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The cropping pattern in India is changing fast, particularly in favour of export-oriented commercial crops. These crops pose threat to the environment. Grapes is one such crop which accelerates environmental degradation. Borkar (2007) reported that with the advancement of technologies, the cultivation practices of grapes had improved increasing the yield and quality of grapes. However, to control the tremendous losses occurred due to pests and diseases in grapes, thousands of hundreds of kilograms of pesticides were dumped into the environment causing pollution.

Introduction

Farmers work hard to earn a living. However, not all farmers make money, especially small family farmers. There is very little leftover after they pay for all their inputs (seeds, livestock breeds, fertilizers, pesticides, energy, feed, labour, etc.). However, the Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) has enabled farmers to develop a framework for an alternative development model to improve the feasibility of small sized farming operations. The ‘’modern’’ technologies have been widely used to enhance the productivity per acre of land to ensure that there is enough food for the increased global population. Due to the indiscriminate and erratic use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, our food and ecosystems have been poisoned. On the contrary, the integrated farming system uses the integrated approach to farming compared to monoculture approaches. It refers to agricultural systems that integrate agriculture with horticulture, livestock, fishery, agro-forestry, etc. and known as integrated bio-systems. In this system, an inter-related set of enterprises is used so that the “waste” from one component becomes an input for another part of the system. This reduces costs and improves production and/or income. 

Agriculture – world-wide – is a vital determinant of the livelihoods of the rural communities and small holders in particular. Farm households consume as well as produce the food items. Diet diversity increased with farm size. Large farm- households obtain their food energy from more diverse sources – intake of pulses, milk, edible oil and sugar. Calorie intake per person per day decreased as farm size decreases. So also the protein intake on large farm house holds is substantially higher than for sub-marginal farm households and correspondingly for fats. So far the protein consumption is concerned the main source is pulses the small holder farmers grow. This is justified by the Simpson Index of diet diversity-0.43 for sub-marginal and 0.56 for large households (Singh et al., 2002). The production of pulses including the traditional/potential pulses keep priority for combating the protein deficiency in addition to earning monetary returns from export of processed and value added pulse products. The pulse production is not sufficient to cater the domestic consumption need. The area under pulse is declining over the years. The productivity is not satisfactory in comparison to the potential yield of the varieties as well as the low yield from traditional plant types grown mostly under rain fed and residual soil moisture condition after harvest of paddy or as pyra crop in paddy without proper crop management. The trend in total factor productivity of black gram and green gram, the major pulses is declining in state of Odisha and that of chick pea in Madhya Pradesh. The deficit in pulse production has led to rise in price of processed pulses due to its import to meet the domestic requirement.

Extension Teaching

• Extension teaching defined as a sequence of progressive steps, undertaken to create situations that are conducive to effective learning.
• According to Leagans (1961) extension methods are the devices used to create situation in which communication can takeplace between the instructor and learner.
• The purpose of using an extension teaching method is to create opportunities to establish rapport over a subject matter between the communicator and learners.

Theory

Extension Teaching Methods: Methods by using them new information can pass freely between the extension worker and rural communities. Extension education is mainly concerned with the dissemination of useful and practical information relating to rural life and helping the rural people in the practical application of such knowledge to rural situations. Extension teaching methods can be classified on the basis of:

The basic aim of extension system is to bring about a change in the behaviour of the people with whom the work is done. Change in behaviour pertains to change in knowledge, skills, attitude, understanding, etc about a particular technology which we want to diffuse. For this purpose, the extension workers essentially function as teachers to bring about adoption of new technologies by making regular contact with livestock owners through various means. He visualizes the problems of rural community in proper perspective and organizes the meaningful learning situation for effective learning. It calls for appropriate use of different extension teaching techniques. The desirable changes in the behaviour of learners depend upon the skill of the extension worker as teacher in choosing the various extension teaching techniques which are found to be most effective in the relevant situations.

The main job of the extension worker is to bring about behavioural changes in the rural people. A number of extension methods are required to perform such behavioural changes among the rural people which form the tools of the extension workers. These tools are called extension teaching methods. Extension teaching methods may be defined as the devices used to create situations in which communication can take place between the extension worker and learner. The effectiveness of various teaching methods depends on the combination of the same. Similarly, the adoption of innovation is positively related to the combination of different extension teaching methods, at different stages of the learning process.

Extension Teaching Method

The function of extension education is to bring about desirable changes in the behaviour of a human being. The changes in human being are produced by increasing his/her knowledge level, improving skill and changing attitude. For all these to happen, an individual has to be taught, trained and communicated. So, the extension education emphasizes the process of communication, and if you examine, you will find that the extension education is broadly a teaching-learning process in which a learning situation is created by an extension worker/ teacher by which an individual attempt to change his/her behaviour. The learning situation created in extension education process is a condition or environment in which the elements like teacher, learner, subject matter, physical facilities and teaching methods and aids for promoting learning are present in a dynamic relationship with one another. The quality of learning depends upon the conditions created by the teacher for learners to learn. However, the learner is the key element in the teaching and learning process. His willingness and desire for change are very important. The third element; subject matter is the content of the message that the extension worker wants to transfer to the client. Transfer of the subject matter will be easy and effective if it is valid, correct, based on facts, applicable to practical life situation and need based. Effective teaching-learning process is also affected if physical facilities like place, light, ventilation, seating arrangements, etc., are not properly provided to both teachers as well as to the learners. Besides all these, the transfer of subject matters to the learners requires the help of suitable teaching methods, aids and media. Proper selection and handling of methods and aids facilitate in creating the desirable learning situation. The teaching methods and aids should be simple, easy to handle, suitable to subject matter, readily available, suited to the environment and needs of the learners.

1.1. Extension

Educational process for bringing about maximum number of desirable changes among the people

Extension teaching methods: Methods by using them new information can

pass freely between the extension worker and rural communities. Extension

education is mainly concerned with the dissemination of useful and practical

information relating to rural life and helping the rural people in the practical

application of such knowledge to rural situations. Extension teaching methods

can be classified on the basis of:

Some Definition

Farmer’s call: Call made by a farmer or homemaker at the working place of

the extension agent for getting information.

