eChapters

First Line Extension system

Realizing the scope and importance of integrated working of interrelationship between research, education and extension functions, the ICAR established a section of Extension Education at its headquarters in 1971, which was later on strengthen and renamed as division of agriculture extension. It was intended to enforces this functional relationship down the line in the research institute, agricultural universities and allied institutions.

When Gene Expression Appears to Alter Mendelian Ratios Lethal Allele Combinations

Us recessive lethal alleles eliminaters a progeny class. Multiple Alleles

A gene can have more than two alleles, but a diploid individual only has one or two of them.

Different allele combinations can produce different phenotypes and different severities of symptoms.

Different Dominance Relationships

Incomplete dominance of an allele produces a phenotype in the heterozygote that is intermediate between that of either homozygote.

Codominant alleles are both expressed in a heterozygote. Epistasis-When One Gene Affects Expression of Another

In epistasis, one gene masks the effect of another. An example of epistasis in humans is the Bombay phenotype.

The Bombay phenotype results in O type blood for individuals homozygous recessive for the recessive “h” allele.

This group includes a large number of bony fishes in which the primary upper and lower jaws are supplemented by the addition of membrane bones which forms secondary jaws. Hence they are called as teleostomi or perfect mouthed fishes.

All major groups of fresh water fishes lived successfully and flourished during the Devonian period which is also called as the “Age of fishes”. Teleostomii are characterized by a unique mechanism of opening the mouth by lowering the mandible through hyoid apparatus, therefore the skull is hyostylic or the amphistylic. Presence of an ossified operculum, an interhyal bone and the branchiostegal rays are the diagnostic features of this group.

Introduction

On the basis of inputs based ecological principles, the all possible and available resources are allocated to achieve maximum outputs. One of the most promising paradigms of external inputs based agriculture that have emerged for the benefit of small scale resource-poor farmers and that is termed as low external input and sustainable agriculture (LEISA), which can enable such farmers to achieve higher income and attain sustainability by: (i) Optimizing the use of locally available resources, thereby achieving a synergetic effect amongst the various components of the farming system (soil, water, animals, plants, etc.) so that they complement each other in the production of output; and (ii) Minimizing the use of external inputs, except where there is a serious deficiency and where the effect on the system will be to increase recycling of nutrients.

Low External Inputs and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA): Low external input sustainable agriculture (LEISA) is a way of thinking about farming. It incorporates some ideas found in what people have labelled eco-logical, organic, regenerative, biological, or simply alternative agriculture. Amongst the goals that now drive the interest in low-input sustainable agriculture, two stand out: profitable and productive farming, and protection of resources and environmental quality. Companion objectives include ensuring safe and nutritious food supplies and reducing health risks to farm workers. LEISA involves farmers substituting management, scientific information, and on-farm resources for some of the purchased inputs they currently depend on maintain production sustainability. Sustainability has been defined, for the purpose of including resource-poor as well as resource-rich farmers, as managing agricultural productivity while maintaining or improving the resource base. This means that agriculture must be environmentally solid, economically feasible, socially scrupulous, and flexible (for future needs).

8.1 Life Cycle
As in the case of a typical Lepidopteran insect, the silkworm passes through four distinct stages, i.e., egg, larva, pupa and adult during its life cycle, the duration of which may last for six to eight weeks depending upon racial characteristics and climatic conditions. Multivoltine races found in tropical areas have the shortest life cycle with the egg, larval, pupal and adult stages lasting for 9-12 days, 20-24 days, 10-12 days and 3-6 days respectively. (Fig.8.1)
In uni/bivoltine races, the egg period of the activated egg may last for 11-14 days, the larval period 24-28 days, the pupal period 12-15 days and the adult stage 6-10 days. In nature the univoltine races produce only one generation during the spring, and the second generation egg goes through a period of rest or hibernation till the next spring. In the case of the bivoltine races, however, the second generation egg does not hibernate and hatches within 11-12 days and produces the second generation normally during summer. But it is the third generation egg which undergoes hibernation and hatches only the next spring, thus producing only two generations in a year (bivoltine). In multivoltine races, the life cycle is the shortest because of the warmer ecological conditions where they are reared, and so they may yield as many as seven to eight generations in a year in tropical sericultural areas such as India, Thailand, etc. Silkworm rearing is, therefore, continuous in tropical areas whereas in sub-tropical and temperate zones it is mostly seasonal lasting from spring to early autumn.

Ducks are prone to several external parasites and are also affected by external parasites found in other poultry birds. Birds are plagued by an remarkable range of ectoparasites, ranging from feather-feeding lice, to feather degrading bacteria and many of these ectoparasites have severe harmful effects on host health. External parasites can make ducks very uncomfortable, transmits several diseases and can be fatal in untreated cases. Among the ectoparasites lice is most commonly found in ducks. Ectoparasites infested birds become restless and the feeding and sleeping is disturbed resulting in decreased growth rate and egg production.

Common ectoparasites present on ducks-

In previous section we discussed about the ability of the research design to precisely detect the relationship between cause and effect under controlled conditions. But in social research it becomes difficult to conduct the research under highly controlled conditions and moreover many of the researches in social science aim at prediction rather than understanding.

As we discussed earlier, aim of science is development theory, understanding, prediction and explanation of natural phenomenon. In many of the cases we are more interested in predicting the occurrence of social phenomenon rather than explaining it or understanding its relationship with other phenomenon. Under such conditions internal validity is of less use because a relationship that is established in artificially controlled conditions (with high internal validity) may fail to express itself in natural setup due to effect of extraneous variables. When the relationship between cause and effect is weak enough to be expressed in natural setup then it is of less use in predicting the phenomenon. Under such conditions we require experiments that are conducted in nearly natural setup, so that we can generalize the findings of the research to the wider domain.

