eBook Chapters

Reproduction is the physiological process by which organisms produce offspring. Sexual reproduction involves production of gametes. The gametes are produced by the gonads. The rest of the process of converting the gametes into the offspring involves other reproductive organs. The male and female animals have different genital organs that contribute to reproduction. The organs of reproduction (genital organs) in male include a pair of male gonads the testes (sing.-testis), the epididymis, ductus deferens, the seminal vesicles, a prostate gland, a pair of bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands), the male urethra, and the penis. In female the genital organs include a pair of gonads the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the vagina, the vulva and the mammary glands.

Male genital system

The overall function of the male genital organs is to continuously produce and store the male gametes the sperms, to maintain the continuous supply of semen, to detect estrus in female, and to inseminate and fertilize the female gametes. While the testes are the site for production of sperms, the epididymis, vas deferens and the accessory glands like prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands are responsible for the production of different secretions which mix together and are known as seminal plasma or seminal fluid. The seminal fluid provides a source of energy, buffers, antioxidants and other compounds needed for sperm survivability, maturation and motility. Once spermatozoa are mixed with the seminal fluid, the combined product is called the semen.

Uses of Microorganisms in Biotechnology

Somatostatin was the first human peptide hormone produced by recombinant bacteria

Many important medicines are produced by recombinant microorganisms

Bacterial species can be used as biological control agents

The release of recombinant microorganisms into the environment is sometimes controversial

Microorganisms can reduce environmental pollutants

Millets are the staple food cropsacross the globe. The ability to thrive in harsh conditions established them as most suitable for current climate adversaries. The nutritional richness of millet reminded the need for adding them to our food basket.Despite possessing several desirable traits their cultivation is limited to a few pockets across the globe.Though significant progress has been achieved by conventional and transgenic breeding programs inmillets, there is a need for rapid improvement to meet the current needs.In order to accelerate the pace of breeding efforts, several molecular biology and biotechnology tools are being deployed by plant breeders. In the meantime, genome editing techniques like CRISPR, TALENS, ZFNs, Base and Prime editing have revolutionized the methods of genome engineering among which CRISPR has emerged as the most rapid, convenient and effective mechanism. The availability ofwhole genome sequence information, identified candidate genesfor various traits and successful transformation methods of millets promoted the application of CRISPR and resulted in the improvement of several traits. Initially, its application has been limited due to the restricted policies across the globe but the gradual change in the policies promoted genome editing across several parts of the globe. Thus, the application of genome editing for millet crop improvement can bring back those ancient grains to our food basket.

Genome editing has revolutionized plant breeding, offering precise and efficient methods to enhance crop traits. This chapter provides an overview of genome editing’s principles, applications, challenges, and future prospects in plant breeding. The chapter explores genome editing technologies, with a focus on CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-associated protein 9), TALENs (transcription activator-like effector nucleases), and ZFNs (zinc finger nucleases). CRISPR-Cas9, in particular, has become the go-to tool for precision breeding, allowing scientists to target and modify specific genes with unprecedented accuracy. Applications of genome editing in plant breeding are diverse. It enables the development of crops with enhanced disease resistance, drought tolerance, and improved nutritional content. Additionally, genome-edited crops reduce environmental impact by requiring fewer chemical inputs and promoting sustainable farming practices. Accelerated breeding shortens the time needed to create new crop varieties, addressing urgent agricultural challenges. Looking ahead, the future of genome editing holds exciting possibilities. Continuous advancements in technology promise even more precise editing tools and high-throughput capabilities. Precision breeding will become the norm, allowing for tailored crop varieties and customized agricultural practices.

1. Introduction

Fenugreek (Trigonella sp.) is one among the world’s oldest seed spice crops and has gained a supreme importance due to its extensive pharmacological properties (Basu and Prasad, 2011; Maloo et al., 2020). In ancient time’s fenugreek plant was well known and used as a medicinal drug by Egyptians (Rouk and Mangesha 1963). The Ebers Papyrus (one of the oldest preserved pharmaceutical documents) detailed therapeutic advantages and descriptions in Egypt circa 1500 BC (Betty, 2008). It has gained great importance due to its multifaceted uses which are being exploited by farmer’s and industrialist for different purposes.

In this era of molecular markers in genetic studies, genome analysis encompasses several stages of increasing resolution and sophistication, leading to the generation of high resolution chromosome maps. Since the entire plant kingdom cannot be covered under sequencing projects, molecular markers and their correlation to phenotypes provide us with requisite landmarks for elucidation of genetic variation.

A molecular marker is a site of heterozygosity for some type of DNA variation. Such a DNA marker in mapping analysis is analogous to a conventional heterozygous allelic pair. When they are used for mapping the genome, the identity of this DNA fragment is not important, but is simply used as a reference point to arrange and order the genetic information along the length of a chromosome. The molecular markers provide landmarks along the length of chromosome that facilitate the manipulation of chromosome segments in breeding and chromosome engineering programs.

Abstract

Manipulation of a large number of genes is often required for the improvement of even the simplest character. Molecular marker trace valuable alleles in a segregating population and mapping them. Genome mapping has emerged as a powerful new approach for research in botany, agriculture and other related fields. Genome mapping methods help to locate specific DNA markers to delineate when one has reached particular gene of interest and forming a molecular map. DNA mapping encompasses a wide range of techniques useful for studying DNA at different levels of magnification. Genetic Linkage Mapping Using Molecular Markers, Development of Genetic Maps, Mapping populations and comparative genomics are elucidated.

Introduction

Understanding biology and genetics at molecular level has become very important for better understanding and manipulation of genome architecture. Molecular markers have contributed significantly in this respect and have been widely used in plant science in a number of ways including genetic fingerprinting, identification of duplicates and selecting core collections, determination of genetic distances, genome analysis, identification of markers associated with desirable breeding traits which are useful in marker assisted breeding, genomics and development of transgenics. Use of these markers also significantly reduce breeding time and cycles required for crop improvement. Molecular level understanding of the inheritance of agriculturally important traits creates new opportunities to streamline plant breeding.