Adoptive/minikit trial: It is a method of determining the suitability of a new

practice in farmer’s situation.

Farm clinic: It is a facility developed for diagnosis and treatment of farm

problems and provides specialist advice to individual farmers.

Field day/ Farmer’s day: Methods of motivating the people to adopt a new

practice by showing what has actually been achieved by applying the practice

under field condition.

Extension teaching methods encompass the array of strategies employed to facilitate meaningful communication between instructors and learners within educational settings. In essence, a method denotes a systematic approach to executing tasks or achieving objectives, characterized by a structured progression of steps in a logical and orderly manner.

Thus, an extension teaching method can be construed as a series of progressive steps designed to cultivate environments conducive to effective learning outcomes. As articulated by Leagans (1961), these methods, also referred to as communication methods, serve as instrumental tools for fostering communication channels between instructors and learners. Ensminger (1957) further emphasizes the prerequisite for extension workers to possess comprehensive knowledge of available methods, discern optimal utilization scenarios, and adeptly employ each method to maximize efficacy.

The functions attributed to extension teaching methods are multifaceted

• Facilitating communication channels wherein learners can actively observe, listen, and engage in practical application of the subject matter.

• Provoking cognitive and/or physical responses from learners, thereby stimulating desired actions or reactions.

• Guiding learners through various stages of the teaching-learning process, encompassing attention, interest, desire, conviction, action, and satisfaction.

Classification of Extension Teaching Methods

Wilson and Gallup (1955) initially sought to categorize extension teaching methods based on their utilization and structural characteristics. In a subsequent effort, Bains (1987) endeavoured to refine this classification by considering additional factors such as stages of the learning and adoption processes, categories of adopters, cost implications, required skill levels, time expenditure, and intended behavioural modifications. However, while these classifications contribute to scholarly discourse, their practical utility may be limited. Among the various classification schemes proposed, the most prevalent and pragmatic approach categorizes extension teaching methods based on their intended usage

Introduction

A teacher uses different aids in addition to lectures for effective teaching. Similarly, a trainer uses different training methods to make learning effective. In Agricultural Extension the extension worker as a teacher has to design and use appropriate teaching methods depending upon the group to make the teaching effective. According to Leagans (1961) “extension teaching methods are the basic and proven devices used to create situations in which communication can take place between the instructor and the learner.” Extension methods are powerful tools for extension workers to effectively communicate certain messages. Some studies suggest that the adoption of innovations by the farmers requires different teaching methods at different stages of learning. These methods are required for imparting new knowledge and skills to the farmers to adopt new practices for their increased production and income. The choice of extension teaching methods depends on the target audience, location, and availability of time for teaching.

Classification of extension Teaching Methods

Extension teaching methods are classified according to use, form, and function as shown in Table 4.1.

Classification According to Use

The extension methods could be individual or interpersonal, group contact, or mass contact as shown in Figure 4.1.

Individual contact methods: Individual methods provide face- to- face contact with individuals. Those techniques are very effective in teaching new technologies and creating goodwill among farmers and extension people. When few people are to be contacted and they are at a close distance, the individual methods are effective. The extension worker contacts directly to an individual and gets his feedback through different means like personal visits, telephones, SMS, etc. The individual contact method is useful for rapport building and easy to obtain feedback. But the method is time- consuming and quite expensive.

The Context

The global food system is dynamic, with newer challenges every day with altering production and consumption subtleties. Roles played by various stakeholders of the global agricultural food system and rural development has changed tremendously in the last few decades. Smallholder farmer stakeholders to multinational companies are affected differently by the present difficulties likethe pandemic, climate change, and other factors. The various stakeholders respond, play roles to the challenges differently, and eventually become the agricultural value chains. The newer challenges affect the vulnerable actors like women, smallholder farmers, etc., who constitute asignificant portion of the value chains. This is specifically so in developing countries like India, where the processes of the ‘feminization of agriculture’progresses exponentially. Managing sucha value chain is highly challenging as access and sustainability of various actors differ considerably. Agro-advisory service toolkit for gender-responsive value chain analysis and development aims to select and analyze value chains for opportunities to improve the vulnerable situation and its actors seeking for resilience and reducing gender inequalities. It is now considered a development strategy to promote economic growth. There is an urgent need that thesmallholder farming systems are integrated into the value chains to serve local, national, regional, and global markets.

The chapter presents a brief overview of the gender-responsive value chain concept, factors that limit women’s participation in the value chain, interventions to improve the efficiency of value chains in a gendered perspective, and the development of value chain tools for addressing gender inequitiesin the agricultural system, and the challenges faced.

In India’s National Extension Programme, professional workers constitute the link between the people and the institute created to advance economic and social change upon the character philosophy, technical knowledge and compliance of these workers largely rests for the success of the programme. Hence the quality of these workers and their training is the important element to be dealt with properly and guided wisely.

In early fifties, the Gramsevak / Village Level Workers (VLW’s) served as a key-man in Community Development Programme and therefore, the Government of India aimed at imparting him by better training and supervisory assistance. As a step in this direction, Gramsevak Training Centers were started to impart training to GramSevaks / VLW’s and Extension Officers were appointed in block for better supervisory assistance.

Agricultural colleges and universities were first formed in the belief that farm production could be increased as a result of the systematic application of current technology and agricultural research findings. The mission of these early educational institutions was to scientifically study agriculture with the participation of the farming community; to carry the results to a broad range of farmers who could use them; and to train farmers, extension workers, agricultural teachers and researchers so that agricultural production could continue to be increased on a sustained basis. In many of the developing countries, agricultural education and training have failed to adapt and respond to the realities of rural societies. In response to the urgent need to review and adjust teaching and training in agriculture at all levels. The training is an important tool to overcome the problem faced by the rural people all over the world. The availability of the resource is the crucial determining factors to strengthen the training Programme for the needy people.