Introduction

Milk, which is recognized for its significant nutritional and immunological value to humans as well as animals, is the primary source of vital nutrients and bioactive components that contribute to the newborn’s growth and development. In addition, it includes extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are membrane-bound vesicles that are discharged by cells into biofluids like milk. EVs play an important function in intercellular communication and have demonstrated potential in therapeutic applications. This is extremely important since EVs are abundant in milk and carry a wide range of cargo, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, that supports to their classification as bioactive components of milk Milk-derived exosomes have intriguing properties as nanocarriers for theranostic care.

Essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic oily fragrance liquid extracted from plants, containing easily evapourated chemical compounds at room temperature. Essential oils are extracted from the different plant parts including the flowers, leaves, stem, bark, and roots, and they are extracted from different techniques. The most preferable method of extraction is hydro distillation which is easy to use and cheap. Essential oils are used in every field of life, used in aromatherapy, and act as antifungal, antioxidant, anxiety, pain relievers, and depression.

Introduction
1.1. Definition and Significance of Natural Products
Natural products are chemical compounds or substances derived from living organisms in nature. These diverse sources, including plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, produce a wide range of chemical structures and functions. The significance of natural products lies in their diverse biological activities and potential applications in therapeutics, agriculture, and various industries. Natural products have been used for centuries in traditional medicine and continue to serve as the foundation for many modern pharmaceuticals, providing templates for the development of synthetic analogues and novel drugs. Their complexity and unique structural features often translate into high biological activity, making them valuable in the discovery of new therapeutic agents. Furthermore, natural products are generally perceived as safer and more environmentally friendly compared to synthetic chemicals, contributing to their appeal in numerous applications.
1.2. Historical Perspective on the Use of Natural Products
The use of natural substances has a long history, with evidence of their application in ancient civilizations such as Egypt, China, India, and Greece. Traditional medical systems, including Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Indigenous practices, have utilized plants, animals, and minerals to treat various ailments. These early practices laid the foundation for the systematic investigation of natural products and their medicinal potential. One of the earliest documented uses of natural products in medicine is the Ebers Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian text from around 1550 BCE (Packard, 1931). Similarly, ancient Indian texts, such as the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita, describe the use of plant-based medicines in Ayurvedic tradition. The scientific investigation of natural products gained momentum in the 19th century, with the isolation of pure compounds, including morphine, quinine, and penicillin.
1.3. Current Trends and Applications
Natural products are invaluable in various industries, serving as a rich source of bioactive compounds for drug development, sustainable agriculture, and functional food products. Many modern medicines, such as the anticancer drug paclitaxel and the antimalarial artemisinin, are derived from natural sources. These naturally-derived compounds often possess unique structures and mechanisms of action that are difficult to replicate synthetically.

Phenolic compounds constitute a major class of plant secondary metabolites that are widely distributed in the Plant Kingdom. Plant phenolics are biosynthesized through the shikimate/phenylpropanoid pathway leading to different compound classes. They may occur in their natural sources in free forms, as glycosylated or acylated derivatives, and as oligomeric and polymerized structures, such as hydrolyzable and condensed tannins, phlorotannins or lignins. They may also be found linked to plant matrix components such as cell walls, carbohydrates or proteins. It should be indicated that although the terms “plant phenolics” and “polyphenols” are indistinguishably used by some authors, they are not synonymous.

Materials Required

Fruit, pulper, fruit mill, hydraulic press, screw type juice extractor, stainless steel pans, chemical preservatives, glass bottles, closures, crown corks, crown corking machine, plastic barrels.

Procedure

    1.    Select and weigh sound fruits/vegetables for extraction of juice/pulp.    
    2.    Wash and peel the fruits as required.
    3.    Extract the juice by hot or cold process.
    4.    Pasteurize the juice/pulp to inactivate the enzymes and partially kill microorganisms.
    5.    Preserve the juice/pulp by heat processing after hot filling and hermetic sealing or by addition of permissible quantities of suitable preservatives.
    6.    Label the bottles properly and keep them for storage

The decision whether to extract the seed from the fruit at a central seed processing depot or close to the site of, and soon after, collection must be made in the light of local conditions. The reduction in bulk and weight of the collected material greatly facilitates transport and for this reason the extraction of the seed from relatively bulky fruits may be desirable at the site close to the collection area. In some cases it has also been found that early extraction of the seed is essential to maintain maximum viability. The use of the sun drying to speed extraction of the seed is common for many conifers and trees with woody dehiscent fruits. However, too rapid drying of fruits may sometimes cause them to remain closed and prevent later extraction, a condition known as “case-hardening” of cones. This is true for the cones of some pines if they are collected before peak maturity. In such cases it is necessary to keep the fruits under cover, with a good circulation of air, for one or two weeks before more rapid drying is attempted.

The quality of essential oils is very complex. An individual oil may have hundreds of ingredients, the principle components being a group of complex substances known as terpenes and their compounds or derivatives. Due to this reason a single essence has a wide range of therapeutic actions.
The chemical constituents of plants are of two kinds: products of primary metabolism and products of secondary metabolism. The first are mainly carbohydrates, amino acids and fixed oils produced by light-absorbing (photosynthetic) processes. The latter group of chemicals arises from the primary metabolites. They include glycosides, terpenoids, alkaloid and essential oils. Essential oils lack the water soluble constituents such as tannins,
bitter compounds sugar, mucilages and pectins, playing important role in the medical action of the plant.
The essential oils have been credited with possessing almost all therapeutic properties in a concentrated form. The therapeutic properties of the whole oil are that result of synergism: an interaction of all its chemical constituents working harmoniously together so that the whole essential oil becomes more potent than the sum of its individual parts.
The essential oil lacks certain chemical compounds found in the raw plant material. It is still a highly complex substance, that it cannot be replicated in the laboratory. Even though high-tech processes such as gas liquid chromatography (GLC) can separate out main constituents of essential oils. By looking at the chromatogram, it is impossible to isolate the numerous trace elements including number of unidentified compounds which make up
the whole.