Diversity of gut microbial community

The human microbiota (the collection of microbes that live on and inside us) consists of about 100 trillion microbial cells that outnumber our ‘‘human’’ cells 10 to 1, and that provide a wide range of metabolic functions that we lack. It has been estimated that they encode 100-fold more unique genes than our own genome. Furthermore, the gut microbes contribute to energy harvest from food, and changes of gut microbiome may be associated with bowel diseases or obesity. To understand and exploit the impact of the gut microbes on human health and well-being it is necessary to decipher the content, diversity and functioning of the microbial gut community. If we consider ourselves as superior organisms encompassing these microbial symbionts, by far the majority of genes in the system are microbial. In this sense, completing the human genome also requires the characterization of the microbiome (the collection of genes in the microbiota).

Methods of counting viable and non-viable bacteria in gut

Before the advent of genome sequencing and genome-wide analysis method, our knowledge of molecular characteristics of diverse gut microbial population was extremely limited. To obtain an estimate of cultivability, microbial ecologists generally compare microscopic counts with total viable counts. The total viable count made on a nonselective agar based medium estimates the number of colony forming units (cfu) per gram of sample. The finding that total viable counts are typically lower than total microscopic counts was thought to be due to the number of dead cells. Indeed, dead bacteria in feces may constitute up to one third of the total bacterial community. However, recent nucleic acid based studies indicated that a majority of bacteria in a variety of ecosystems are different from those described in culture.

1. What is Genome Sequencing?

Genome sequencing is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome. The genome is the genetic material that contains all the instructions necessary for the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of an organism. It is composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid., which is a long molecule made up of four building blocks called nucleotides adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).

2. Why is genome sequencing important in plant pathology?

Genome sequencing is essential in plant pathology for several reasons

i. Genome sequencing in plant pathology identifies and characterizes plant pathogens at the molecular level.

ii. It helps trace the evolution of pathogens and their genetic adaptations.

iii. Genomic data enables the development of precise diagnostic tools for rapid pathogen detection.

iv. Understanding host-pathogen interactions informs disease management strategies.

4.1 Genetic Improvement of Aquaculture Species

1. Introduction

1.1 Importance of Genetic Improvement in Aquaculture

Aquaculture serves as a critical component of global food production, supplying a substantial portion of seafood consumed worldwide. However, the industry faces challenges such as disease outbreaks, environmental changes, and increasing demand for sustainable practices. Genetic improvement plays a crucial role in addressing these challenges by enhancing the traits that contribute to productivity, disease resistance, and environmental adaptability in aquaculture species.

1.2 Role of Genomics and Biotechnology

Advancements in genomics and biotechnology have revolutionized the way aquaculture species are bred and managed. Genomics enables the detailed study of an organism’s genetic makeup, allowing researchers to identify specific genes associated with desirable traits. Biotechnological tools, including genome editing and molecular markers, facilitate precise manipulation of these genetic traits, accelerating the breeding process and improving the efficiency of trait selection.

Introduction

Animals have delicate balance of heat production and heat loss, which is maintained by thermoregulatory mechanisms in response to environmental temperature and humidity combinations. When the heat loss is overrun by heat gain, heat stress occurs. During heat stress, increase in the core body temperature due to failure of homeostatic mechanism reduces productivity of the animals below their original genetic potential in growth, milk production, milk constituents and reproduction (Ravagnolo and Misztal, 2002). Impending climate change scenario is a unanimously accepted reality. Increase in the anthropogenic greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄and NO₂) cause radiation leading to excess warming of the earth’s environmental system. According to IPCC, the predicted temperature rises for the end of 21^st century may be in the range of 1.8^oC to 4^oC (IPCC, 2007). The climate change has complex impact on the livestock production. Temperature or heat stress will be one of the major environmental factor to in?uence the health and productivity of livestock population. The least tropically adapted livestock may be severely affected by heat stress. The manage mental and ameliorative practices can deal with the heat stress in short term, however the long term focus of developing genetic heat stress tolerance in livestock population will be a significant and impactful strategy.

Introduction

The study of infectious diseases, alongside other clinical and natural strengths, is going through fast change introduced on by the approach of reasonable next generation sequencing (NGS) advancements (Koser et al., 2012).These technologies become adopted as routine methods easily, and laboratory techniques are transformed throughout the process. The amount of genomic bacterial data generated is huge. As of this writing, for example, over 200,000 Salmonella genomes alone are in the public domain with hundreds being added weekly. A whole genomic DNA sequence characterizes the maximum practicable level of structural detail on the individuating traits of an microbial organism or population. It can therefore be used to provide more accurate microbial genome recognition, evolutionary relations and a detailed catalogue of epidemiologically important characteristics. This has a significant role to play for outbreak research, diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, microbiology and epidemiology (Allard et al., 2019). Besides, DNA sequences are also a universal dataset which can theoretically be used to determine any biological function. This means that antimicrobial resistant (AMR) can be detected and to track the development and spread of AMR bacteria in a hospital or the community.

Introduction

The expanding number of people around the world necessitates an increase in the amount of food that is yielded. As stated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), global food production ought to be ramped up by a factor of two in the next few years in to meet the requirements of the growing global population in terms of consumption (FAO, 2006). This is because the global population is expected to continue growing at a rate of approximately one person every two seconds until the year 2050. It is possible that the predicted production disparity could be filled by making improvements in genetics, animal health, and the excellence of animal husbandry.

The production of animals has expanded significantly over the course of the last several decades as a direct result of the application of quantitative genetics in animal breeding. However, due to technological limitations, the use of genetic markers in breeding programmes has only been implemented to a relatively small extent (Deng et al., 2016). The concept of genomic prediction, which was first introduced approximately twenty years ago, has completely transformed the planning and execution of animal breeding operations.