Emerging Paradigm of Extension Plus:

This is now widely recognized that Animal Husbandry extension needs to reform in ways that allow it to fulfill a diverse set of objectives in worldwide. This ranges from better linking of farmers to input and output markets, to reducing the vulnerability and enhancing voice of the rural poor, development of micro-enterprises, poverty reduction and environmental conservation and strengthening and support of farmer organizations’. So while technology transfer is important, what is also required is the strengthening of locally relevant innovation processes and knowledge systems. Extension is being forced to embrace a broadened mandate that while in reality has always existed, has rarely been addressed. The limitations of a single model of extension for all kinds of situations are now well recognized and there is an increasing realization that new extension approaches need to emerge locally, based on experimentation, learning and adaptation to prevailing circumstances. The need for this new and expanded view of extension is clearly emerging in the case of Indian agriculture, which is characterized by declining land and water availability, degradation of natural resources, an unfavorable price regime, low value addition, particularly in rural areas and increasing competition from import of agricultural commodities. Farmers thus find themselves in an ever more complex production and market environment, with an expanding need for information and services.

First Line Extension system

Realizing the scope and importance of integrated working of interrelationship between research, education and extension functions, the ICAR established a section of Extension Education at its headquarters in 1971, which was later on strengthen and renamed as division of agriculture extension. It was intended to enforces this functional relationship down the line in the research institute, agricultural universities and allied institutions.

When Gene Expression Appears to Alter Mendelian Ratios Lethal Allele Combinations

Us recessive lethal alleles eliminaters a progeny class. Multiple Alleles

A gene can have more than two alleles, but a diploid individual only has one or two of them.

Different allele combinations can produce different phenotypes and different severities of symptoms.

Different Dominance Relationships

Incomplete dominance of an allele produces a phenotype in the heterozygote that is intermediate between that of either homozygote.

Codominant alleles are both expressed in a heterozygote. Epistasis-When One Gene Affects Expression of Another

In epistasis, one gene masks the effect of another. An example of epistasis in humans is the Bombay phenotype.

The Bombay phenotype results in O type blood for individuals homozygous recessive for the recessive “h” allele.

This group includes a large number of bony fishes in which the primary upper and lower jaws are supplemented by the addition of membrane bones which forms secondary jaws. Hence they are called as teleostomi or perfect mouthed fishes.

All major groups of fresh water fishes lived successfully and flourished during the Devonian period which is also called as the “Age of fishes”. Teleostomii are characterized by a unique mechanism of opening the mouth by lowering the mandible through hyoid apparatus, therefore the skull is hyostylic or the amphistylic. Presence of an ossified operculum, an interhyal bone and the branchiostegal rays are the diagnostic features of this group.

Introduction

On the basis of inputs based ecological principles, the all possible and available resources are allocated to achieve maximum outputs. One of the most promising paradigms of external inputs based agriculture that have emerged for the benefit of small scale resource-poor farmers and that is termed as low external input and sustainable agriculture (LEISA), which can enable such farmers to achieve higher income and attain sustainability by: (i) Optimizing the use of locally available resources, thereby achieving a synergetic effect amongst the various components of the farming system (soil, water, animals, plants, etc.) so that they complement each other in the production of output; and (ii) Minimizing the use of external inputs, except where there is a serious deficiency and where the effect on the system will be to increase recycling of nutrients.

Low External Inputs and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA): Low external input sustainable agriculture (LEISA) is a way of thinking about farming. It incorporates some ideas found in what people have labelled eco-logical, organic, regenerative, biological, or simply alternative agriculture. Amongst the goals that now drive the interest in low-input sustainable agriculture, two stand out: profitable and productive farming, and protection of resources and environmental quality. Companion objectives include ensuring safe and nutritious food supplies and reducing health risks to farm workers. LEISA involves farmers substituting management, scientific information, and on-farm resources for some of the purchased inputs they currently depend on maintain production sustainability. Sustainability has been defined, for the purpose of including resource-poor as well as resource-rich farmers, as managing agricultural productivity while maintaining or improving the resource base. This means that agriculture must be environmentally solid, economically feasible, socially scrupulous, and flexible (for future needs).

8.1 Life Cycle
As in the case of a typical Lepidopteran insect, the silkworm passes through four distinct stages, i.e., egg, larva, pupa and adult during its life cycle, the duration of which may last for six to eight weeks depending upon racial characteristics and climatic conditions. Multivoltine races found in tropical areas have the shortest life cycle with the egg, larval, pupal and adult stages lasting for 9-12 days, 20-24 days, 10-12 days and 3-6 days respectively. (Fig.8.1)
In uni/bivoltine races, the egg period of the activated egg may last for 11-14 days, the larval period 24-28 days, the pupal period 12-15 days and the adult stage 6-10 days. In nature the univoltine races produce only one generation during the spring, and the second generation egg goes through a period of rest or hibernation till the next spring. In the case of the bivoltine races, however, the second generation egg does not hibernate and hatches within 11-12 days and produces the second generation normally during summer. But it is the third generation egg which undergoes hibernation and hatches only the next spring, thus producing only two generations in a year (bivoltine). In multivoltine races, the life cycle is the shortest because of the warmer ecological conditions where they are reared, and so they may yield as many as seven to eight generations in a year in tropical sericultural areas such as India, Thailand, etc. Silkworm rearing is, therefore, continuous in tropical areas whereas in sub-tropical and temperate zones it is mostly seasonal lasting from spring to early autumn.

Ducks are prone to several external parasites and are also affected by external parasites found in other poultry birds. Birds are plagued by an remarkable range of ectoparasites, ranging from feather-feeding lice, to feather degrading bacteria and many of these ectoparasites have severe harmful effects on host health. External parasites can make ducks very uncomfortable, transmits several diseases and can be fatal in untreated cases. Among the ectoparasites lice is most commonly found in ducks. Ectoparasites infested birds become restless and the feeding and sleeping is disturbed resulting in decreased growth rate and egg production.

Common ectoparasites present on ducks-

In previous section we discussed about the ability of the research design to precisely detect the relationship between cause and effect under controlled conditions. But in social research it becomes difficult to conduct the research under highly controlled conditions and moreover many of the researches in social science aim at prediction rather than understanding.

As we discussed earlier, aim of science is development theory, understanding, prediction and explanation of natural phenomenon. In many of the cases we are more interested in predicting the occurrence of social phenomenon rather than explaining it or understanding its relationship with other phenomenon. Under such conditions internal validity is of less use because a relationship that is established in artificially controlled conditions (with high internal validity) may fail to express itself in natural setup due to effect of extraneous variables. When the relationship between cause and effect is weak enough to be expressed in natural setup then it is of less use in predicting the phenomenon. Under such conditions we require experiments that are conducted in nearly natural setup, so that we can generalize the findings of the research to the wider domain.