Essential, volatile or ethereal oils are mixtures composed of volatile liquid and solid compounds which vary widely in regard to their composition and boiling points. Plants owe their fragrance to presence of traces of essential oils in different parts. Numerous fragrance materials are present in roots, stems, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and heartwoods.     
Several processes like distillation, enfleurage, maceration, expression, solvent extraction and fluid extraction are available for extraction of aroma principles. Application of these processes, either singly or in combination depends upon nature of material and essential oil or absolute intended to be recovered.

DNA can be easily isolated and purified after size selection on an agarose gel. The fragment of interest is simply cut out of the gel with a razor blade and purified by a number of different methods.The easiest is to use a method that involves first dissolving the agarose slice in a solution at 50°C, then binding the DNA from the melted agarose to a silica-gel membrane.

Principle

In this method following gel electrophoresis using low gelling/ melting temperature agarose, the band of interest is removed from the gel. The agarose slice is then melted and subjected to phenol extraction.

There are many different methods of extracting DNA bands from an agarose gel. Which one you choose will probably depend on the consumables you have available in your lab. Another important consideration is the yield/ purity of the DNA after extraction. Agarose contains various impurities which may inhibit downstream reactions if not efficiently removed from the DNA. We used to give the generic term ‘hoonose’ to the unspecified carbohydrates that co-purified along with the DNA and inhibited enzyme reactions. Modern spin-column kits are very good at removing impurities, old-fashioned ‘kitchen sink’ methods are less good.

Cutting Out the DNA Band

Most of the methods require you to cut out the band. You must visualise the band, in an ethidium bromide stained gel, in a dark-room on a UV light- box (a trans-illuminator). UV is dangerous, wear gloves, long-sleeves and face protection. Never look at UV with unprotected eyes. If possible, set the trans-illuminator to long-wavelegth UV (or low-power) and minimise the amount of time the DNA is exposed. This is because the UV mutagenises the DNA at a measurable rate. Use a scalpel blade to cut around the band of interest. Switch off the transilluminator, switch on the white light and carefully remove the band from the gel and place it on the glass. It is good to trim off as much empty agarose as possible so go back to UV illumination briefly to do this. Place the excised band in a 1.5mL microfuge tube.

here are many methods for extracting DNA from gel apart from using commercial kits, some methods however yield cleaner DNA than others.

1. Freeze squeeze

Excise band and place pieces of it in a home-made spin-column (a piece of filter placed in a PCR 0.5ml eppendorf, pierced the bottom of the PCR tube with a needle). Place the PCR tube at -20 °C for 15-20 mins or freeze in liquid N2. Then place the PCR tube into the 1.5 ml eppendorf and spin at top speed in a microfuge for 15 mins, collect DNA solution which can be EtOH ppt or use directly.

2. Powdered silica

Melt excised bands at 70°C cool and add equal volume of TE-buffered phenol and mix. Spin for 5 min, remove aqueous phase, repeat and EtOh ppt. the DNA.

3. Electroelution

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carries the genetic instruction for the biological development and functioning of all cellular forms of life. It is the blue print which contains the instructions to construct other cell components. Molecular biology experiments often require isolation of DNA for a variety of purposes like construction of DNA libraries, gene cloning, PCR and other marker technology, etc. The extraction of DNA from actively growing tissue is relatively easier yielding higher quantities of DNA.

Principle

The cell wall is ruptured and the proteins associated with DNA are removed by detergent like SDS or by interaction with phenol. Lipids are extracted with alcohol and DNA is precipitated by isopropanol.

Materials Required

Maize seed samples, Liquid nitrogen, CTAB (Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide), Chloroform, isoamyl alcohol, Sodium chloride, Glacial acetic acid, Isopropyl alcohol and 70% ice cold ethanol, TE buffer (5X) (24.2 g of Tris base, 5.71 ml of galcial acetic acid, 10 ml of 0.5M EDTA (pH 8.0) , dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water). Prepare 1X TE as per the requirement.