The global human population is increasing exponentially with time, and it is expected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050 (UN 2013). With rapid population growth, food consumption is predicted to more than double in the next 40 years. Due to limited land resources for cultivation and a stabilising trend in agricultural productivity, the role of livestock sector is increasing significantly to meet the rising food demand. Meanwhile, global livestock production has increased significantly in both number and productivity. Unprecedented urbanisation has a significant impact on food consumption patterns in general, as well as demand for livestock products. Animal diseases are a significant factor in reducing livestock productivity, particularly in developed countries. The limitations of traditional animal breeding hinder further improvement of livestock productivity. The use of biotechnological tools has major applications in improving animal health and production, increasing disease resistance, using assisted reproductive techniques, improving rapid diagnostic techniques, and improving vaccines in livestock systems. These interventions cover advancements in feeding, nutrition, genetics, reproduction, animal health control, and overall improvement of animal husbandry. Since genomic tools and selection have been widely adopted in developed countries to improve both productivity and quality of animal products, the prospects for increasing productivity in developing countries using genomic tools and selection have not been adequately investigated.

Introduction

Estimated breeding values (EBVs), often estimated for sires, are used in traditional animal breeding (TAB) programmes to make selections based on an animal’s performance and that of its relatives. Using, typically, the best linear unbiased projections, EBVs are calculated using attributes measured in own performance, pedigree, sib, and/or progeny evaluation schemes in specialised testing stations and/or selected farm conditions (BLUP; Henderson, 1975). One of the main time-consuming challenges for phenotypic evaluation to enable a meaningful estimation of breeding values is generation intervals of 4 to 5 years in beef cattle, more than 5 years in dairy cattle, and 2 to 2.5 years in pig breeding schemes (Schefers and Weigel, 2012). Modern breeding techniques like marker-assisted selection (MAS) and, more recently, genomic selection (GS) are based on the use of genetic DNA markers to aid in selection and breeding (Williams, 2005). The fundamental reason why MAS, that only further uses a few markers as a selection tool, hasn’t made as much progress as was initially anticipated is that finding trustworthy markers is challenging, particularly when dealing with complex traits. Only relatively few consistent markers could be identified, despite successful identification of many quantitative trait loci (QTL; Hu and Reecy, 2007)

Abstract

Synonymous and non-synonymous substitution result in isomerization and deformity in protein structure. Both play more or less important role in evolution. Interestingly, cyanobacterial phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are composed of proteins which are coded by codons by mRNA translation. These proteins are categorized into three groups e.g., C-PC, C-PE and C-APC having a and b subunits. The skeleton and arrangement of amino acids in subunits can provide structural and functional integrity of PBPs as well as GC₃ associated substitution of synonymous and non-synonymous codons.

Genome Sequencing: A Continuation of Genetics

• The human genome project involves the assembly of a DNA sequence map for the 3 billion base pairs present in all 23 human chromosomes.
• Two groups, the International Consortium and Celera Genomics, used two opposite strategies to obtain a draft sequence of the human genome.
• The use of bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs), shotgun clones, and positional cloning has yielded a detailed look at the human genome and is facilitating the identification of disease causing genes.

The Sanger Method of DNA Sequencing

The Sanger method of DNA sequencing involves an enzymatic extension reaction to generate complementary copies of an unknown DNA sequence.

Incorporation of “dideoxy” base causes chain termination and separation of extension products on polyacrylamide gels reveals the sequence bases in the unknown DNA.

DNA sequencing occurs on a vast scale today through the use of automated DNA sequencing machines.

Introduction

Due to global population growth, rising wages, and urbanisation, the demand for animal products has been expanding quickly in many areas of the world (FAO, 2018). Meeting the rising demand for animal products, which is expected to reach 8.6 billion by 2030 (FAO, 2018) as the world’s population is projected to increase by 80 million per year (Preisinger, 2012), is one of the biggest difficulties facing modern farm animal industry (Eggen, 2012). Animal products and value-added foods are being consumed as a result of urbanisation and income growth (Hoffmann, 2005; FAO, 2011). By 2050, the world’s population will be close to 10 billion, even as the economic conditions continue to improve the demand for animal products will significantly rise. In order to boost animal production, it will be necessary to acquire a more in-depth understanding of animal biology through genomics and other related f ields of study. Understanding animal physiology remains a significant problem in the context of sustainable agriculture and animal husbandry, particularly for developing animal farming systems that cater to the new and diversified consumer demand. Livestock and poultry productivity has been greatly increased through traditional selection based on genetic merit estimated from phenotypic and pedigree data. Most breeding plans do not take population impacts on genetic diversity into consideration, and selection is geared more towards the best genetic response for the upcoming generation than the best long-term response (Meuwissen, 1997). Breeders have employed genetic analyses to find superior animals for more than 40 years.

Livestock breeding for genetic improvement faces many challenges including feed conversion efficiency, fertility and adaptation to changing climate. These improvements have to be realized while maintaining or improving the nutritional properties of meat, milk and other animal products while giving emphasis to animal health and wellbeing also. Environmental stresses induced by climate change affect livestock productivity, reproductive efficiency and health, resulting in severe economic losses. Under the current climate change scenario, the viability of producing animals for human consumption is in jeopardy. In order to lessen the negative effects of heat stress in today’s world, it is urgently necessary to develop methods that are centered on breeding animals with increased thermal tolerance and climate resilience. The breeding of animals having genetic potential to sustain under changing environment conditions can be achieved through the various molecular genetics tools.