Introduction

Milk, which is recognized for its significant nutritional and immunological value to humans as well as animals, is the primary source of vital nutrients and bioactive components that contribute to the newborn’s growth and development. In addition, it includes extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are membrane-bound vesicles that are discharged by cells into biofluids like milk. EVs play an important function in intercellular communication and have demonstrated potential in therapeutic applications. This is extremely important since EVs are abundant in milk and carry a wide range of cargo, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, that supports to their classification as bioactive components of milk Milk-derived exosomes have intriguing properties as nanocarriers for theranostic care.

Essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic oily fragrance liquid extracted from plants, containing easily evapourated chemical compounds at room temperature. Essential oils are extracted from the different plant parts including the flowers, leaves, stem, bark, and roots, and they are extracted from different techniques. The most preferable method of extraction is hydro distillation which is easy to use and cheap. Essential oils are used in every field of life, used in aromatherapy, and act as antifungal, antioxidant, anxiety, pain relievers, and depression.

Introduction
1.1. Definition and Significance of Natural Products
Natural products are chemical compounds or substances derived from living organisms in nature. These diverse sources, including plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, produce a wide range of chemical structures and functions. The significance of natural products lies in their diverse biological activities and potential applications in therapeutics, agriculture, and various industries. Natural products have been used for centuries in traditional medicine and continue to serve as the foundation for many modern pharmaceuticals, providing templates for the development of synthetic analogues and novel drugs. Their complexity and unique structural features often translate into high biological activity, making them valuable in the discovery of new therapeutic agents. Furthermore, natural products are generally perceived as safer and more environmentally friendly compared to synthetic chemicals, contributing to their appeal in numerous applications.
1.2. Historical Perspective on the Use of Natural Products
The use of natural substances has a long history, with evidence of their application in ancient civilizations such as Egypt, China, India, and Greece. Traditional medical systems, including Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Indigenous practices, have utilized plants, animals, and minerals to treat various ailments. These early practices laid the foundation for the systematic investigation of natural products and their medicinal potential. One of the earliest documented uses of natural products in medicine is the Ebers Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian text from around 1550 BCE (Packard, 1931). Similarly, ancient Indian texts, such as the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita, describe the use of plant-based medicines in Ayurvedic tradition. The scientific investigation of natural products gained momentum in the 19th century, with the isolation of pure compounds, including morphine, quinine, and penicillin.
1.3. Current Trends and Applications
Natural products are invaluable in various industries, serving as a rich source of bioactive compounds for drug development, sustainable agriculture, and functional food products. Many modern medicines, such as the anticancer drug paclitaxel and the antimalarial artemisinin, are derived from natural sources. These naturally-derived compounds often possess unique structures and mechanisms of action that are difficult to replicate synthetically.

Phenolic compounds constitute a major class of plant secondary metabolites that are widely distributed in the Plant Kingdom. Plant phenolics are biosynthesized through the shikimate/phenylpropanoid pathway leading to different compound classes. They may occur in their natural sources in free forms, as glycosylated or acylated derivatives, and as oligomeric and polymerized structures, such as hydrolyzable and condensed tannins, phlorotannins or lignins. They may also be found linked to plant matrix components such as cell walls, carbohydrates or proteins. It should be indicated that although the terms “plant phenolics” and “polyphenols” are indistinguishably used by some authors, they are not synonymous.

Materials Required

Fruit, pulper, fruit mill, hydraulic press, screw type juice extractor, stainless steel pans, chemical preservatives, glass bottles, closures, crown corks, crown corking machine, plastic barrels.

Procedure

    1.    Select and weigh sound fruits/vegetables for extraction of juice/pulp.    
    2.    Wash and peel the fruits as required.
    3.    Extract the juice by hot or cold process.
    4.    Pasteurize the juice/pulp to inactivate the enzymes and partially kill microorganisms.
    5.    Preserve the juice/pulp by heat processing after hot filling and hermetic sealing or by addition of permissible quantities of suitable preservatives.
    6.    Label the bottles properly and keep them for storage

The decision whether to extract the seed from the fruit at a central seed processing depot or close to the site of, and soon after, collection must be made in the light of local conditions. The reduction in bulk and weight of the collected material greatly facilitates transport and for this reason the extraction of the seed from relatively bulky fruits may be desirable at the site close to the collection area. In some cases it has also been found that early extraction of the seed is essential to maintain maximum viability. The use of the sun drying to speed extraction of the seed is common for many conifers and trees with woody dehiscent fruits. However, too rapid drying of fruits may sometimes cause them to remain closed and prevent later extraction, a condition known as “case-hardening” of cones. This is true for the cones of some pines if they are collected before peak maturity. In such cases it is necessary to keep the fruits under cover, with a good circulation of air, for one or two weeks before more rapid drying is attempted.

The quality of essential oils is very complex. An individual oil may have hundreds of ingredients, the principle components being a group of complex substances known as terpenes and their compounds or derivatives. Due to this reason a single essence has a wide range of therapeutic actions.
The chemical constituents of plants are of two kinds: products of primary metabolism and products of secondary metabolism. The first are mainly carbohydrates, amino acids and fixed oils produced by light-absorbing (photosynthetic) processes. The latter group of chemicals arises from the primary metabolites. They include glycosides, terpenoids, alkaloid and essential oils. Essential oils lack the water soluble constituents such as tannins,
bitter compounds sugar, mucilages and pectins, playing important role in the medical action of the plant.
The essential oils have been credited with possessing almost all therapeutic properties in a concentrated form. The therapeutic properties of the whole oil are that result of synergism: an interaction of all its chemical constituents working harmoniously together so that the whole essential oil becomes more potent than the sum of its individual parts.
The essential oil lacks certain chemical compounds found in the raw plant material. It is still a highly complex substance, that it cannot be replicated in the laboratory. Even though high-tech processes such as gas liquid chromatography (GLC) can separate out main constituents of essential oils. By looking at the chromatogram, it is impossible to isolate the numerous trace elements including number of unidentified compounds which make up
the whole.