Introduction 
The increasing prices of fast-depleting fossil fuels and their environmental impact have driven the quest for alternative fuels for diesel engines. Because of their higher biomass yield, faster growth rates, and superior photosynthetic efficiency when compared to other energy crops like soybean and rapeseed, microalgae are considered as promising candidates for biofuel production (Mubarak et al., 2015). Numerous species of microalgae have been found to have high lipid contents, making them attractive cell platforms for the synthesis of lipids. Their significance as a backup source of bioenergy in the future is indicated by the ease with which their lipids can be transformed into biodiesel (Ren et al., 2021). Tiny photosynthetic organisms known as microalgae are the ancestors of eukaryotic plants on Earth. These organisms range in size from one to hundred microns and are either unicellular or multicellular (Udayan et al., 2022). Due to the genetic and biochemical diversity of their lineages, algae are able to synthesize a wide range of metabolites, including lipids (Manning, 2022). Glycerolipids are the most prevalent and well-known lipid class in microalgae. Glycerolipids are categorized into two classes based on their functions: storage lipids and structural lipids. Membrane lipids, a type of structural lipid, play a crucial role in forming cell and organelle membranes. They typically consist of two fatty acid groups attached to a glycerol backbone, along with a polar group bound to the glycerol structure (Morales et al., 2021). In contrast, polar lipids have a higher oxygen content and possess charged side groups, enabling them to moderately interact with water. Examples include phospholipids and glycolipids (Manning, 2022). Microalgal lipid metabolism predominantly relies on the de novo fatty acid biosynthesis pathway and the triacylglycerol (TAG) synthesis route (Zhu et al., 2022). Therefore, accurately estimating the composition of the lipid fraction is crucial for determining its potential applications, whether as a raw material for biofuel production or for nutraceutical and/or food purposes (Viegas et al., 2020). The production of biodiesel from microalgae presents a novel approach to generating renewable and sustainable energy. Additionally, different techniques, including lipid extraction and transesterification, are utilized to transform lipid-rich microalgae biomass into biodiesel (Gaurav et al., 2024). Microalgae possess thick-walled cell structures, which restrict the release of their bioactive compounds due to the rigidity of the microalgal matrix. Consequently, selecting suitable pre-treatment and extraction methods is essential for effectively obtaining lipids from microalgae while preserving their bioactivity. Traditional methods for lipid extraction, such as Soxhlet extraction, Folch extraction, and Bligh-Dyer extraction, have been used for a considerable time. While these techniques are generally easy to use and cost-effective, which encourages their adoption, they also have drawbacks, including high consumption of organic solvents, environmental pollution, and extended extraction times that can last several hours. Thus, it is essential to investigate suitable techniques that enhance the extraction rate and lower costs while ensuring the bioactive properties of lipids, enabling better industrial applications of microalgae (Zhou et al., 2022). In recent years, the use of nanotechnology and nanoparticles has emerged as a novel approach for extracting valuable metabolites or bioproducts from microalgae. Nanoparticles (NPs) are materials engineered with at least one dimension measuring less than 100 nanometers (nm). Due to their small size and large surface

EXPERIMENT

TECHNOLOGY FOR EXTRACTION OF KERNEL OIL FROM STONE FRUITS

Apricot, peach, plum, cherries, nectarines etc are the important stone fruits belonging to the family Rosaceae. These fruits are known to contain stones/pits i.e., apricot (6.0-11.5%), peach (7.5-11.5%), plum (4.5-7.0%) and these stones are reported to contain kernels (%) apricot (28.0-32.0%), peach (5.7-5.9%), plum (10.0-20.8%), almond (28.0-30.0%). These kernels can yield an oil yield of (42.5-45.5%), (38.5-41.5%), (39.2-40.6%) and (52.0-58.9%), respectively. Thus, these stone fruit kernels can be utilized for extraction of kernel oil by using the improved technology developed for extraction of oil. The developed technology consists of mechanical decortication of stones by the use of mechanical decorticator, kernel separation by using specific gravity separation technique, oil extraction by using table oil expeller and oil filtration through oil filter press followed by packing in PET bottles and PE pouches.

Mechanical decorticator: The mechanical decorticator is a type of roller crusher consisting of two rollers moving in inward opposite directions with the help of 3 HP motor and is provided with a hopper and feeder assembly. The clearance between two rollers is adjusted according to the respective size of stones.

Table oil expeller: Oil expeller is a 24 patti screw type oil expeller driven by 7HP motor, in which the kernels are fed into the moving hopper at pre-determined flow rate, which are pressed in between rollers (worm) and side walls of the expeller. The kernels are then, passed through the expeller 3-4 times until a thin slice of press cake is obtained.

Introduction

Fruits, vegetables and some non food crops are rich source of natural antioxidants, food colorants and other bioactive natural products. Nutraceuticals and natural food colorants exhibit anti-oxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial and anti-proliferative properties. They tend to enhance ability of the body to fight, cure and prevent diseases. Natural anti-oxidants are particularly important because they scavenge harmful superoxide, hydroxy, and/or peroxide free radicals, and protect the body against a variety of cancers, heart and other life style related diseases. Vegetable like orange carrot, red carrot, black carrot, beet root, tomato, chilli, and fruits like pomegranate, cherries, berries, watermelon and jamun are rich source of natural antioxidants and food colorants. While tomato and red carrot are rich in lycopenes, and carotenes; black carrot is a major source of stable acylated anthocyanins. The dark red colour of beet root is associated with anthocyanin, betacyanin and betaxanthins. Similarly, the red colour of chilli is attributed to the carotenoid pigment capsanthin. Capsaicinoids in chilli are responsible for the hot flavour and anti-inflammatory properties. Antioxidant and other beneficial health effects of pomegranate, cherries, berries, etc. have been attributed to anthocyanins and related polyphenols. Jamun, an under-utilized tropical fruits is rich in anthocyanins and flavonoides. Like anthocyanins, flavonoides and carotenes, lycopene helps to prevent various types of cancer particularly the prostate cancer.

Microalgae represent a promising alternative to renewable source of feedstock for natural food colorants and nutraceuticals and functional food production. With over 40,000 identified species, microalgae are one of the most diverse groups of organisms on earth. They naturally produce large quantities of many biomaterials. Out of the diverse compounds produced by microalgae, the algal pigments such as phycobillins, carotenoids and xanthophylls have gained commercial importance owing to their unique and multiple applications as food and cosmetic colourants, antioxidants and several beneficial effects of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical value. Microalgal research over the years has geared up significantly from outdoor mass culture in algal ponds, refinement of the cultivation process and life cycle assessment, downstream processing of biomass (i.e., harvesting, dewatering, and drying), to extraction, to systems/process scale-up analysis and development of an economic feasibility model for commercialization of algal biomaterials with nutraceutical properties. Among the various microalgae, Spirulina and Haematococcus are the major source of naturally occurring biopigments which are gaining importance as natural pigments in food, drug and cosmetic industries as an alternative to currently used synthetic colour. Improvement in the cultivation methodologies and use of closed photobioreactors of different configurations, fermentation reactors, open reactors and tubular reactors have opened up new vistas for the development of microalgal biotechnology and bioprospecting. The main constraints in non-exploitation for mass cultivation of microalgae are their slow growth rate, low biomass yield and inadequate culture methodologies and these issues remain to be addressed.

