be converted back and forth from DNA to RNA by the action of the correct enzymes. During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by RNA polymerase, which produces a complementary, antiparallel RNA strand. translation is the second stage of protein biosynthesis (part of the overall process of gene expression). In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) produced by transcription is decoded by the ribosome to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide, that will later fold into an active protein.

MMPs are a family of zinc-containing, calcium-dependent endopeptidases secreted by various cell types and implicated in a wide range of physiological events (e.g. trophoblast invasion, development, endometrial remodeling, ovulation, angiogenesis, wound healing, bone resorption and cell migration) as well as in pathological processes. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors (timps) have been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of many types of human cancer. Expression levels for the most relevant MMPS are confirmed by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The activities of MMPs are significantly higher in malignant tissues than benign canine tumours.

Mammary tumours are the most frequent neoplasia in female dogs; therefore, these tumours represent a serious problem in veterinary medicine. Many tumours presented activated genes which are not normally expressed in the tissue from which they originate. The proteins derived from the expression of these genes are called tumour markers. Detection and measurement of these proteins are used in medicine for diagnosis and assessing the evolution of the tumours.

Introduction
Extempore speaking is the art of delivering a speech spontaneously, without prior preparation or a script. This skill is not merely about speaking without preparation but is a test of one’s ability to organize thoughts, articulate ideas, and connect with the audience in real time. Extempore speaking is a vital skill for leaders, professionals, and students, enabling effective communication in various settings, from interviews and presentations to debates and public discussions.
Understanding Extempore Speaking
At its core, extempore speaking combines mental agility, creativity, and confidence. Unlike prepared speeches, where one has time to research and rehearse, extempore requires on-the-spot thinking and articulation.
Key Attributes of Extempore Speaking
Extempore speaking demands a blend of cognitive and communication skills. Below are the essential attributes that define effective extempore speaking:
1. Clarity of Thought
• The ability to organize ideas logically and present them in a coherent manner.
• Avoids rambling or confusion by staying focused on the central theme.
2. Confidence
• Speaking with poise and self-assurance, regardless of preparation time.
• Includes maintaining steady eye contact, using positive body language, and projecting a composed demeanor.
3. Presence of Mind
• Quick thinking and adaptability to unexpected situations or audience reactions.

Role of Male and Female Extension Workers

Extension Workers include all persons working in the field for improving the qulaity of life of people. In our field, Gomitras, Livestock Inspector, VAS, BVO, etc are all extension workers because some way or other they are involved in promotion of livestock activites in the field. The role of extension worker working with rural people is to bring necessary change inindividual and collective behaviour and motivating them. The role of male and female extension worker is not very distinct. However, in some backward communities, the role of the female extension worker to motivate women, is found to be very encouraging. Here, we will discuss the important roles of both male and female Extension workers.

An extension worker should arouse farmers to recognize and take interest in their problems, to overcome these problems, to teach them how to do so, to persuade them to act on his teaching, so that they ultimately achieve a sense of satisfaction and pride in their achievements.

Introduction

To accomplish the objectives of the organisation, the administration often performs a standard set of tasks. Administration is the direction, leadership, and supervision of a group’s actions toward certain common objectives (Newman, 1950). It suggests sincere efforts made to plan and manage human activities in order to accomplish set or desired goals. Organising, leading, and controlling people and resources to achieve predetermined goals.

Meaning of Administration

The Management of public affairs of a government or institution is called administration. In extension education knowledge of administration is very important which can be developed by administrators. This knowledge will make the administrators aware of some of the unanticipated consequences of their decision. Secondly proper administration makes the administrator to his/her skill. Knowledge for solving problems of organization for which they are members.

Introduction

Communication is a process for exchanging ideas, facts, feelings, or impressions between two or more individuals for a common understanding. Communication is required for transferring technology or obtaining farmer feedback to adopt technology in the field. Good communication is the essence of good teaching. Communication is a whole learning process in which the teacher sends a message through a channel to the receiver as a means of teaching. In traditional extension, there was direct contact between the extension worker and farmer to communicate research innovations and to obtain farmer feedback. In this system, only a few farmers had direct contact with the extension worker while the majority of farmers were contacted less frequently. Daniel Benor has tried to improve traditional extension through a “training and visit” (T & V) system designed to emphasize the organizational and training components of extension and improve communication with the farmers. In considering extension as a vehicle for communicating with large numbers of farmers without any discretion, the communication process and its role in extension need to be followed by the extension workers.

what is Communication?