Essential, volatile or ethereal oils are mixtures composed of volatile liquid and solid compounds which vary widely in regard to their composition and boiling points. Plants owe their fragrance to presence of traces of essential oils in different parts. Numerous fragrance materials are present in roots, stems, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and heartwoods.     
Several processes like distillation, enfleurage, maceration, expression, solvent extraction and fluid extraction are available for extraction of aroma principles. Application of these processes, either singly or in combination depends upon nature of material and essential oil or absolute intended to be recovered.

DNA can be easily isolated and purified after size selection on an agarose gel. The fragment of interest is simply cut out of the gel with a razor blade and purified by a number of different methods.The easiest is to use a method that involves first dissolving the agarose slice in a solution at 50°C, then binding the DNA from the melted agarose to a silica-gel membrane.

Principle

In this method following gel electrophoresis using low gelling/ melting temperature agarose, the band of interest is removed from the gel. The agarose slice is then melted and subjected to phenol extraction.

There are many different methods of extracting DNA bands from an agarose gel. Which one you choose will probably depend on the consumables you have available in your lab. Another important consideration is the yield/ purity of the DNA after extraction. Agarose contains various impurities which may inhibit downstream reactions if not efficiently removed from the DNA. We used to give the generic term ‘hoonose’ to the unspecified carbohydrates that co-purified along with the DNA and inhibited enzyme reactions. Modern spin-column kits are very good at removing impurities, old-fashioned ‘kitchen sink’ methods are less good.

Cutting Out the DNA Band

Most of the methods require you to cut out the band. You must visualise the band, in an ethidium bromide stained gel, in a dark-room on a UV light- box (a trans-illuminator). UV is dangerous, wear gloves, long-sleeves and face protection. Never look at UV with unprotected eyes. If possible, set the trans-illuminator to long-wavelegth UV (or low-power) and minimise the amount of time the DNA is exposed. This is because the UV mutagenises the DNA at a measurable rate. Use a scalpel blade to cut around the band of interest. Switch off the transilluminator, switch on the white light and carefully remove the band from the gel and place it on the glass. It is good to trim off as much empty agarose as possible so go back to UV illumination briefly to do this. Place the excised band in a 1.5mL microfuge tube.

here are many methods for extracting DNA from gel apart from using commercial kits, some methods however yield cleaner DNA than others.

1. Freeze squeeze

Excise band and place pieces of it in a home-made spin-column (a piece of filter placed in a PCR 0.5ml eppendorf, pierced the bottom of the PCR tube with a needle). Place the PCR tube at -20 °C for 15-20 mins or freeze in liquid N2. Then place the PCR tube into the 1.5 ml eppendorf and spin at top speed in a microfuge for 15 mins, collect DNA solution which can be EtOH ppt or use directly.

2. Powdered silica

Melt excised bands at 70°C cool and add equal volume of TE-buffered phenol and mix. Spin for 5 min, remove aqueous phase, repeat and EtOh ppt. the DNA.

3. Electroelution

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carries the genetic instruction for the biological development and functioning of all cellular forms of life. It is the blue print which contains the instructions to construct other cell components. Molecular biology experiments often require isolation of DNA for a variety of purposes like construction of DNA libraries, gene cloning, PCR and other marker technology, etc. The extraction of DNA from actively growing tissue is relatively easier yielding higher quantities of DNA.

Principle

The cell wall is ruptured and the proteins associated with DNA are removed by detergent like SDS or by interaction with phenol. Lipids are extracted with alcohol and DNA is precipitated by isopropanol.

Materials Required

Maize seed samples, Liquid nitrogen, CTAB (Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide), Chloroform, isoamyl alcohol, Sodium chloride, Glacial acetic acid, Isopropyl alcohol and 70% ice cold ethanol, TE buffer (5X) (24.2 g of Tris base, 5.71 ml of galcial acetic acid, 10 ml of 0.5M EDTA (pH 8.0) , dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water). Prepare 1X TE as per the requirement.

Introduction 
The increasing prices of fast-depleting fossil fuels and their environmental impact have driven the quest for alternative fuels for diesel engines. Because of their higher biomass yield, faster growth rates, and superior photosynthetic efficiency when compared to other energy crops like soybean and rapeseed, microalgae are considered as promising candidates for biofuel production (Mubarak et al., 2015). Numerous species of microalgae have been found to have high lipid contents, making them attractive cell platforms for the synthesis of lipids. Their significance as a backup source of bioenergy in the future is indicated by the ease with which their lipids can be transformed into biodiesel (Ren et al., 2021). Tiny photosynthetic organisms known as microalgae are the ancestors of eukaryotic plants on Earth. These organisms range in size from one to hundred microns and are either unicellular or multicellular (Udayan et al., 2022). Due to the genetic and biochemical diversity of their lineages, algae are able to synthesize a wide range of metabolites, including lipids (Manning, 2022). Glycerolipids are the most prevalent and well-known lipid class in microalgae. Glycerolipids are categorized into two classes based on their functions: storage lipids and structural lipids. Membrane lipids, a type of structural lipid, play a crucial role in forming cell and organelle membranes. They typically consist of two fatty acid groups attached to a glycerol backbone, along with a polar group bound to the glycerol structure (Morales et al., 2021). In contrast, polar lipids have a higher oxygen content and possess charged side groups, enabling them to moderately interact with water. Examples include phospholipids and glycolipids (Manning, 2022). Microalgal lipid metabolism predominantly relies on the de novo fatty acid biosynthesis pathway and the triacylglycerol (TAG) synthesis route (Zhu et al., 2022). Therefore, accurately estimating the composition of the lipid fraction is crucial for determining its potential applications, whether as a raw material for biofuel production or for nutraceutical and/or food purposes (Viegas et al., 2020). The production of biodiesel from microalgae presents a novel approach to generating renewable and sustainable energy. Additionally, different techniques, including lipid extraction and transesterification, are utilized to transform lipid-rich microalgae biomass into biodiesel (Gaurav et al., 2024). Microalgae possess thick-walled cell structures, which restrict the release of their bioactive compounds due to the rigidity of the microalgal matrix. Consequently, selecting suitable pre-treatment and extraction methods is essential for effectively obtaining lipids from microalgae while preserving their bioactivity. Traditional methods for lipid extraction, such as Soxhlet extraction, Folch extraction, and Bligh-Dyer extraction, have been used for a considerable time. While these techniques are generally easy to use and cost-effective, which encourages their adoption, they also have drawbacks, including high consumption of organic solvents, environmental pollution, and extended extraction times that can last several hours. Thus, it is essential to investigate suitable techniques that enhance the extraction rate and lower costs while ensuring the bioactive properties of lipids, enabling better industrial applications of microalgae (Zhou et al., 2022). In recent years, the use of nanotechnology and nanoparticles has emerged as a novel approach for extracting valuable metabolites or bioproducts from microalgae. Nanoparticles (NPs) are materials engineered with at least one dimension measuring less than 100 nanometers (nm). Due to their small size and large surface

EXPERIMENT

TECHNOLOGY FOR EXTRACTION OF KERNEL OIL FROM STONE FRUITS

Apricot, peach, plum, cherries, nectarines etc are the important stone fruits belonging to the family Rosaceae. These fruits are known to contain stones/pits i.e., apricot (6.0-11.5%), peach (7.5-11.5%), plum (4.5-7.0%) and these stones are reported to contain kernels (%) apricot (28.0-32.0%), peach (5.7-5.9%), plum (10.0-20.8%), almond (28.0-30.0%). These kernels can yield an oil yield of (42.5-45.5%), (38.5-41.5%), (39.2-40.6%) and (52.0-58.9%), respectively. Thus, these stone fruit kernels can be utilized for extraction of kernel oil by using the improved technology developed for extraction of oil. The developed technology consists of mechanical decortication of stones by the use of mechanical decorticator, kernel separation by using specific gravity separation technique, oil extraction by using table oil expeller and oil filtration through oil filter press followed by packing in PET bottles and PE pouches.

Mechanical decorticator: The mechanical decorticator is a type of roller crusher consisting of two rollers moving in inward opposite directions with the help of 3 HP motor and is provided with a hopper and feeder assembly. The clearance between two rollers is adjusted according to the respective size of stones.

Table oil expeller: Oil expeller is a 24 patti screw type oil expeller driven by 7HP motor, in which the kernels are fed into the moving hopper at pre-determined flow rate, which are pressed in between rollers (worm) and side walls of the expeller. The kernels are then, passed through the expeller 3-4 times until a thin slice of press cake is obtained.

Introduction

Fruits, vegetables and some non food crops are rich source of natural antioxidants, food colorants and other bioactive natural products. Nutraceuticals and natural food colorants exhibit anti-oxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial and anti-proliferative properties. They tend to enhance ability of the body to fight, cure and prevent diseases. Natural anti-oxidants are particularly important because they scavenge harmful superoxide, hydroxy, and/or peroxide free radicals, and protect the body against a variety of cancers, heart and other life style related diseases. Vegetable like orange carrot, red carrot, black carrot, beet root, tomato, chilli, and fruits like pomegranate, cherries, berries, watermelon and jamun are rich source of natural antioxidants and food colorants. While tomato and red carrot are rich in lycopenes, and carotenes; black carrot is a major source of stable acylated anthocyanins. The dark red colour of beet root is associated with anthocyanin, betacyanin and betaxanthins. Similarly, the red colour of chilli is attributed to the carotenoid pigment capsanthin. Capsaicinoids in chilli are responsible for the hot flavour and anti-inflammatory properties. Antioxidant and other beneficial health effects of pomegranate, cherries, berries, etc. have been attributed to anthocyanins and related polyphenols. Jamun, an under-utilized tropical fruits is rich in anthocyanins and flavonoides. Like anthocyanins, flavonoides and carotenes, lycopene helps to prevent various types of cancer particularly the prostate cancer.

Microalgae represent a promising alternative to renewable source of feedstock for natural food colorants and nutraceuticals and functional food production. With over 40,000 identified species, microalgae are one of the most diverse groups of organisms on earth. They naturally produce large quantities of many biomaterials. Out of the diverse compounds produced by microalgae, the algal pigments such as phycobillins, carotenoids and xanthophylls have gained commercial importance owing to their unique and multiple applications as food and cosmetic colourants, antioxidants and several beneficial effects of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical value. Microalgal research over the years has geared up significantly from outdoor mass culture in algal ponds, refinement of the cultivation process and life cycle assessment, downstream processing of biomass (i.e., harvesting, dewatering, and drying), to extraction, to systems/process scale-up analysis and development of an economic feasibility model for commercialization of algal biomaterials with nutraceutical properties. Among the various microalgae, Spirulina and Haematococcus are the major source of naturally occurring biopigments which are gaining importance as natural pigments in food, drug and cosmetic industries as an alternative to currently used synthetic colour. Improvement in the cultivation methodologies and use of closed photobioreactors of different configurations, fermentation reactors, open reactors and tubular reactors have opened up new vistas for the development of microalgal biotechnology and bioprospecting. The main constraints in non-exploitation for mass cultivation of microalgae are their slow growth rate, low biomass yield and inadequate culture methodologies and these issues remain to be addressed.

1. Algal Biomass

Algae is defined as heterogeneous assemblage of organisms that range in size from tiny cells to giant seaweeds, thus algae mostly are photosynthetic species which include eukaryotes and prokaryotic Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and live in aquatic habitats. They are ubiquitous in nature and are found in variety of environments ranging from soil, sand, marshes, brackish water, sea and fresh water. Most of them are capable of manufacturing their own food.

Microalgal research is offering wide potential in food biotechnology and is gaining more attention because of presence of wide range of bioactive and nutraceutical properties and added health benefits.The increasing population is one of the major growing concerns of today’s world. To meet the nutritional requirement of the rising population, researchers are looking for optional sources for food which are easy to cultivate, cost effective and produce large amount of bioactive compounds useful to prevent major diseases. Chlorella is unicellular green alga that is a potential source of nutrients like carotenoids, minerals, vitamins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Especially, omega-3 fatty acid and carotenoids have received considerable interests due to their roles in the prevention of chronic diseases. Lutein and zeaxanthin from Chlorella have been shown to be associated with eye health and function. Beta-carotene is known to reduce the risk of CVDs and certain cancers. Animal studies also demonstrated that Chlorella supplementation reduced the serum cholesterol levels.