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the history of agriculture, humans have struggled to reduce the adverse effects of plant disease on their crops. Early agriculturalists realized the benefits of cultural practices such as crop rotation and the use of organic soil amendments in promoting plant productivity. It is now well established that many of these effects are achieved by promoting the natural microbiological processes that keep plant disease in check. Cultural practices were mainstays of traditional agricultural systems and still provide the primary approaches for management of many soilborne diseases today. For example, disease suppressive soils, into which pathogen(s) can be introduced without causing the expected levels of disease severity, can result from alterations in cropping patterns or other cultural practices. Recently,

Genetic improvement of farm animal species is accelerating in developed countries with adoption of Genomic selection (GS) due to availability of complete reference genome sequence i.e. gene sequences that can be used to compare and study animal genetic traits. GS has been considered most promising for genetic improvement of the complex traits controlled by many genes (Quantitative traits) each with minor effects as using the conventional methods of selection and breeding the rate of genetic gain per generation is very slow with respect to human demand for livestock products. With this method, animals or plants can be selected for selective breeding on the basis of their genetic merit predicted by whole genome molecular markers spanning over the entire genome. Genomic selection may allow the identification of superior individuals for traits such as increased disease resistance which are not currently considered in animal breeding plans because of technical difficulties. The method can predict the genetic merit of young bulls with greater accuracy as compared to convention methods of genetic merit estimation. Genetic gain (ΔG) in animal breeding programs depends upon the intensity of selection (i), accuracy of predictions (r), genetic variance (σ2g) and generation interval (IG): ΔG = i * r * σ2g / IG (Ibañez Escriche & Gonzalez-Recio, 2011).

Safety is a prime concern for humans and animals. Without evaluating the safety of a chemical, no regulatory authority in the world allows the chemical to be used by humans. There are stipulated guidelines for toxicity evaluations. Among the toxicity assays genotoxicity assays are important and have occupied centre stage due to increase in understanding of the genome.

Genotoxicity describes the property of chemical agents to damage the genetic information within a cell to cause mutations, which may even lead to cancer. While genotoxicity is often confused with mutagenicity, all mutagens are genotoxic; however, not all genotoxic substances are mutagenic. Generally and depending on the agent, a cytotoxic agent may be genotoxic (causing DNA damage), mutagenic (causing gene mutation) or it may be harmful for cell organelles (e.g. cell membrane) or it may even be teratogenic. Therefore, every cytotoxic agent is not genotoxic.

Why we Need to Evaluate Genotoxicity?

Toxicity can be at any level according to the nature of chemicals and type of exposure. Duration of toxicity can also be short lived or long lived within a generation or continue to next generation. Genotoxicity effects are able to continue in next generation(s), in which the exposed population may not suffer seriously but the next generation may suffer without being exposed to the same chemicals. Therefore, genotoxicity evaluations need serious attention.

The biological diversity of each country is a valuable and vulnerable natural resource. Sampling, identifying, and studying biological specimens are among the first steps toward protecting and benefiting from biodiversity. Knowledge about biodiversity and the ability to identify organisms that comes with it are global public goods. That is, this knowledge can create benefits for all countries - benefits that no one country can create by itself.

DNA Barcoding: Documenting Biodiversity with a Gene Sequence

“DNA barcoding” is an exciting new tool for taxonomic research. The DNA barcode is a very short, standardized DNA sequence in a well-known gene. It provides a way to identify the species to which a plant, animal or fungus belongs. The Consortium for the Barcode of Life (CBOL) is promoting international partnerships that will enable people in all countries to better understand and protect their biodiversity.

DNA barcoding is a taxonomic method that uses a short genetic marker in an organism’s mitochondrial DNA to identify it as belonging to a particular species. It is based on a relatively simple concept: most eukaryote cells contain mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has a relatively fast mutation rate, which results in significant variance in mtDNA sequences between species and, in principle, a comparatively small variance within species.

Abstract

Fungal rot and wilt caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a devastating disease of vegetables causing huge loss. The fungus has a broad host of more than 400 species including diverse vegetable crops, viz., carrot, potato, tomato, green pepper, eggplant, lettuce, peas and beans, cole crops, bottle gourd, pointed gourd, etc. Being able to overwinter in the soil in form of sclerotia upto 5 years and having such a wide host range, management of the disease becomes very difficult. Thus development of resistant varieties can be the only long term strategy for control of the pathogen. The screening of the existing genotypes and identification of resistant genotypes forms the base of any resistant breeding programme. The widely available genotypes of different crops have been screened by several researchers and resistant genotypes have been identified in cauliflower, vegetable soybean, peas, tomato, etc. These genotypes are further used in breeding programmes for as donors for resistance to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

Keywords: Vegetables, Sclerotinia, Resistance breeding, Genotypic screening

Abstract

Genus Artemisia L. (Asteraceae) has a long history of use in herbal medicine, owing to the presence of rich bioactive phytochemical diversity of it constituent species. Himalaya is hub of several species and species under this genus have been traditionally used in different ways for curing ailments by inhabitants of the areas where their populations sprawl. Few species such as A. annua and A. maritima are cultivated for their use in medicine. In addition, the species of the genus have found wide usage in matters connected to digestive system especially for treatment of worms and for preparation of herbal teas. Artemisnin, a potent source of anti-malarial drug extracted from some species, is most valuable bioactive phytochemical of this genus. Other important chemical constituents include santonin and scoparine. Reported studies suggest that the bioactive constituents present in this genus shows several biological activities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancerous and other allied ones activities. Expansion of range and acclimatization in new habitats is exemplary in this genus. Present work reports the ways of range expansion, economic importance, conservation strategies and future prospects of this genus.

Abstract

The balance between resources and population constitute the solid base for drawing the future map of sustainable development in the study area in all developmental sectors such as agriculture, industry, tourism, and commercial sectors. Geoenvironmental hazards such as erosion, sea level changes, sand dune encroachment, siltation of the navigation channel of the Damietta harbor, salinization of the soils, the negative effects of the protective structures and bad management of the coastal areas must be studied in details before making the future planning for any area. The main geomorphologic units in this area are: beaches, sand dunes, wetlands, urban areas, reclamation lands and lagoons.

The rate of erosion from 1984 to 2000 in the Rosetta beach is -117.6 m/yr, while it is -17.6 m/yr in the Damietta beach. On the other hand, the rate of erosion in the period from 1984 to 2005 is -104.6 m/yr and -11.4 m/yr in Rosetta and Damietta beaches, respectively. Since, Nile Delta is a typical wave dominated delta (Coleman et al., 1981) and Tide is a semi-diurnal microtidal regime with a maximum tidal range of 50 cm (UNESCO/UNDP, 1978), the erosion and accretion are very dangerous hazard in the area.