Communication is a process of transferring a message from a source (communicator) through a channel to the receiver (communiqué). It is defined by different scientists in a different manner keeping the intent in view. However, it is accepted that communication is a process where a message is transferred from the source (communicator) to the receiver (communiqué). Some definitions of communication are indicated below.

• J. Paul Leagan (1961) defines communication as a process where two or more individuals exchange ideas, facts, and impressions for mutual gain and common understanding of the content and use of a message.

• “Communication is a purposeful process, which involves sources, messages, channels, and receivers.” – Andersch et al. (1969).

Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988) defined communication as the process of sending and receiving messages through channels that establish a common meaning between a source and receiver.

Transfer of technology is closely associated with generation of technology and its use leading to development. Extension components contain stimulating inputs that would mobilize the practitioners to put recommendations into action. Sustainability in agriculture is very important component of present day agriculture and future aspirations. Keeping these aspects in view an attempt was made to enlist suggestions under extension approaches that would enhance sustainability in agriculture in the area under study. The suggestive extension measures to enhance sustainability in agriculture were studied under components of social structure, cooperation mechanism, evaluation technique and marketing network.

Agriculture is a generic term used to include various types of farming systems, single to multiple crops under various agro-climatic conditions thereby covering crop husbandry, animal husbandry, vegetable growing, floriculture, horticulture, fishery, poultry, goat rearing, piggery, rabbit rearing, sericulture, forestry, vermi-composting, etc. Indian agriculture is a symbiosis of various production systems, a way of life or a tradition, which for the centuries have shaped the thoughts, the outlook, the culture, and the social and economic force of rural life. It is well known for its multi-functionalities of providing employment, cultural heritage, livelihood, social security, family bondage, nutritional and food security. Although agriculture is the main stay of the Indian economy and supports nearly two-third of the work force, yet this is not a highly rewarding enterprise for a large majority of farmers who hold small and marginal size holding. At the same time, the size of the land holding is on a gradual decline, while contribution of farmwomen is on an increase as men go elsewhere in search of better jobs. This sector holds and will continue to be central to all strategies of socio-economic development of the country. A farmer is a multi-purpose entrepreneur (Rajavanshi, 2007).

Developing countries with agrarian economy have been facing challenges arising from climate change causes and consequences. The altered patterns of climate are affecting the yield potential of crops thereby affecting agricultural production, farmers’ income, and livelihoods. Out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations, the 13th SDG on ‘Climate action to combat climate change and its impacts,’ emphasises the importance and urgency of addressing the effects of climate change in developing nations. It is projected that climate change would have the most detrimental effect on agriculture, the primary source of income for small and marginal farmers in developed nations (Azadi et al., 2021). Building the ability of small and marginal farmers will be crucial to global food security over the next decade (FAO, 2020). World Bank (2018) reported that 800 million South Asian population are at risk of experiencing a decline in their standard of living and incomes due to rising temperatures and more erratic rainfall hampering the agriculture production system. Millions of low-income smallholder farmers, particularly those who rely on agriculture for a living and an income in South Asia, would be directly impacted by a reduction in productivity leading to food supply shortages and price increases.

Contract Farming

Contract farming is defined as a system for the production and supply of agricultural/horticultural produce under forward contracts between producers/suppliers and buyers. The essence of such an arrangement is the commitment of the producer/ seller to provide an agricultural commodity of a certain type, at a time and a price, and in the quantity required by a known and committed buyer.

Contract Farming Ventures in India: A Few Successful Cases

The Government of India’s National Agriculture Policy envisages that “Private sector participation will be promoted through contract farming and land leasing arrangements to allow accelerated technology transfer, capital inflow and assured market for crop production, especially of oilseeds, cotton and horticultural crops”.
Farming is an age-old means of livelihood for millions of Indians. However, there have been few systems/models in which farmers are assured of a market for their 

Communication and Extension

We spent most of the time in a day by communicating with others. It is impractical to think of a life in which we don’t communicate. Communication is a process not only limited to human beings. All creatures of earth communicate with each other for their better existence. In communication, we exchange our ideas, information, feelings, opinions about an issue, emotions, etc. with others throughout our life. It indicates that the communication is inseparable from the existence of life. A hypothetical example on the various kinds of communications that a Veterinary doctor might be using on a normal day is presented below for easy understanding.