1. Algal Biomass

Algae is defined as heterogeneous assemblage of organisms that range in size from tiny cells to giant seaweeds, thus algae mostly are photosynthetic species which include eukaryotes and prokaryotic Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and live in aquatic habitats. They are ubiquitous in nature and are found in variety of environments ranging from soil, sand, marshes, brackish water, sea and fresh water. Most of them are capable of manufacturing their own food.

Microalgal research is offering wide potential in food biotechnology and is gaining more attention because of presence of wide range of bioactive and nutraceutical properties and added health benefits.The increasing population is one of the major growing concerns of today’s world. To meet the nutritional requirement of the rising population, researchers are looking for optional sources for food which are easy to cultivate, cost effective and produce large amount of bioactive compounds useful to prevent major diseases. Chlorella is unicellular green alga that is a potential source of nutrients like carotenoids, minerals, vitamins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Especially, omega-3 fatty acid and carotenoids have received considerable interests due to their roles in the prevention of chronic diseases. Lutein and zeaxanthin from Chlorella have been shown to be associated with eye health and function. Beta-carotene is known to reduce the risk of CVDs and certain cancers. Animal studies also demonstrated that Chlorella supplementation reduced the serum cholesterol levels.

Similarly, the blue green microalgae Spirulina, possesses diverse biological activities and nutritional significance. Regular consumption of Spirulina fortified food improves immune system by increasing phagocytic activity of macrophages, stimulating the production of antibodies and cytokines, increase accumulation of NK cells into tissue and activation and mobilization of T and B cells. Spirulina have also shown to perform regulatory role on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism by exhibiting glucose and lipid profile correcting activity in experimental animals and in diabetic patients. They were also found to be active against several enveloped viruses including herpes virus, cytomegalovirus, influenza virus and HIV. They are capable to inhibit carcinogenesis due to antioxidant properties.

The intricate balance between the Earth’s atmosphere and its ecosystems has always been a subject of fascination and concern, particularly when it comes to the impact of extreme weather events on agriculture. The delicate balance that sustains life on our planet is often disrupted by the very forces that make our environment dynamic and diverse. Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, floods, and heatwaves, have become a recurring theme in the narrative of global agriculture, leaving in their wake trails of devastation, economic loss, and food insecurity. Agriculture, the backbone of many economies around the world, is inherently sensitive to weather patterns. The cycle of planting, growth, and harvesting is deeply intertwined with the climate and weather conditions of a region. Any significant deviation from the expected weather patterns can have far-reaching consequences for crop yields, livestock health, and ultimately, the livelihoods of those dependent on farming and related activities. The relationship between weather and agriculture is not just about the immediate impacts of extreme events but also about the long-term changes in climate that alter the very fabric of agricultural practices and productivity. Weather hazards and disasters, by their nature, are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change, posing unprecedented challenges to agricultural systems worldwide. These events not only affect the quantity and quality of agricultural produce but also have profound implications for the environment, economy, and society at large. For instance, a severe drought can lead to crop failure, affecting food availability and prices, while also depleting water resources, which in turn can exacerbate land degradation and loss of biodiversity. The global interconnectedness of food systems means that the impacts of extreme weather events on agriculture in one part of the world can have ripple effects on food security and economies elsewhere. This interconnectedness underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding of the complex relationships between weather patterns, agricultural productivity, and the resilience of food systems. By examining the causes, consequences, and responses to extreme weather events and their impacts on agriculture, we can begin to unravel the intricacies of these interactions and explore strategies for mitigating the adverse effects and enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems in the face of an increasingly unpredictable climate.

Abstract

The ability of life to dwell in extreme environments on our mother planet earth right from a thirsty desert environment to highly water saturated oceans, gave the scientists a new area to work in during the 1990’s. The discovery of microbial life which had the ability to survive in conditions which were highly inhospitable for the normal life gave rise to a revolution in the field of science and technology. Extremophiles are one of the most primitive forms of life on earth since they have accustomed themselves to the present day harsh conditions compared to the normal environment. The last few years have seen a massive increase in their discovery, since the areas which once were thought barren by the scientists are now found inhabited by the microbial life. The extremophiles endure conditions right from extreme temperatures, pressure, salt concentration to radiations, metal tolerance, pH etc. During the past few years the industrial applications associated with the extremophiles and their products have led to their intensive exploration. Keeping in view the present and the future scenario, extensive efforts are still required in order to exploit the extreme environments for extremophiles and their products.

Food extrusion technology is a popular means of preparing snacks and ready-to-prepare food items. It is a method of size enlargement in which tiny granular food or powdered particles are strengthened into bigger parts with various forms, texture, color, etc. Extrusion cooking or thermoplastic extrusion is a common extrusion technology considered to be a process of HTST (high temperature, short time). It allows the manufacturing of a wide range of food products with little or no alteration of the fundamental equipment and adequate process control. Extrusion cooking is used for starchy and protein substances to make nutritious foods. Generally, such products are rich in calories and incorporation of protein rich fish improves its nutritional value. Most of the cereal-based extruded snacks were primarily made from maize, wheat and rice. However, these cereals (e.g. rice) have comparatively low protein content (6 - 8 g/100 g db) and an elevated amino acid profile in glutamic and aspartic acid, whereas lysine is the restricting amino acid. Therefore, it is recommended that protein food ingredient (e.g. fish) be added to the extruded snack products to develop nutrient rich diets.