Due to the reclamation of vast areas of the coastal dunes, the lagoons and wetlands, the new reclaimed lands are added to the agricultural deltaic land. Thus, the coastal sand dunes, lagoons and wetlands are decreased. The main urban centers have expanded, and new urban centers (Damietta harbor, the New Damietta city and Mansoura city in near future) have been constructed at the expense of vast areas of lagoons, coastal dunes, and backshore flats. The siltation of the navigation canal of the Damietta harbor, salting of the soil (new and old) and sand dune encroachment are very important hazards in the study area. All the previous geoenvironmental hazards and others threaten the sustainable development in the study area.

ABSTRACT

Groundwater geochemistry is largely a function of mineral composition of aquifer through which water flows thus, differences in aquifer composition are reflected as differences in groundwater chemistry. To understand water quality and flow pattern multivariate statistical analysis are used due to its relative importance in combining chemical variables and organize voluminous data and group into variables of similar characters. R-mode factor analysis is used in the field of hydrogeochemistry to interpret complex hydrogeological process. A total of 216 samples representing complete lithology like peninsular gneiss, Charnockite and calc gneiss for four different seasons was collected and analyzed for major ions like Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO₃, Cl, SO₄, NO₃, PO₄, F and H₄SiO₄. Correlation analysis reveals Mg, Cl and Na are spinal and others seasonal. Factor analysis indicates ascendancy of anthropogenic basis followed by lithological weight. Factor score superimpose indicate governing hydrogeochemical regimes spread in western and eastern part. In southern part the same has superior influence than northern part.

Abstract

Water has become a scarce resource all over the World. Water resources of Earth can be classified as surface water and groundwater in which groundwater is the main source for the drinking, domestic and agriculture. The Pudukkottai district is one of the chronic drought prone areas in Tamil Nadu. But, at the same time, the district is pitted with over 5,400 tanks/water bodies widely distributed throughout in general and clustered more in Vellar delta in particular, as the interlobel depressions have provided basic depressions for the surface water to accumulate. However, these surface water bodies are heavily silted. In Pudukkottai district, there are three divergent aquifer systems, hard rock aquifer system in the western, sedimentary aquifer system constituted by the Tertiary Sandstone (Cuddalore Sandstone) in the central and Quaternary aquifer system constituted by fluvial, fluvio-marine and marine systems in the eastern parts of the district.

Abstract

The Sonapur landslide located in the south eastern fringe of Shillong Plateau falls in NH44 connecting Shillong with Agartala. The slide is repeatedly active and massive debris flows occur during every monsoonic season since 1999. The studies carried out under the NRDMS funded project shows that the slide falls in the tectonically active E-W Dauki fault system, which not only forms the southern boundary of the Shillong plateau but also the near vertical plane along which the Shillong plateau has been uplifted due to the northerly compressive force and the collision of Indian plate with Eurasian plate. Such post collision tectonic uplift and the southerly tilt of the Shillong plateau in its southern part, monoclinal southerly dipping sediments south of Dauki fault, Sylhet trough, occurrence of NE-SW sinistral (shears) and NW-SE dextral faults in Sonapur area, high seismic activity and rainfall are responsible for the Sonapur Landslide.

Abstract

Geological conditions in the Tertiary mountainous areas of the western and eastern hill ranges of Manipur often cause landslide movements. These repeatedly occur mostly in old landslide regions during rainy seasons on a large scale, causing considerable economic loss and injuries and deaths of humans. In order to improve such landslide hazard assessment of the region for effective mitigation, Electrical resistivity surveys were conducted using Schlumberger array technique on the very unstable and problematic frontal part of the Kotland landslide, NH-37, Manipur along three profiles. Electrical resistivities aided the characterization and quantification of the subsurface rock units, structure and tectonic conditions of the Landslided area which can contribute for the better planning of mitigation strategies. The results lead to the elucidation of depth of the different litho-units and the geometry of failure surface. The probable failure surface was observed between 10 and 22m depth, characterised by low resistivity (< 150 Ωm) and geometry of the sliding surface was rotational. In addition, a fault was also inferred in the resistivity pseudosection model and hence the area may be highly vulnerable to landslides.

ABSTRACT

The present paper discusses about the Geoelectrical response over Charnockite rocks and Biotite Gneiss rock types of Sankaran kovil and Tenkasi Taluks of Tirunelveli District, Tamilnadu. The study area is adjoined to the Western Ghats which geologically comprises Archean crystalline hard rocks. In this attempt, about 7 Vertical Electrical Soundings (3 in Gneiss and 4 in Charnockite) have been carried out in both terrains. The VES values were interpreted with Schlumberger Sounding Dada Processing and Interpretation Program .The resistivity values varied from 68 m to 808 m with the layer thickness of 10m, 20 m and 29m in the biotite gneiss terrain. Similarly, the resistivity values varied from 48 m to 444 m with the layer thickness of 4m, 6m, 9m,18m & 29m in the charnockite terrain. But the depth to massive rock for both the rock types has been observed below 29m. In this study, a difference in resistivity with high resistivity values in gneissic terrain and lower values in charnockite terrain have been observed. The observed resistivity differences are mainly due to the presence of resisting minerals such as biotite and hornblende. Besides, other factors like weathering and water table also influence the resistivity values. Hence, it is summerised that the geoelectric methods are the best methods to understand the subsurface lithostudies.

Introduction to GIS

QGIS (Quantum GIS) is an open-source Geographic Information System (GIS) software has been used to showcase various exercises pertaining to viewing, editing, analyzing, and printing of the geospatial data. QGIS helps to allow the users to easily access and manage geographic data stored in folders on local disks or relational databases available on the user’s network. QGIS supports raster, vector, and mesh layers. QGIS also allows using data from external sources with the help of web services such as Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service. QGIS is a constantly developing software as anyone can add new features or update existing tools. Newer versions of QGIS are frequently released on the official website. It is a cross-platform software that can be installed in Windows, Linux, and MacOS.