A Veterinary doctor goes to office and put his signature in the attendance register (written communication) and greets his staffs (communication through gesture). Then he attends the patients and discuss with the owner (verbal communication). He writes prescription for the ailing animals (written communication). After office works, he may visit and discuss with the villagers about a vaccination programme (group communication) and inform the villagers about the date and time of vaccination. He may sensitize the people about the importance of vaccination through television, radio, newspaper, etc. (mass communication) and develop leaflets/folder/bulletins on different issues for distribution. This brief example suggests that the communication is an inevitable part of our daily life. It may be like that we may not survive without communication.

Father of Extension: James Stuart •

Word Extension: Derived from Latin roots “ex” - Out “tensio” - Stretching

Extension term originated in England as University Extension in 1866.

The term Extension Education first used in 1873 by Cambridge University.

Philosophy of Extension (Kelsey and Hearne, 1967): How to think.

Binet test: Intelligence test (IQ)

Function of Extension: Change in Attitude, Skill and Knowledge of an individuals.

Extension Education Process: Extension education is a participative and continuous process

Learning Situation: It is a condition or environment in which all the elements necessary for promoting learning are present.

Elements of effective learning situations in Extension are:

THEORY
    ·    Father of Extension: James Stuart
    ·    Word Extension: Derived from Latin roots “ex”    - Out
                                                              tensio”    - Stretching
    ·    Extension term originated in England as University Extension in 1866.
    ·    The term Extension Education first used in 1873 by Cambridge University.
    ·    Philosophy of Extension (Kelsey and Hearne, 1967): How to think.
    ·    Binet test: Intelligence test (IQ).
    ·    Function of Extension: Change in Attitude, Skill and Knowledge of an individuals.
    ·    Extension Education Process:  Extension education is a participative and continuous process.
    ·    Learning Situation: It is a condition or environment in which all the elements necessary for promoting learning are present. 
    ·    Elements of effective learning situations in Extension are:

Introduction

About 65 percent population of the country is living in the economically undeveloped area. Therefore, many evils such as illiteracy, superstitions, unhealthy practices etc. took roots in our country. After Second World War or after independence, it was thought to settle all these problems properly and so, many development programmes were reinvigorated. It is wrong to declare that there was nothing done during slavery period. However, those works, which were executed at that time, were very few in number according to the needs. Looking at a vast country like India, during British rule some selected social workers had started some programmes of rural development. The evolution of extension programme is described in two stages.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These 17 interconnected goals aim to address global challenges and ensure a sustainable future for people and the planet. Here’s an overview of the SDGs
List of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Well-being
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. Clean Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
10. Reduced Inequalities
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
13. Climate Action
14. Life Below Water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions
17. Partnerships for the Goals
Aligning agricultural extension practices with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is essential for promoting sustainable agricultural development, enhancing rural livelihoods, and addressing global challenges such as poverty,

As the Veterinary colleges, and Parasitology being an integral part of them, are part of Agricultural universities framed on USA land grant pattern, or separated as Veterinary university imbibing the same philosophy, extension is an integral part of the system. Here, a team of the experts visit the villages to teach the villagers about the basic problems, faced by them in day to day dealing with animals. For explaining a particular problem to the villagers, the experts generally take help of the pamphlets which they have prepared. These pamphlets or extension literature deal the subject with common sense and illustrate the material with line drawings.

Introduction

With India’s population to catapult to a gigantic figure of 1.63 billion by 2050, it rests upon the shoulders of the country’s dwindling land resources to cater to the food demand to the surging human race with an eco-friendly manner. This requires a mammoth effort from the food producing machinery of the country-an effort which has to be inclusive of the technological innovation and extension in this field and to the fullest possible extent. Coping with the short-run challenges to food security posed by food price volatility is indeed a daunting task. But the serious concern is the long-term challenges of avoiding a perpetual food crisis under conditions of global warming. The decline of contributions of Indian Agriculture to the National GDP and an apparent stagnation of the growth rate in agriculture, non remunerative agricultural system, ever increasing population pressure, shrinking land resources, global warming and climate change, indiscriminate use of agricultural inputs, over exploitation of natural resource base and environmental quality have made the situation more vulnerable towards food security. In this backdrop, agricultural knowledge and technology accumulation, transfer, application, and diffusion are key to sustainable development and food security in an eco-friendly manner. The knowledge and technology revolution is critically different from the past industrial revolution in that it is based upon a shift of wealth creating assets from physical things to intangible resources based on knowledge and technologies. Thus, effective management and transfer of knowledge and technologies are believed to be the most critical capability of individuals, organizations, and nations in the globalized 21st knowledge society. Extension could play a pivotal role in fostering sustainability through its educational programs but there has been a growing realization that traditional extension models have not been sufficiently effective in promoting socialization of sustainable agricultural practices. Since sustainable agriculture is a knowledge-intensive system, it requires a new kind of knowledge, which differs from other forms on the basis of conventional agricultural practices. In fact, conventional extension system cannot accomplish sustainability in agriculture; because today’s agricultural extension must consider environmental implications, social issues, and overall economic growth within the agriculture sector. In such a situation, the present conceptual discussion shall be envisaging the dictum and destiny of evolving extension approaches by cherishing a clear focus on extension management perspectives towards sustainable development and environment protection and management so as to the well established extension approaches can be restructured and applied in the niche of extension management towards sustainability.