Fish is considered to be great sources of protein of high dietary importance with a balanced profile of essential amino acids and lipids containing omega-3 fatty acids, in particular essential fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), respectively. EPA and DHA are very essential to normal growth and development. To avoid or moderate coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, other inflammatory and autoimmune illnesses, these vital fatty acids are discovered. The benefits of fish-based extruded products will assist in providing a big population in the nation like India with nutritious and balanced diets.

Extrusion cooking is an emerging technology having advantages of low production cost, capable of producing end products in various shapes and sizes, from a variety of food materials with easy digestibility, maintaining hygiene and high product quality and leaving no effluents or hazardous materials. Minimal energy consumption and processing costs and possibility of flavour addition are the added advantages of technology. The process/technique has the versality and ability to constituently produce a given product in continuity at a given set of pre – determined specifications. It destroys fat splitting enzymes to avoid rancidity and thus extends the shelf life of products considerably. Microorganisms present in food materials are destroyed. It can be effectively utilized to develop functional and designer foods by using several locally available under-utilized food materials. However, it leads to increased package cost as puffed or expanded food products have low bulk density. R & D studies are further needed for co – extrusion of variety of cereals with high fibre content foods and micronutrients.

1.1 Introduction and Background

In present scenario, the word “extrusion” refers to a process by which dry or semi-moist ingredients with varying in-barrel moisture are forced through varying barrel temperature, screw speed and screw configuration through a die opening of the desired cross section. In other words, extrusion is predominantly a thermo-mechanical processing operation that combines several unit operations, including mixing, coating, kneading, venting, shearing, heating, forming, partial drying or puffing, depending on the material and equipment used.

The origins of extrusion are in the metallurgical industry, where in 1797 Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process, wherein a piston driven device was used for making seamless lead pipes. The present understanding of extrusion technology and the developments or improvements in machine design are largely due to research carried out by the plastics industry. In food industry, this technology is in use since 1930 and its popularity is increasing continuously due to its efficiency, continuity and sustainability. In beginning, sausage extruders were developed in the nineteenth century as simple forming machines. One of the original developments which laid the foundation of the food extrusion was the use of pasta press termed as “cold extruder” in mid 1930s. Furthermore, in the late 1930s, General Mills, Incorporation., Minneapolis, MN, USA, first used a single screw extruder in the manufacture of ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals. Later in 1970s, twin screw extruders were used for the manufacture of moist pet-foods. Twin screw extruders were also adapted from polymer industry, as rising food quality and limitations of single screw extruders were demanding a more versatile process for the newer and higher quality products. After 1970s, the extrusion processing with simultaneous use of heat was popularized as a versatile and highly energy efficient with negligible wastage process. In all these years, number of changes has been noted in the extruder design such as changes in screw design, barrel design and also material used for the manufacture of these materials. Barrel liners availability along with already available segmented screws could further add more economics to the process and increased equipment lifetime. For better wearing characteristics, a number of screw elements of different materials are being used in addition to standard nitrided steel for customized processing needs, such as corrosion and wear resistant surface coated steels, stainless steel, satellite welded and bimetallic HIP (Hot Isostatic Press). JBL Feedscrews Limited, a UK based company recently introduced tungsten carbide coated screw in conjunction with a compatible bimetallic barrel. Likewise, a number of options for barrel metallurgy are available to withstand the higher internal pressure and temperature. Barrels lined with hard cobalt based alloy, typically Xaloy, to give abrasion and chemical resistance are also in use, although, the most common material is carbon steel with a nitride interior. Similarly, steam heated or jacketed barrels were used earlier for cooking purpose which gradually replaced by the electric induction heating elements. These HTST cooking extruders are versatile, highly productive and energy efficient processing machines. They can use a wide variety of raw materials and formulations to produce products with increased shelf-life and convenience.

The diagnosis of blindness is as follows: an animal that is blind is apprehensive, easily agitated, has an uptight head position with a feeling gait, stumbles forward, steps up high, collides with obstacles in its path, and lacks the cross reflex, photomotor pupillary reflex, and palpebral reflex. Clinical examination of the eye:

• By necked eye

• By magnifying lenses

• By catoptric test: use to detect opacities of the cornea and lens

• By ophthalmoscope

• By tonometry: use to measure intraocular pressure.

Abstract

It has been established beyond doubt that the drainage architecture and the fluvial histories of river systems give excellent indications not only on the surficial lithology but also on the ongoing morphotectonic processes of the planet earth. Among the various drainage patterns, the ‘eyed drainage’ pattern is considered to be one of the most significant anomalies and such ‘mega eyed’ drainages interpreted from IRS-IA imagery in some of the major river systems in Tamil Nadu, Indian Peninsula, are found to signify ongoing tectonic movements in an otherwise seismically inert shield area.

12.1 Introduction

The name was coined by George W. Snedecor, in honour of Sir Ronald A. Fisher. The object of the F-test is to find out whether the two independent estimates of population variance differ significantly or whether the two samples may be regarded as drawn from the normal populations having the same variance.

The F-test for the equality of two variances

Rationale

The two-sample t-test and the analysis of variance make the assumption of homoscedasticity, i.e. of equal variances in groups of data. The F-test, often called the variance ratio test, may be used to investigate the homoscedasticity of two data sets.

We have to make a decision whether or not the population variances are likely to be different. This means that we need a cut-off for the variance ratio; if the variance ratio exceeds this cut-off value, we will conclude that the variances are unequal.