Similarly, the blue green microalgae Spirulina, possesses diverse biological activities and nutritional significance. Regular consumption of Spirulina fortified food improves immune system by increasing phagocytic activity of macrophages, stimulating the production of antibodies and cytokines, increase accumulation of NK cells into tissue and activation and mobilization of T and B cells. Spirulina have also shown to perform regulatory role on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism by exhibiting glucose and lipid profile correcting activity in experimental animals and in diabetic patients. They were also found to be active against several enveloped viruses including herpes virus, cytomegalovirus, influenza virus and HIV. They are capable to inhibit carcinogenesis due to antioxidant properties.

The intricate balance between the Earth’s atmosphere and its ecosystems has always been a subject of fascination and concern, particularly when it comes to the impact of extreme weather events on agriculture. The delicate balance that sustains life on our planet is often disrupted by the very forces that make our environment dynamic and diverse. Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, floods, and heatwaves, have become a recurring theme in the narrative of global agriculture, leaving in their wake trails of devastation, economic loss, and food insecurity. Agriculture, the backbone of many economies around the world, is inherently sensitive to weather patterns. The cycle of planting, growth, and harvesting is deeply intertwined with the climate and weather conditions of a region. Any significant deviation from the expected weather patterns can have far-reaching consequences for crop yields, livestock health, and ultimately, the livelihoods of those dependent on farming and related activities. The relationship between weather and agriculture is not just about the immediate impacts of extreme events but also about the long-term changes in climate that alter the very fabric of agricultural practices and productivity. Weather hazards and disasters, by their nature, are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change, posing unprecedented challenges to agricultural systems worldwide. These events not only affect the quantity and quality of agricultural produce but also have profound implications for the environment, economy, and society at large. For instance, a severe drought can lead to crop failure, affecting food availability and prices, while also depleting water resources, which in turn can exacerbate land degradation and loss of biodiversity. The global interconnectedness of food systems means that the impacts of extreme weather events on agriculture in one part of the world can have ripple effects on food security and economies elsewhere. This interconnectedness underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding of the complex relationships between weather patterns, agricultural productivity, and the resilience of food systems. By examining the causes, consequences, and responses to extreme weather events and their impacts on agriculture, we can begin to unravel the intricacies of these interactions and explore strategies for mitigating the adverse effects and enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems in the face of an increasingly unpredictable climate.

Abstract

The ability of life to dwell in extreme environments on our mother planet earth right from a thirsty desert environment to highly water saturated oceans, gave the scientists a new area to work in during the 1990’s. The discovery of microbial life which had the ability to survive in conditions which were highly inhospitable for the normal life gave rise to a revolution in the field of science and technology. Extremophiles are one of the most primitive forms of life on earth since they have accustomed themselves to the present day harsh conditions compared to the normal environment. The last few years have seen a massive increase in their discovery, since the areas which once were thought barren by the scientists are now found inhabited by the microbial life. The extremophiles endure conditions right from extreme temperatures, pressure, salt concentration to radiations, metal tolerance, pH etc. During the past few years the industrial applications associated with the extremophiles and their products have led to their intensive exploration. Keeping in view the present and the future scenario, extensive efforts are still required in order to exploit the extreme environments for extremophiles and their products.

Food extrusion technology is a popular means of preparing snacks and ready-to-prepare food items. It is a method of size enlargement in which tiny granular food or powdered particles are strengthened into bigger parts with various forms, texture, color, etc. Extrusion cooking or thermoplastic extrusion is a common extrusion technology considered to be a process of HTST (high temperature, short time). It allows the manufacturing of a wide range of food products with little or no alteration of the fundamental equipment and adequate process control. Extrusion cooking is used for starchy and protein substances to make nutritious foods. Generally, such products are rich in calories and incorporation of protein rich fish improves its nutritional value. Most of the cereal-based extruded snacks were primarily made from maize, wheat and rice. However, these cereals (e.g. rice) have comparatively low protein content (6 - 8 g/100 g db) and an elevated amino acid profile in glutamic and aspartic acid, whereas lysine is the restricting amino acid. Therefore, it is recommended that protein food ingredient (e.g. fish) be added to the extruded snack products to develop nutrient rich diets.

Fish is considered to be great sources of protein of high dietary importance with a balanced profile of essential amino acids and lipids containing omega-3 fatty acids, in particular essential fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), respectively. EPA and DHA are very essential to normal growth and development. To avoid or moderate coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, other inflammatory and autoimmune illnesses, these vital fatty acids are discovered. The benefits of fish-based extruded products will assist in providing a big population in the nation like India with nutritious and balanced diets.

Extrusion cooking is an emerging technology having advantages of low production cost, capable of producing end products in various shapes and sizes, from a variety of food materials with easy digestibility, maintaining hygiene and high product quality and leaving no effluents or hazardous materials. Minimal energy consumption and processing costs and possibility of flavour addition are the added advantages of technology. The process/technique has the versality and ability to constituently produce a given product in continuity at a given set of pre – determined specifications. It destroys fat splitting enzymes to avoid rancidity and thus extends the shelf life of products considerably. Microorganisms present in food materials are destroyed. It can be effectively utilized to develop functional and designer foods by using several locally available under-utilized food materials. However, it leads to increased package cost as puffed or expanded food products have low bulk density. R & D studies are further needed for co – extrusion of variety of cereals with high fibre content foods and micronutrients.

1.1 Introduction and Background

In present scenario, the word “extrusion” refers to a process by which dry or semi-moist ingredients with varying in-barrel moisture are forced through varying barrel temperature, screw speed and screw configuration through a die opening of the desired cross section. In other words, extrusion is predominantly a thermo-mechanical processing operation that combines several unit operations, including mixing, coating, kneading, venting, shearing, heating, forming, partial drying or puffing, depending on the material and equipment used.