More information, more accurate and timely decision. In present high tech world, the more information you have it is easier to make an accurate decision. The information comes in many different ways, from reports to digital photos. A new way to analyze data is a geographic information system (GIS). GIS allows to bring all types of data together based on the geographic and locational component of the data. GIS is a useful tool for seeking innovative ways to solve the problems.

9.1 What is GIS?

A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store manipulate, analyze, manage and present all types of geographically referenced data. GIS can be defined as a computer-based system for digital entry, storage, transformation, analysis and display of spatial data. A geographic information system integrates hardware, software and geographically referenced data for further analysis. GIS allows users to interpret the georeferenced data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns and trends.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Geographic Information System (GIS) is the new emerging field and grows at very rapid pace. Now GIS is a billion dollar industry with applications in varied disciplines. At present, GIS is being used by professionals from various disciplines. In this decade, GIS is being used by experts who are good in GIS technology for various applications. The development trend indicates that GIS will be used by common man in near future and at the same time, advanced GIS analysis will be carried out by GIS experts.

Any technology is developed out of necessity and GIS is of no exception. When a large amount of data were available for water distribution systems, road network, sewer lines, telecom lines, electricity lines, gas pipe lines, state wise population, natural resources etc, it is important to store, maintain and retrieve the data for applications. It is not possible to manually browse through the large amount of paper records. Also even if the data is available in an unorganized way in the computerized environment, it is not useful. Hence if the data are referred to locations in earth surface and the data are stored in an organized way, it is possible to retrieve and analyse the data for applications. Hence the solution is GIS and developed today into reality. Developed countries are using GIS widely in many areas but developing countries are moving towards the development of GIS database for their resources.

Remote sensing, aerial photography, cartography, surveying and other field instruments for attribute data collection contributes to the data acquisition. Cartography, surveying, geography, geodesy contributes for mapping process. Disciplines like computer science and statistics, mathematics involved in processing and analysing data . Computer science and mathematics involved in storing the data structure.

GIS maps are intelligent. It has many advantages compared with paper map in this digital age.

Spatial data means data which are referenced to earth. Maps, satellite imageries, aerial photographs are example of spatial data. Attribute data which are attached to spatial data are called as aspatial data or non-spatial data.

If these data are brought into GIS then it is stored in a standard format, it is possible to update, share, retrieve, manipulate and analyse quickly. Much of the time and money is saved in case of reproduction and better decisions could be made

World Trade Organisation

The World Trade Organisation (WTO) was the result of years of painstaking efforts on the part of governments and other bodies to establish a globally acceptable basis for a new economic order. It was established to correct the imbalances and disparities in international trade and bring about an evenly balanced world trade order that equally benefits the developed, developing and least developed nations. While there are several agreements under the WTO, the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) specifically represents the resolve of all member countries to use intellectual property as one of the means for achieving economic balance and diminishing the trade barriers.

The term Geographical Indications (GIs) attained significant status in trade agreement negotiations after the establishment of World Trade Organization (WTO).Under WTO, Agreement on the Trade Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) sets forth standards to regulate international intellectual property protection and enforcement and establishes international minimum standards for GIs. Geographical Indications identify goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess a quality, reputation or other characteristics which are due to that place of origin. Geographical Indications are now widely accepted as valuable marketing tools in the global economy and are useful to protect rights of communities. Geographical Indications are not granted to individuals but are granted to the group/association of producers as the symbol of collective ownership.

In modem days, many informations receive through electronic media with instant connecting by satellite based information on social, economical, environmental etc. the informations are coded with feasible electronic encrypt and delivered to people. Similarly remote sensing, GIS (Geographical Information System) and GPS (Global Positioning System) also serve world for better understanding the ground reality along with reducing cost of operation, transforming data through electronic webs easily. In earlier phase, ground related information was not easily obtained because all kind of work had been done manually using analog maps of earth; even map draw was done by drafting from totposheet or hand maps, no interface of analog and digital world.

Introduction

A geographical information system (GIS) is a kind of database that has software tools for handling, analyzing, and presenting spatial data and descriptions of phenomena that have a location component. This system can also involve human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, a body of knowledge about relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations in a wider sense. GIS technology is a key part of spatial data infrastructure, which the White House describes as “the policies, technologies, standards, human resources, and related activities that are necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data.”

Abstract

Indian Peninsular shield has been thought as tectonically inert and aseismic for many years by the Geoscientists. But, subsequent to the disastrous earthquakes in Killari, Jabalpur and Kutch, studies have been initiated in multiple directions on various aspects of seismicities. The present study is aimed at bringing out a possible picture on the seismic vulnerability of parts of Westernghats of Tamil Nadu using various tectano geomorphic anomalies like unifrequency lineaments and different levels of dissection of plateaus, denudational geomorphic anomalies like anomalous talus materials and fluvial geomorphic anomalies like radial drainages, compressed meanders, eyed drainages and wider flood plains interpreted from the raw and digitally processed Landsat TM and IRS P6 LISS-III satellite datasets. The subsequent generation of individual GIS layers on these anomalies and their integration revealed that the N-S faults are tectonically active and the NE-SW and NNE-SSW faults are active faults. Many earthquake epicenters were also found to fall along these lineaments / faults.

Introduction

The Indian peninsular shield, exposing the Archaeozoie - Proterozoic piles of rocks, is known for its tectonic inertness and the related land stability. Owing to such shield area character, the geoscientists were also having strong convictions for a long time that seismically the area is safe.

Key words : NRSA, Natural Resource and Disaster Management, Agricultural Drought, Ecosystems, Biodiversity Information System, Water Resources, Sea Surface Temperature.

Introduction

A few decades ago, paper maps were the principal means to synthesize and represent geographic information. Manipulating this information was limited to a manual, non-interactive process. Since then the rapid development of new technologies to collect and digitize geographic data, together with an increasing demand for both interactive manipulation and analysis of this data, has generated a need for dedicated software’s namely geographic information systems (GISs).

A GIS is more than a cartographic tool to produce maps. It stores geographic data, retrieves and combines this data to create new representations of geographic space, provides tools for spatial analysis, and performs simulations to help expert users to organize their work in many areas like public administration, transportation networks, military applications and environmental information systems. These above mentioned are few among many others where we are concerned with geographical locations, their present status, its potential for developmental activities, patterns of change over the years and the processes on the surface of the earth.

Geographic information technology is used to manipulate objects in geographic space, and to acquire knowledge from spatial facts. Spatial information theory provides a basis for GIS by bringing together fields that deal with spatial reasoning, the representation of space, and human understanding of space.

Key words : Flood Plains Agro-ecosystem, GIS, RS, Spatial Cropping Pattern, Radiometric Normalization, NDVI, Agricultural Systems.

Introduction

Of late, evidence is accumulating to suggest that high productivity and growth rates achieved during the Green Revolution era in the well-endowed regions of the country (i.e North West India) are no longer being sustained to meet the needs of still increasing population in the country. Past growth sources have nearly exhausted and there is also no scope for expansion of crop land. Indeed pressure for competing land uses will likely reduce area under food grain crops. Shrinking natural resource base (per capita availability of land and water devoted to agriculture), declining quality of resources and environmental degradation issues will imply increasing threat to our ability to meet the basic needs of the growing population of the region unless we shift our effort to potential regions like flood plains of the country for improving productivity.

The flood plain riverine lands of India covering approximately 42 m.ha though most endowed with natural resources and has all the potential of becoming rich, is still economically backward. The reason behind this paradox of extent of poverty in the midst of richness of resources is that the natural resources of the region are not being productively harnessed into the process of the economic development and thus are not delivering their potential and commensurate benefits to the people. The Green Revolution technologies evolved during of 60’s and 70’s had little or no impact in this region of the country. Undesirable spatio-temporal distribution of flood in these areas keeps agriculture under uncertainty and risks. These are also the areas where the poorest are concentrated and agriculture largely continues to be more of subsistence. The nature of agricultural problems are highly variable due to great diversity in the production system as also in the socio-economic conditions of the communities requiring location specific approaches to address the problems and enhance the productivity.

Key words : Glaciers, Glacial Lakes, Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF), Himachal Pradesh, Glacial Inventory, Glacier Recession.

Introduction

Glaciers are large masses of snow, re-crystallized ice and rock debris that accumulate in great quantities and begin to flow outwards and downwards under the pressure of their own weight. Glaciers form when yearly snowfall in a region far exceeds the amount of snow and ice that melts in a given summer. In this way, massive quantities of glacial material accumulate in relatively small periods of geologic time. The glaciers exist in environments of high and low precipitation and in many temperature regimes; they are found on all the continents except Australia and they span the globe from high altitudes in equatorial regions to the polar ice caps. Presently, 10% of the Earth’s land area (5.8 million square miles) is covered with glaciers storing about 75% of the world’s freshwater. However, during the last Ice Age, glaciers covered 32% of the total land area of the planet.

Introduction

Precision Farming (PF) revolves around the idea that any agricultural land contains wide spatial variations in soil types, nutrient availability, and other important factors. If these variations are not taken into account, then there may be a loss in productivity. Precision farming is one of the most scientific and modern approaches to sustainable agriculture that has gained momentum in 21^st century. Consider the situation: ‘A farmer goes to his/her field with his/her Global Positioning System (GPS) guided tractor. The GPS senses the exact location of the tractor within the field. It sends the signal to a computer on the tractor that has a Geographical Information System (GIS), storing the soil nutrient requirements map in it. GIS, in consultation with a Decision Support System, decides what is the exact requirement of the fertilizer for a given location and then commands a variable rate fertilizer applicator, attached with the tractor, to apply the exact dose at that precise location. All this is done within a second, before the tractor moves further.’ This may sound like an excerpt from a scientific fiction, but this is what precision farming means to the large growers of the United States or European countries and day is not far off when it will be feasible for large Indian farmers as well.

PF refers to a developing agricultural management system that promotes variable management practices within a field according to site or soil conditions. Within a short span of time, this concept has been described with various names viz. farming by soil; farming soil, not fields; farming by the foot; spatially prescriptive farming; computer aided farming; farming by computer; farming by satellite; high-tech sustainable agriculture; soil-specific crop management; site-specific farming; and site-specific crop management.

Key words : Wasteland Reclamation, Poverty Indicators, Food Insecurity, Alternate Livelihood Systems, Rural Infrastructure Index.

Introduction

The countries of Asia and the Pacific region accounts for nearly two-thirds of the chronically poor and undernourished in the world. FAO estimates indicate that, by 2010, Asia will still account for about one-half of the world’s malnourished population (FAO 2000). In Asia, poverty has mainly been rural phenomenon and nearly three-fourth of the poor live in rural areas, with large majority of them dependent on natural resources for employment and income. South Asia, which had a poverty incidence of 43 percent (or about 520 million people), contributed about 40 percent of the world’s poor. Development of natural resources thus offers a potentially enormous means of poverty reduction.

In developing countries poverty and environmental deterioration are often viable in proximity to each other, and have led many to infer that a two-way causality exists between human and environmental degradation. Environmental degradation usually occurs when production and consumption activities of growing population irreversibly weaken nature’s recycling capabilities. These economic activities are also attributed to the development of markets, the advent of modern technology, and the spatial integration of inaccessible areas to market systems. In many developing countries, however, environmental degradation such as soil erosion, deforestation and pollution are most visible around poor settlements, leading some policy makers to highlight the direct links between poverty and the environment.

One has to recognize that both poverty and the environment are descriptions of states of human and natural resource attributes and cannot be reduced to simple one-dimensional cause-effect relationships. Apart from conceptual difficulties in modeling linkages, another handicap has been the absence of adequate or reliable data sets on poverty and environment characteristics. The challenge for operational research is exploring how circumstantial evidence and inductive logic can be used to explain the nature of interactions between the two states. Based on nationwide wasteland statistics vis-à-vis state and district wise poverty estimates available with the concerned agencies, this study is one such attempt, and evaluates the incidence of poverty with the backdrop of natural resources degradation and role of institutional interventions with illustrations from India.