1. Introduction

India is a land of large varieties of fruits and vegetables due to its vast soil and climatic diversity. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, with an annual production of fruits 45.5 Million tonnes and vegetables 90.8 Million tonnes. It contributes 10.23% and 14.45% of the total world production of fruits and vegetables (F&V) respectively (NHB, 2010). Though fruits and vegetables are grown only on 7–8% of gross cultivated area, these contribute more than 18.8% of the gross value of agricultural output and 52% export earnings from total agricultural produce. These have a high export potential of 20-30 times more foreign exchange per unit area than cereals due to higher yields and higher price available in the international market (Sen et al., 2012). According to estimates, the per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables in India is only around 46g and 130g which are far below the stipulation of a minimum of 92g and 300g respectively as recommended by the Indian Council of Medical Research and National Institute of Nutrition. The low availability is mainly due to considerably high post-harvest losses. About 15-20% of the fruits and vegetables are wasted every year in the country, due to poor post-harvest management and lack of infrastructural facilities for processing and storage, amounting to a revenue loss of over Rs. 625 billion.

The sensorial, nutritional, and organoleptic quality of fresh produce starts deteriorating after harvest as a result of soon after harvest the altered plant metabolism and microbial growth. The quality deterioration is the result of produce respiration and transpiration, senescence, ripening-associated processes, wound-initiated reactions, development of postharvest disorders, microbial proliferation leading to postharvest quality loss. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the respiration and ripening processes and the physiological and biochemical changes during ripening. The best way to reduce respiratory metabolism is to reduce the storage temperature. All biological processes proceed more slowly at lower temperature (Yahia, 2007). In general, O₂ levels must be reduced to less than 10 % to see a reduction in the rate of respiration. Respiration rate is temperature dependent; so, as the temperature reduces the amount of oxygen required also drops. Therefore, oxygen levels must be substantially reduced at low temperature for it to affect the rate of respiration. It must however, be ensured that O₂ levels do not fall below extinction point as anaerobic respiration and decay may occur. Tolerance to low O₂ varies between species and cultivars and is also time dependent. Commodities may be able to tolerate low O₂ for short periods of time. Low O₂ can also be tolerated when CO₂ is low.

Extension Program

Planning an extension program involves decision- making about the work of the organization. Extension program planning covers a set of objectives to be achieved by various activities included in the planning. Extension organization needs to decide the goal it aims at, the target group, the content of extension message, its use, and organization of all activities. The program includes situation analysis, and an action plan for solving people’s problems which is drawn in advance. Extension workers have to decide the goals, target group, messages, extension methods, and media and organization of activities. While setting the goal, the perception of the present situation and the vision of the desired situation should be borne in mind. The target group is normally larger than the extension worker contacts directly or through mass media. The target group can be contacted indirectly. The extension content depends on the goal, the target group, and the extension strategy. The content should be so selected that it can be implemented with the resources available to the farmers locally. A combination of extension methods need to be used. The extension program needs to be flexible and can be easily implemented by the organization.

Extension Program Planning

Extension program planning indicates an account of the activities to be undertaken by the organization.

The essential phases of program planning in extension are analyzing the situation, setting goals and objectives, identifying problems and gaps, developing work plan, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and reconsideration.

Introduction

Planning is a “dynamic act of reflecting about, thinking about, and choosing among various options regarding the goals and objectives and the route to journey i.e. educational experience, we should follow to reach those destinations” (Forest and Baker, 1994). It offers opportunity to people to “participate” and “contribute” in the process. Therefore, it is understood that “planning extension programs has become an increasingly accepted practice among national authorities” (Maalouf, in Rivera, 1987, p. 116 as cited by Cristovao et al?, 1997).