The origins of extrusion are in the metallurgical industry, where in 1797 Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process, wherein a piston driven device was used for making seamless lead pipes. The present understanding of extrusion technology and the developments or improvements in machine design are largely due to research carried out by the plastics industry. In food industry, this technology is in use since 1930 and its popularity is increasing continuously due to its efficiency, continuity and sustainability. In beginning, sausage extruders were developed in the nineteenth century as simple forming machines. One of the original developments which laid the foundation of the food extrusion was the use of pasta press termed as “cold extruder” in mid 1930s. Furthermore, in the late 1930s, General Mills, Incorporation., Minneapolis, MN, USA, first used a single screw extruder in the manufacture of ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals. Later in 1970s, twin screw extruders were used for the manufacture of moist pet-foods. Twin screw extruders were also adapted from polymer industry, as rising food quality and limitations of single screw extruders were demanding a more versatile process for the newer and higher quality products. After 1970s, the extrusion processing with simultaneous use of heat was popularized as a versatile and highly energy efficient with negligible wastage process. In all these years, number of changes has been noted in the extruder design such as changes in screw design, barrel design and also material used for the manufacture of these materials. Barrel liners availability along with already available segmented screws could further add more economics to the process and increased equipment lifetime. For better wearing characteristics, a number of screw elements of different materials are being used in addition to standard nitrided steel for customized processing needs, such as corrosion and wear resistant surface coated steels, stainless steel, satellite welded and bimetallic HIP (Hot Isostatic Press). JBL Feedscrews Limited, a UK based company recently introduced tungsten carbide coated screw in conjunction with a compatible bimetallic barrel. Likewise, a number of options for barrel metallurgy are available to withstand the higher internal pressure and temperature. Barrels lined with hard cobalt based alloy, typically Xaloy, to give abrasion and chemical resistance are also in use, although, the most common material is carbon steel with a nitride interior. Similarly, steam heated or jacketed barrels were used earlier for cooking purpose which gradually replaced by the electric induction heating elements. These HTST cooking extruders are versatile, highly productive and energy efficient processing machines. They can use a wide variety of raw materials and formulations to produce products with increased shelf-life and convenience.

The diagnosis of blindness is as follows: an animal that is blind is apprehensive, easily agitated, has an uptight head position with a feeling gait, stumbles forward, steps up high, collides with obstacles in its path, and lacks the cross reflex, photomotor pupillary reflex, and palpebral reflex. Clinical examination of the eye:

• By necked eye

• By magnifying lenses

• By catoptric test: use to detect opacities of the cornea and lens

• By ophthalmoscope

• By tonometry: use to measure intraocular pressure.

Abstract

It has been established beyond doubt that the drainage architecture and the fluvial histories of river systems give excellent indications not only on the surficial lithology but also on the ongoing morphotectonic processes of the planet earth. Among the various drainage patterns, the ‘eyed drainage’ pattern is considered to be one of the most significant anomalies and such ‘mega eyed’ drainages interpreted from IRS-IA imagery in some of the major river systems in Tamil Nadu, Indian Peninsula, are found to signify ongoing tectonic movements in an otherwise seismically inert shield area.

12.1 Introduction

The name was coined by George W. Snedecor, in honour of Sir Ronald A. Fisher. The object of the F-test is to find out whether the two independent estimates of population variance differ significantly or whether the two samples may be regarded as drawn from the normal populations having the same variance.

The F-test for the equality of two variances

Rationale

The two-sample t-test and the analysis of variance make the assumption of homoscedasticity, i.e. of equal variances in groups of data. The F-test, often called the variance ratio test, may be used to investigate the homoscedasticity of two data sets.

We have to make a decision whether or not the population variances are likely to be different. This means that we need a cut-off for the variance ratio; if the variance ratio exceeds this cut-off value, we will conclude that the variances are unequal.

We determine this cut-off value formally, under the null hypothesis that the two population variances are equal, by referring the ratio to the table of the F-distribution. The degrees of freedom are (n1 – 1) in the numerator (the larger variance) and (n2 – 1) in the denominator (the smaller variance), where n1 and n2 represent the two sample sizes.

For the required significance level in a two-tailed test, therefore, we must halve this tail area. So, for a two-tailed test at the 5% level of significance, we have to relate the test statistic to P = 0.025. For convenience, we give the upper percentage points corresponding to P = 0.025 and P = 0.005 (relating to two tailed P-values of 0.05 and 0.01, respectively) in separate tables.

Facilitated diffusion: Facilitated diffusion is a movement in the direction of a concentration gradient; but it involves moving through a channel protein or a carrier protein. A channel protein is merely a pore in the membrane, and is often gated to control movement. A carrier protein has a binding site where the substance attaches and moved through the membrane.

Facultative CAM: Plants which behave as C₃ under conditions of normal water supply. However, switch over to CAM mode under conditions of water deficit.

FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide): A riboflavin containing co-enzyme of some oxidation reduction reactions.

Facultative long day plant: Facultative photoperiodic plants are more likely to flower under appropriate light conditions, but will eventually flower regardless of length of night.

FADH: In biochemistry, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a redox cofactor, more specifically a prosthetic group, involved in several important reactions in metabolism. FAD can exist in three different redox states, which are quinone, semiquinone and hydroquinone. FAD is converted between these states by accepting or donating electrons. FAD, in its full oxidised form or quinone form, accepts two electrons and two protons to become FADH₂ (hydroquinone form). The semiquinone (FADH) can be formed by either reduction of FAD or oxidation of FADH₂ by accepting or donating one electron and one proton, respectively.

Fagopyrum acutatum (Lehm.) Mansf. ex Hammer (syn. Fagopyrum cymosum (Trev.) Meissn (Polygonaceae): Eng.- Medicinal Buckwheat / Perennial Buckwheat; Hindi – Kutu; Kash.- Tsok Hakh [RC]. A tall branched, puberulous annual growing wild in Drasss, Kargil, Gurez areas at 2800 to 3300 m amsl. Leaves tri-angular; perianth white. Grains acutely 3- cornered.

Factor analysis: Factor analysis is the most commonly employed multivariate procedure in the research studies when there is a systematic interdependence among a set of observed or manifest variables and the research worker is interested in finding out something more fundamental or latent which creates this commonality.