ABSTRACT

The geological and geomorphological features could be clearly demarcated in and around Salem area using IRS -IB LISS II satellite data. Geologically,the study area is classified into four major rock types fissile hornblende biotite gneiss, banded magnetite quartzites, peninsular gneiss, charnockites and quartzites. The geomorphological study reveals the buried pediments medium, buried pediments deep, bazada zone, along with lineaments. Intersections of the lineaments are the most prospective zones for further groundwater targeting. Shallow pediments and pediments are the less groundwater prospective zones. But detailed geophysical survey as required to sink new bore well, dug well, dug cum bore wells.

India is a geologically diverse country with a wide variety of rock types. The major rock types found in India can be broadly classified into the following categories:

Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed from the solidification of molten magma. They can be further divided into two types:

1. Plutonic (Intrusive) Igneous Rocks: Examples include granite, diorite, and gabbro. These rocks are formed deep within the Earth's crust and have a coarse-grained texture.
2. Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks: Examples include basalt, andesite, and rhyolite. These rocks are formed on the Earth's surface from volcanic eruptions and have a fine-grained texture.

Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed by the deposition and consolidation of sediments over time. They can be further divided into various types based on their composition and mode of formation:

1. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Examples include sandstone, shale, and conglomerate. These rocks are formed from the accumulation and lithification of fragments of pre-existing rocks.
2. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Examples include limestone, dolomite, and rock salt. These rocks are formed from the precipitation of minerals from water bodies.

Abstract

Landslides have become a recurring phenomenon in most of the mountainous regions of the world. In Indian peninsular, the landslides which were mostly confined to the tectonically active Himalayan Mountains once, have started spreading over to the other mountain belts of the Peninsula. The Tirumala – Tirupati hills, which is drawing millions of pilgrims from all over the world is facing landslides especially along the newly built southern uphill Ghat Road. The geology of the area, studied using geomatics tools like Remote Sensing, SRTM based Digital Elevation Models, GPS Survey, etc., showed that Tirumala hills is under the grip of upward tectonic movement as evidenced from the N-S and E–W oriented Pleistocene faults, intensely dissected Plateau top Cuddapah Quartzites, retreating escarpments, exhaustive debris slopes, extensive valley fills along the slopes, colluvial fills in lower slopes, palaeo debris flows along the southern and western obsequent slopes of the Tirumala hills etc. All these indicate the inherent landslide vulnerability of the slopes. The E-W trending dykes which are piercing the slopes and standing as ridges add further landslide vulnerability to such fragile slopes. So, the new ghat road laid along such southern slope is obviously facing landslides. However, the detailed geomatics based studies show that the dykes, valley fills and steep slopes are particularly more vulnerable to landslides. Though remedial measures have been broadly evolved, abandoning the southern uphill new ghat road and widening the older northern downhill ghat road seems to be the better and long term feasible alternative to prevent Landslides.

Abstract

Landslides have become a recurring phenomenon in most of the mountainous regions of the world. In Indian peninsular, the landslides which were mostly confined to the tectonically active Himalayan Mountains once, have started spreading over to the other mountain belts of the Peninsula. The Tirumala – Tirupati hills, which is drawing millions of pilgrims from all over the world is facing landslides especially along the newly built southern uphill ghat road. The geology of the area, studied using Geomatics tools like Remote Sensing, SRTM based Digital Elevation Models, GPS Survey, etc., showed that Tirumala hills is under the grip of upward tectonic movements as evidenced from the N-S and E-W oriented Pleistocene faults, intensely dissected Plateau top Cuddapah Quartzites, retreating escarpments, exhaustive debris slope, extensive valley fills along the slopes, colluvial fills in lower slopes, palaeo debris flows along the southern and western obsequent slopes of the Tirumala hills etc. All these indicate the inherent landslide vulnerability of the slopes. The E-W trending dykes which are piercing the slopes and protruding as ridges add further landslide vulnerability to such fragile slopes. So, the new ghat road laid along such southern slope is obviously facing landslides. However, the detailed Geomatics based studies show that the dykes, valley fills and steep slopes are particularly more vulnerable to landslides. Though remedial measures have been broadly evolved, abandoning the southern uphill new ghat road and widening the older northern downhill ghat road seems to be the better and long term feasible alternative to prevent Landslides in the area.

2.1 Introduction

Topographic expression is the replica of geological structures present within the earths surface. When various types of rocks of an area are displayed on a map (sheet of paper), it is known as Geological Map. Normally geological maps prepared on topographic maps. Surface topography is best presented by contour lines on a plain paper.

The importance of geological maps is to understand the nature of structure and distribution of surface outcrops with their relation to contour lines. Horizontal and dipping beds are easily identified on map because, horizontal beds runs parallel to contour lines while inclined beds cut through different contours. The angle and direction of dip can be calculated from geological maps. Geological maps are of great importance to civil engineers, after studying geological maps and consultation with geologists, civil engineers can advice for construction of engineering structures like excavation of road cuttings and construction of canal, bridges, dams and tunnels etc. Geologists get vital clues about the geological history of an area, and can draw a cross section of an area and know the structure present underground.

ABSTRACT

The Cretaceous formation of Ariyalur area is well known for its lithological and faunal variation. It contains rich assemblages of fossils as well as the occurrence of economic deposits of limestone, gypsum, phosphatic nodules and clays. Representative Uttatur clay samples have been collected and analysed for physical and chemical properties. The physical properties such as fired colour, plasticity, fusing temperature, slaging nature, shrinkage test, bulk density, liquid limit, and plastic limit and Atterberg number etc. of uttatur clays have been determined. The chemical properties of the clays show low in silica and alumina and high iron and lime which make them suitable for low duty refractories and stoneware works.