We determine this cut-off value formally, under the null hypothesis that the two population variances are equal, by referring the ratio to the table of the F-distribution. The degrees of freedom are (n1 – 1) in the numerator (the larger variance) and (n2 – 1) in the denominator (the smaller variance), where n1 and n2 represent the two sample sizes.

For the required significance level in a two-tailed test, therefore, we must halve this tail area. So, for a two-tailed test at the 5% level of significance, we have to relate the test statistic to P = 0.025. For convenience, we give the upper percentage points corresponding to P = 0.025 and P = 0.005 (relating to two tailed P-values of 0.05 and 0.01, respectively) in separate tables.

Facilitated diffusion: Facilitated diffusion is a movement in the direction of a concentration gradient; but it involves moving through a channel protein or a carrier protein. A channel protein is merely a pore in the membrane, and is often gated to control movement. A carrier protein has a binding site where the substance attaches and moved through the membrane.

Facultative CAM: Plants which behave as C₃ under conditions of normal water supply. However, switch over to CAM mode under conditions of water deficit.

FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide): A riboflavin containing co-enzyme of some oxidation reduction reactions.

Facultative long day plant: Facultative photoperiodic plants are more likely to flower under appropriate light conditions, but will eventually flower regardless of length of night.

FADH: In biochemistry, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a redox cofactor, more specifically a prosthetic group, involved in several important reactions in metabolism. FAD can exist in three different redox states, which are quinone, semiquinone and hydroquinone. FAD is converted between these states by accepting or donating electrons. FAD, in its full oxidised form or quinone form, accepts two electrons and two protons to become FADH₂ (hydroquinone form). The semiquinone (FADH) can be formed by either reduction of FAD or oxidation of FADH₂ by accepting or donating one electron and one proton, respectively.

Fagopyrum acutatum (Lehm.) Mansf. ex Hammer (syn. Fagopyrum cymosum (Trev.) Meissn (Polygonaceae): Eng.- Medicinal Buckwheat / Perennial Buckwheat; Hindi – Kutu; Kash.- Tsok Hakh [RC]. A tall branched, puberulous annual growing wild in Drasss, Kargil, Gurez areas at 2800 to 3300 m amsl. Leaves tri-angular; perianth white. Grains acutely 3- cornered.

Factor analysis: Factor analysis is the most commonly employed multivariate procedure in the research studies when there is a systematic interdependence among a set of observed or manifest variables and the research worker is interested in finding out something more fundamental or latent which creates this commonality.

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 258).

Facultative anaerobic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

Falling rate period: It is that part of the drying process during which the drying rate varies with time and the instantaneous drying rate per unit surface or weight of dry material continuously decreases. Falling rate takes place when most of the moisture has been evaporated during constant rate period. The falling rate period during dehydration take place in the final stage of dehydration when the food commodities have large amount of free water available for evaporation. Here, rate of removal of the moisture from the food to the surrounding is continuously decreasing / falling per unit time.

F2 toxin: Mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum and other Fusarium species. It may be formed when the fungus grows on damp cereal grain (e.g. wheat, barley and corn) used as animal feeds. It has oestrogenic activity and can cause hyperoestrogenism in swine, cattle and poultry. Also known as zearalenone and zearalenol.
Falling number: Indicator used to measure the activity of α-amylases in cereal flours. In wheat, a low falling number may signal reduced grain quality and poor breadmaking properties.
Farina: A fine flour or meal which is prepared from cereals, particularly wheat, or other plant foods with a high starch content. It can be used in the manufacture of foods such as pasta.
Farinographs: Instruments used to investigate the physical properties of dough.
Fast foods: Prepared foods obtained from restaurants and other catering establishments, where the aim is to provide a fast service and rapid customer turnover at reasonable prices. Examples of fast foods include burgers, pizzas, sandwiches and French fries.
Fast-freezing: The food is freeze very rapidly so as to prevent the formation of large ice crystals within the cell which would disrupt them and cause the contents to leak out on thawing, thus destroying the structure of the food.
Fat extenders: Food additives that allow the fat content of food to be reduced without affecting the texture.

INTRODUCTION

Hybrid crops are derived from an established and well-proven breeding method used in ornamental sectors. The development of hybrid crops has been one of the major factors behind a dramatic increase in global crop yields. Hybrid is produced by crossing between two genetically dissimilar parents. Pollen from male parent called pollen parent will pollinate, fertilize and set seeds in female called seed parent to produce F1 hybrid seeds. For production of a hybrid, crossing between two parents is important, the crossing process will results in heterosis or hybrid vigour. Heterosis is defined as the increase in size or vigour of a hybrid over its parent. This boost in performance, combining the best yield, quality and agronomic characters from each parent, is the result of hybrid breeding.

INTRODUCTION

Hybrid crops are derived from an established and well-proven breeding method used in ornamental sectors. The development of hybrid crops has been one of the major factors behind a dramatic increase in global crop yields. Hybrid is produced by crossing between two genetically dissimilar parents. Pollen from male parent called pollen parent will pollinate, fertilize and set seeds in female called seed parent to produce F₁ hybrid seeds. For production of a hybrid, crossing between two parents is important, the crossing process will results in heterosis or hybrid vigour. Heterosis is defined as the increase in size or vigour of a hybrid over its parent. This boost in performance, combining the best yield, quality and agronomic characters from each parent, is the result of hybrid breeding.