Extension Programme: Planning and Evaluation

The first step to promote any extension programme is to prepare useful programme based on community need. Extension Programme planning is a blueprint or plan to an extension worker for effective execution. It is a procedure of working with people in an effort to identify and recognise the unsatisfactory situations or problems and to determine the possible solutions. To understand the extension programme planning process, certain basic concepts of an extension programme, planning and extension planning need to be understood.

Programme

The word ‘programme’ has several distinct meanings in the dictionary. It means a proclamation, a prospectus, a list of events, a plan of procedure, a course of action prepared or announced beforehand, a logical sequence of operations to be performed in solving a problem. This is a written statement which describes the extension activities proposed, the problems they address, the premises on which they are based, the objectives they seek to attain, the actions and the resources they require.

Introduction of Training and Visit System

This Training and Visit system was developed by World Bank Expert Daniel Benor. Initially (13) Major states in India adopted Training and Visit system but later on most of the states are practicing this system since 1984 onwards.

Extension Reform Strategies Global Perspective

In an effort to respond to the new paradigm, countries worldwide have adopted a variety of institutional reforms. These reforms are either market-oriented or non-market-oriented (Smith 1997). This distinction, provides an imperfect but hopefully useful framework for considering these reforms as individual, non-overlapping constructs. Following the discussion of Figure 3, a dynamic view of extension institutional reforms is presented in Figure 4 which suggests possible interconnections among the various constructs. Inferences drawn from the two Figures will shape the discussion in the final section.

The recent adoption by FAO and the World Bank of a fundamental vision and guiding principles for developing agricultural knowledge systems forms the focus of this section. This vision and these principles are reviewed in relation to the plethora of the ongoing agricultural and rural extension reforms.

Over the time, the concept of extension education transformed from an educational system to an empowerment tool. It is a programme and a process of helping village people to help themselves in view to increase production and raise their general standard of living. As a science, Extension education deals with the creation, transmission and application of knowledge designed to bring about planned changes in the behaviour-complex of people. This particular branch of agricultural science is devoted to bring changes in perception and attitude towards scientific farming techniques, adoption of hi-tech horticulture, precision farming, improved machineries of pre and post-harvest management etc. through vocational training, capacity building, participatory approaches and through many other approaches. A proper planning of extension strategy will help to popularize livestock-based system of production, processing and economics associated with it.

Introduction
In Indian agriculture and its sub sectors contribute for about 18.4 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Globally, our country is being rated as on of the rapid growing major economies and rated as fifth largest economy by nominal GDP and in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) its 3rd largest in the world. The horticultural crops have a special place in India’s economy because they raise rural residents’ incomes. India’s horticulture production has surpassed food grain production and reached 320.11 million MT which is a huge accomplishment. In Andhra Pradesh the horticulture crops are spread across 17.84 lakh ha with 312.34 lakh MT yield. Andhra Pradesh is first in terms of fruit and spice producing area, and second in terms of micro irrigation area coverage. The horticulture industry makes for around 16.07 percent of the state Gross Value Addition. In India, Andhra Pradesh ranks first in the production of tomatoes, oil palm, papaya, cocoa, chillies, and cocoa, and second in cashew, mango, and sweet orange. Horticulture is increasingly being recognized as a sunrise industry because of its potential to boost farm income, provide a stable source of livelihood, and generate foreign exchange through exports. India’s distinctive agro-climatic conditions, coupled with its vast diversity of crops and genetic resources, enable the country to produce a wide range of horticultural crops year-round. The Government of Andhra Pradesh crafted Andhra Pradesh Horticultural University in Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari district in 2007, subsequently renamed as Dr. YSR Horticultural University in 2011. This was done in recognition of the importance of horticulture, its development potential in the state, and its contribution to the GDP. The university’s mission is to develop human resources by teaching, doing research that is focused on local needs and conditions, and disseminating tested technologies through Extension operations. The university is working on technology transfer (extension activities) through Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), Horticultural Research Stations (HRSs), Colleges of Horticulture, and Horticultural Polytechnics, as well as through Rythu Bharosa Kendrams (RBKs), District Resource Centers (DRCs), and the Department of Horticulture, Government of Andhra Pradesh. To “Reach the