F₁ hybrid seed offers to the growers a significant benefits in terms of yield improvement, agronomic performance and consistency of end-use quality. But attempting to farm-save hybrid varieties will result in segregating populations producing highly variable offspring, which can lead to reduced yield, disease resistance and quality. As this factsheet explains, it doesn’t make economic or agronomic sense to save seed of an F₁ hybrid. In self pollinated crops it is difficult to cross but in cross pollinated crops it is easier. In nature to create genetic variability and for its wider adaptation in different environmental conditions, flowering plants has adopted many mechanisms for cross pollination. Cross pollination results in genetic heterogeneity and show wider adaptations. F₁ hybrids are in immense usage throughout the world with the rapid increasing interest in flowers, however the total number of the hybrids developed in flowers is still less. In India hybrid seed production is taken up in Bengaluru, Pune, Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh for export.

F₁ hybrids in ornamental crops were known even before Shull 1911 when he propounded the classical theory of hybrid vigour in plant breeding for the first time. In 1909 F₁ hybrid variety Prima Donna in begonia was released by Benary Seed Company in Germany. The first commercial F₁ hybrid in petunia was produced by Japan during World War II, in 1942. From 1950 onwards, F₁ hybrids were available in ornamental flowers from The Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, USA and UK besides Japan and produced in flower crops like ageratum, anemone, gerbera, primula, petunia, cyclamen, marigold, pansies, begonia, geranium, portulaca, dianthus, balsam, stock, wall flower, ornamental sunflower, gazania, hollyhock, calceolaria and zinnia. Flower breeders became familiar with the F₁ hybrid production of those crops also which were formerly propagated by vegetative parts such as pelargonium and gerbera. A few important hybrids were first released in petunia in 1940-50, geranium single in 1960, antirrhinum, marigold, pansy and zinnia in 1965, ageratum in 1966, geranium double in 1970, dianthus, impatiens, portulaca in 1976-77, gerbera in 1980 and carnation in 1981.

Fabric defects are imperfections or irregularities that diminish the appearance, structural integrity, functionality or performance of textile materials and finished products. They may develop during fibre preparation, yarn production, weaving, knitting, dyeing, printing, finishing, handling or storage. Their early detection and prevention are necessary for maintaining quality, minimizing material waste and protecting customer satisfaction. Quality-control personnel use inspection systems and analytical tools to record the frequency and seriousness of defects. Check sheets, histograms, control charts and Pareto analysis help classify faults and identify the most important problems. Understanding defect types and their underlying causes allows manufacturers to implement suitable remedies and prevent their recurrence.

Aim

Purpose: As there is no institution for preparation ofthomassplintfor large animal till date for which physician are preparing thomas splint hear the patient at the time of need.

These thomas splint are generally prepared with useof bamboo, Gl wire, jute of cottonbandages. These thomas splint are generally weak. These thomas splint work for (2-3) month.

For this reason there is necessity of fabrication of large animal thomas splint with us e of other strong and lightest material for long time stonage and use.

It consists of 2 parts-A) fabrication of fixed supporting frame B) fabrication of animal swing frame.

Fabrication of fixed supporting frame -

Materials required - Bamboo pole and rope

Fabrication Technique - Size a frame 3m for large animals, 2.5m for medium sized and 2 ml for small sized animals.

Fabrication of animal swing frame-

Materials required - Strong fixed rectangular iron frame

Fabrication technique - The required no. of bicycle tyres are fastened upon the frame. All individual tyres are tied with jute threads at 3-4 places.

Procedure for Netted Padded Bamboo Splint

Marking of the bamboo splints is done maintaining equal distance (Fig.1).

At both the edges of the marking, grooving of the bamboo splints is done for perfect tieing of the plastic rope (Fig.2).

The bamboo splints are tied with the help of plastic rope maintaining 1 finger space between each bamboo splint (Fig.3).

Soft 8 layer padding of cotton is provided at both the ends of the netted bamboo splint in order to avoid injury (Fig.5).

The width of the netted padded bamboo splint should be upto one and half times of the limb’s circumference (Fig.6).

Nanomaterials are a rapidly growing technological sector with diverse applications. These nanomaterials are categorized into distinct groups according to their shape, size, and materials used in their fabrication. The synthesis of nanomaterials follows different strategies that are tailored to their specific applications. This chapter describes the different approaches used for the synthesis of nanomaterials, including top-down, bottom-up, and hybrid approaches. Furthermore, this chapter discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each fabrication method and explores the diverse applications of nanomaterials across multiple fields.

Development of the face includes the development of orbital, nasal and oral regions. Development of face involves five facial primordia during the embryonic period of development. These primordia include the single frontonasal prominence and the paired maxillary and mandibular prominences.

The frontonasal prominence forms two sets of bilateral ectodermal thickenings, the nasal and lens placodes. Frontonasal prominence shows nasal component (of ridges) and a frontal component. A thickned area of ectoderm olfactory/ nasal placode appears at the medial tips of frontonasal prominence.

5.1 Basics of Writing

Writing news stories involves a specific set of guidelines and practices to ensure accuracy, clarity, and effective communication.

• Writing News Stories

A methodical approach is necessary when writing news articles in order to provide accurate, educational, and captivating information.

Kerala State receives an average annual rainfall of about 3000 mm but with high variability. The demand for water in Kerala is mainly for drinking, agriculture, power generation and aquaculture as well as for prevention of salt-water intrusion. Currently 71 per cent is used for irrigation , 18 per cent for domestic use and the rest is for other purposes. However, Kerala is one of the States with lowest per capita water availability among the Indian states. Basak (1998) reported the per capita water availability in Kerala was only 69 per cent of that of the country in 1981 though the general perception is contrary to this.

17.1 Introduction

Factor-factor relationship is concerned with the possibility of substituting one input factor (X1 ) for another input/factor (X2 ) for producing a given level of output. It answers the crucial question of finding out the optimum or least cost combination of two or more resources in producing the given amount of output. The two fold objective of factor-factor relationship is: