eChapters

In the rabbit production industry, providing a healthy diet and adequate amount of food every day is crucial for success. Rabbits can only survive and thrive on a diet of forage, so it is important to carefully consider their nutritional needs when planning their feeding regimen.

Some rabbit producers choose to provide basic grains in addition to forages in order to increase the potential productivity of their herd. These grains can be sourced from one's own farm or purchased commercially as concentrated feeds. The type of feed given to rabbits will greatly impact the management of the herd, such as how frequently they need to be rebred.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    WhyvitaminAdeficiencyis far common in captive carnivores than free rangingwildlife?

Ans: Because they are fed exclusively on carcass meat without liver, cod liver oil or synthetic sources of vitamin A and moreover, thay can not convert ?-carotene to vitamin A.

2.    Why weekly off day feeding is practiced in tiger in all Indian zoos?

Ans: This ispracticed tostimulatetheintermittentfeedingbehavior of tiger in wild condition.

3.    Why metabolic bone diseases are very common in captive carnivores?

And: As the carcass meat provided in captivecondition is deficient in Ca and ratio of Ca: P (1:20) is very highly imbalanced.

4.    Write the extreme specializations in GItract seen in vampire bats?

Ans: Like blood sucking parasites, their GI tract is reduced to a tube since it feeds only on blood.

Dietary fat, which is not degraded in upper part of digestive tract (rumen) of animal, but gets digested in lower alimentary tract is known as bypass fat. Rumen protected fat is another name for this bypass fat. Immediately following calving, dairy animals lose a significant amount of energy through milk, although their feed intake is decreased. Animals continue to have negative energy balances as a result.

For the purpose of passing into the lower gastrointestinal tract and supplying the cow with vital amino acids, dairy bypass protein (UDP – undegraded protein) is a type of animal or plant-based protein that resists breakdown in the rumen. More metabolizable protein is made available by avoiding the rumen, assisting the cow in meeting her needs for amino acids for milk production and its constituent parts.

1. Introduction
Reproduction is one of the most critical processes in the life cycle of fish, directly influencing population sustainability, species survival, and aquaculture productivity. Successful reproduction hinges on several interconnected factors, including environmental conditions (such as water quality, temperature, and photoperiod), genetic predisposition, physiological health, and, most importantly, nutrition. Among these, nutrition has a profound and direct influence on reproductive performance in both wild and cultured fish populations.
In aquaculture, the reproductive success of broodstock—mature fish that produce offspring—is paramount to the production of high-quality fry (young fish) and larvae, which in turn affects the overall yield and profitability of fish farms. Ensuring that broodstock are provided with an optimal diet tailored to their reproductive needs can significantly enhance fecundity (the number of eggs produced), fertilization rates, and the viability of offspring. Proper nutrition not only contributes to better gamete (egg and sperm) quality but also plays a vital role in boosting the health, vitality, and resilience of both broodstock and their progeny.
Nutritional deficiencies or imbalances during the reproductive phase can lead to a variety of problems, such as reduced spawning frequency, poor egg and sperm quality, low hatching rates, and poor larval survival. Conversely, well-nourished broodstock with access to essential nutrients are more likely to produce high-quality eggs and sperm that result in healthier, more viable offspring.

Management of zoo and exotic animals in zoos are carried out in different ways. In the management of zoo, various cadres of personnel get employed and often, a team-approach is highly required and however, veterinarian is one of the important cadres in the zoo related personnel and veterinary interventions are highly required for management of feeding, housing, breeding and health of various species of wild fauna belonging to multiple taxonomical groups.

Large parts of the country perennially reel under recurring drought. Over 68% of India is vulnerable to drought. The ‘chronically drought-prone areas’ – around 33%, receive less than 750 mm of rainfall, while 35%, classified as ‘drought-prone’ receive rainfall of 750-1,125 mm. The drought-prone areas of the country are confined to peninsular and western India – primarily arid, semi-arid and sub-humid regions. Approximately 218.1 thousand square kilometers of land in India under sub-tropical semi-arid and arid conditions are spread over the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh (Anonymous, 1974). Agriculture is predominantly rainfed and the region is drought-prone. Less than 23% of land is irrigated. Forest cover is <5% and waste and fallow areas occupy 42% of the land.

8.1. Introduction

Providing appropriate nutrition is an elementary step in dairy animal production. Improper nutrition prevents cattle to express full genetic potential for milk production and reproductive efficiency. Nutrition helps in maintaining good health condition of the animal.

Therefore, one should know the basic digestive physiology, various types of nutrients and their requirements in different categories of animals present in a dairy herd. As feed cost contributes principal expenditure of a dairy farm, balanced ration should be prepared in a cost effective manner. Proper understanding of feeds and rations also help to explore alternative feeds and supplements without hampering the health as well as productivity of the animals. Effective dairy farming requires converting feed into milk which worth more than the total cost of production (mostly contributed by feed cost).

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is balanced ration?

Ans: According to Morrison (1956), a balanced ration is one that furnishes nutrients in such proportions and amounts that it will properlynourisha givenanimalfor 24hours.The required nutrients must be contained in the DM provided during the 24 hrs period otherwise the ration can not be considered as balanced.

2.    What is ration?

Ans: A ration is the feed allowed for a givenanimal duringthe day of 24 hours.

3.    What is effective rumen degradable protein? (ERDP)

Ans: It has been defined as a measure of the total nitrogen supply that is actually captured and utilized by the rumen microbes for growth and synthetic purpose.

4.    How heat treatment causes protein protection?

Ans Heating causes denaturation of protein and this may be beneficial because of reduced ruminal degradation partly by blocking reactive sites for ruminal proteolytic enzymes and partly byreducingprotein solubility.

In the cases of drought and flood when the feed resources made unavailable, creates the problem of animals feeding. In those cases unconventional methods and materials will have to be used to fulfil the hunger and nutrient requirements of animals to sustain them. 

Traditional methods of feeding
    1.    Use of by-products of commercial crops such as oil seed crops, grams etc. as well as drought resistant vegetation in combination with NPN source and molasses (as source of energy) for meeting the immediate nutritional requirements.

    2.     Certain varieties of tree leaves and extractions of inedible oil seeds can be used to meet the essential requirements of intact protein in ruminants. This proved to be successful during draught in many parts of India.
 
    3.    Large scale feeding of bagasse and molasses in combination with urea and mineral supplements may be adopted without any toxic effects. Some of the daily ration schedule that has been successfully tried is given below:

Digestive System and Digestion in Chicken

Studies on structure and functions of digestive system of chicken play important role for their nutrition and feeding. Functions of each part are given below (Fig 35):

Mouth: Birds feed through the beak. The horny upper and lower mandibles form the beak. Lips, teeth, cheek and soft palate are absent. The dagger-like tongue helps to force the feed into the esophagus. Chicken has 24 taste buds with high sense of taste. Absence of teeth makes the particle size of the feed important.

Esophagus (Gullet): It is made of loose fibrous tissue and serves as a tube to pass the food from mouth to crop. This is relatively long because of the long neck of the fowl.

Crop: (Ingluvius): It is a pouch like structure of esophagus to store, moisten and soften the food. It gives information about the feeding habits of the fowl.

Proventriculus (Glandular stomach or True stomach): It is an enlarged glandular ovoid structure of the esophagus connected to gizzard. It secretes pepsin and Hydrochloric acid.

Gizzard (Muscular stomach): Disc shaped muscular organ with two pairs of strong thick muscles and lined internally with a thick horny epithelial covering called the Koilin layer. Coarse materials are ground well by its powerful contractions with the support of the grit that birds consume.

India is one of the top ten countries most affected by disasters, as defined by the Disaster Management Act of 2005. Natural disasters, such as floods, droughts, and earthquakes, often lead to food and water shortages. Man-made disasters, like industrial accidents and pollution, can further worsen conditions for animals. Ensuring animal welfare during disasters is essential for family survival, as livestock provide food security. Developing a comprehensive animal care plan is vital to safeguard animals during and after natural disasters.
During natural disasters, the primary objective should be to prevent animals from starving by diverting feed from lactating animals whenever possible. Implementing restricted feeding is crucial, even if it results in weight loss and reduced milk yield in lactating animals. Utilizing various measures such as conserved fodders, cost-effective hydroponic systems, unconventional feed resources, and nutrient blocks can help prevent livestock mortality and morbidity during emergencies.
Natural calamities often lead to significant livestock losses, highlighting the importance of feed security for animals during and after disasters. Developing feeding strategies to sustain animals in the face of natural calamities is crucial.
Feeding strategies during feed shortages aim to maintain animals at a minimum body weight for survival, prioritize feeding productive stock, and understand critical weight losses for different species. Critical body weight varies by species, breed, and age, with cattle at risk if weight loss exceeds 20%. Understanding these factors is essential for effective feed resource allocation during emergencies.
Developing countries face feed shortages exacerbated by natural disasters, creating a gap between feed demand and supply. Hydro-meteorological disasters pose challenges in transporting feed, leading to increased costs. In such situations, ensuring animal survival through rationed feeding is crucial. Booster feed can aid in their recovery once conditions improve

A. Write True or False of the following statements

1.    Goats have higher threshold level for bitter taste than other ruminants.

2.    Cattle is acknowledged as mobile pruning machine.

3.    Creep feed should have at least 10% DCP and 58% TDN. 4. Goat under brows condition performs better.

5.    Colostrumshould be fed to the kids @ 10ml/kgbodyweight.

6.    Creepfeed maybe introduced to kidsfrom101 days onwards.

7.    Due to difference in MBS, DMI is higher in larger breeds than smaller breeds.

8.    30-40% of feed intake by goat consists of leaves of shrubs and bushes.

Feed is a significant expense in raising small ruminants, accounting for 60% or more of total production costs. Nutrition is crucial for flock reproduction, milk production, and lamb and kid growth. Late gestation and lactation are critical periods for ewe and doe nutrition, with lactation having the highest nutritional demands. Nutrition levels determine the growth rate of lambs and kids, particularly protein requirements. Animals on inadequate diets are more prone to diseases and fail to reach their full genetic potential.
Small ruminants require energy, protein, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water for optimal health. Energy is often the most limiting nutrient, while protein is the most costly. Imbalances in vitamins and minerals can affect animal performance and health. Fiber is essential for a healthy rumen environment and digestion. Water, though inexpensive, is often overlooked.
Feed intake percentage varies based on the animal’s size, with smaller animals needing a higher intake proportionally. Maintenance requirements increase with activity levels, environmental conditions, and life stages such as pregnancy, lactation, and growth. Sheep and goats can meet their nutritional needs with various feed sources as long as requirements are met. Feeding programs should consider animal needs, feed availability, and nutrient costs.
Comparative Feeding Behaviour and Digestive Physiology in Goats and Sheep
1. Goats excel in utilizing cell wall-rich and nitrogen-poor forages compared to sheep and cattle.
2. Goats have a longer retention time of feed in the digestive tract, higher cellulolytic bacteria concentration in the rumen, and efficient blood urea recycling.
3. In harsh conditions, goats consume less water and more dry matter than sheep.

Feeding silage is also an important part of the process. Silage can be fed to all kinds of animals. Silage is suitable for feeding 6-7 weeks after ensiling. Purposes of silage feeding are drought feeding, production increases, an aid to pasture or crop management, utilization of excess growth, balancing nutrients in the diet, and the storage of wet feed products. Silage is most likely to be profitable when used to increase productivity or balance nutrient content of the diet.
 
Feeding value of silage is defined as the product of the nutritive value and potential voluntary intake of the forage (Wheeler and Corbett, 1989).

Declaration of facts about the amounts of nutrients required by the various classes of livestockfor differentphysiologicalfunctions like maintenance, growth, lactation, eggproduction, wool productionetc. are in generaltermed as “Feeding standards”. Nutrient requirement is the statement of what animals on an average require for a particular function.Allowanceis greater than the required amount by a ‘safety margin’ which is allowed for variations in requirement between individual animals. Such standards may be expressed in quantities or in dietary proportions, for example gram per day, this method of expression is used mainly for animals given exact quantities of feeds; or gram per kilogram of the diet, this method is used for animals fed to appetite.

Various units are used for feeding standards – for ruminants, the energy requirements may be stated in terms of net energy, metabolizable energy or feed units and protein requirements in terms of crude protein, digestible crude protein or metabolizable protein. It is obviously desirable that the units used in the standards should be the same as those used in the evaluation of feeds. For dairy cows, the requirements are given separately for maintenance and for milk production. But for growing chickens, they are given for maintenance and growth combined. In some instances, the requirements for single functions are not known, for example, vitamins and trace elements. As mentioned above, in feeding practice, the requirement amount is accompanied by the addition of a ‘safety factor’.

Feeding standards are vital guidelines that specify the necessary nutrient amounts for animals’ growth, health, and production. These standards have evolved since the nineteenth century and are classified into three types: comparative, digestible nutrient, and production value. They provide daily nutrient requirements or percentages of the diet, depending on the feeding method. Precise feeding uses daily requirements, while ad libitum feeding employs percentages.
A. Comparative type
1. Hay standard: In 1810, German scientist Thaer revolutionized the practice of animal feeding by introducing a standard for comparing different types of feed. This standard used meadow hay as the reference unit and considered it equivalent to 91 lbs. of clover hay, 200 lbs. of potatoes, or 625 lbs. of mangels. This allowed for a more accurate measurement and comparison of feed options, aiding farmers in their feeding decisions. Prior to this, feeding practices relied on practical experience due to limited knowledge of feed composition and animal needs. However, with Thaer’s new standard, farmers were able to make more informed choices when it came to providing proper nutrition for their animals. This marked an important advancement in the field of animal husbandry and laid the foundation for further research and understanding in the years to come.
2. Scandinavian “feed unit” standard: In 1884, Professor Fjord introduced the Scandinavian feeding standard, which focuses on the feed unit. One pound of common grains like corn, barley, or wheat is considered one unit, with other foods valued relative to this. The standard recommends one feed unit per 150 lbs. of body weight, with an additional unit for every three pounds of milk produced.

Effective feeding strategies and feed management are vital for enhancing fish growth, achieving optimal feed conversion ratios (FCR), and reducing both feed wastage and environmental impact. As feed expenses account for around 60–70% of total aquaculture costs, efficient feeding is key to economic and environmental sustainability. A well-designed feeding approach includes selecting appropriate feed types, setting correct feeding rates, timing feedings properly, and observing fish feeding behavior closely. Feed characteristics—such as floating or sinking nature, pellet size, and nutritional composition—should align with the species, age, and health of the fish. Insufficient feeding can result in poor growth and higher disease risk, whereas excessive feeding not only escalates costs but also compromises water quality due to decomposing leftover feed. Feeding rates are usually based on a percentage of body weight, modified according to factors like water temperature, oxygen levels, fish condition, and seasonal changes. For example, warmer weather increases metabolism and appetite, requiring more frequent feedings,

Abstract
As global food security becomes increasingly urgent, high-density aquaculture systems present a viable solution to meet the rising protein demands of the world’s growing population, projected to reach 9.8 billion by 2050. This chapter examines the integration of various innovative aquaculture techniques designed to improve the sustainability and efficiency of fish farming. High-density systems such as recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), biofloc technology (BFT), cage culture, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), flow-through aquaculture systems (Raceways), hybrid systems, and vertical farming are explored for their potential to optimize production while minimizing resource consumption. The chapter highlights the critical role of stocking density in improving system performance, influencing factors such as growth rates, water quality, and overall resource use. IMTA, which combines fed species with extractive organisms like seaweeds and shellfish, facilitates nutrient recycling, promoting environmental sustainability and enhanced productivity. Hybrid systems, including Partitioned Aquaculture Systems (PAS) and Bio-RAS, integrate traditional and advanced technologies to overcome the limitations of conventional methods, enabling high-density production with reduced environmental impact. Additionally, vertical farming and aquaponics are examined as complementary strategies, integrating fish farming with plant cultivation to create sustainable, resource-efficient models suitable for urban settings. Through a comprehensive analysis of species selection, stocking densities, and system design, this chapter illustrates the potential of high-density aquaculture as a critical contributor to global food security, reducing pressure on wild fish stocks and promoting long-term environmental sustainability.
Keywords: High stocking density, maximize production, economic viability, environmental sustainability

Carnivore [Carnivora]

Members of this family are mostly flesh-eaters and share features that show hunting lifestyle.

Limbs: These are very powerful, agile quick moving, very active.

Forward-facing eyes: These help in judging distance accurately.

Teeth: All have very strong canine teeth for cutting.

These molars … pre-molars function like shears to slice through flesh (meat).

One exception is the Giant Panda, which is almost-entirely Herbivore, although, most other members of carnivora family would supplement their diet with Vegetation, when necessary.

Pinnipeds [Marine mammals]

In some systems of classification, Pinnipeds are considered as members of Carnivora, for example, marine mammal – Elephant Seal.

Most pinnipeds are collected fromisolated island rookeries, shoelines or seaice. Use of a so – called “Wally” net is the most efficient means of collecting large Seals, such as above Elephant seal. Large transport - cage carries such big animal to shore.

Feeds and Feeding of Poultry

Proper feeding is crucial for the optimal growth, health, and productivity of poultry. It constitutes a significant portion of the total production cost in poultry farming, often accounting for 70-75%. Understanding the different types of feed ingredients and their nutritional contributions is essential for formulating balanced diets that meet the specific needs of poultry at various stages of growth and production.

Different Feed Ingredients Used in Poultry

Poultry feed ingredients are broadly classified into four categories: energy rich feedstuffs, protein-rich feedstuffs, vitamin and mineral sources, and non nutritive feed additives. Typically, commercial poultry feeds are formulated by blending 10-15 different ingredients to provide a balanced diet that meets the nutritional requirements of the birds.

Feeds and feeding of dairy animals are arguably the most important part of the dairy farm management. And it is not only what we feed that is important but how we manage our feeding is equally as critical. What we feed today not only determines the animal’s milk production but also influences their entire lactation cycle that follows. Dairy animal feeding with balanced ration influences health status, reproductive, productive performance and better economic return in organic environment, all of which are critical to a profitable and sustainable dairy business as well as welfare of the dairy farmers. Feed costs currently account for around 45 percent of total milk price on average, with concentrates representing around 35 percent and forages around 10 percent.

Introduction

Optimum nutrition is one of the fundamental requirement for sustainable and efficient goat production . It involves the judicious selection and use of available feed resources in formulating a palatable, economical and nutritionally balanced ration for goats. In common with cattle, sheep and buffalo, goat is endowed with a pouch in the stomach called rumen and can digest a wide variety of herbage (tree leaves, grasses, weeds, legumes); agro-industrial by-products (Salseed meal, neem seed cake, bagasse, molasses, citrus pulp, oil cakes) and non-protein nitrogen sources such as urea. The rumen ecology of the goat is unique among other ruminants, with an adaptability to rapid changes in dietary components.Goats are reputed to be better utilizers of poor quality roughages. The traditional feeding systems for goats are based on native grasses available in the natural grassland and forests and the main constraints to goat production are lack of feed, particularly in the dry season. Goat production in developing countries is largely dependent on fibrous feeds –mainly crop residues and low quality pasture –that are deficient in nitrogen, minerals and vitamins. Goats diet in the tropics is largely composed of tree leaves and shrubs (browse), which ensure a reliable and steady supply of nutrients all the year around, albeit at a low to medium quality food

Goats are generally maintained on browsing on natural rangelands, community pastures and tree loppings. Goats prefer browsing as compared to grazing. They can digest tree leaves and farm weeds which cattle do not consume. Now the goats are being used as natural weeder. Goat producers in India are primarily located in semi-arid and arid zones where low capability land with shrub vegetation provides the grazing area. Improved pasture or its management for the goat production is naturally considered irrelevant to landless and socio-economically depressed farmers. Due to progressive fall in the forest cover (currently less than 20%), the administrators and planners are highly critical about the development of goats, dependent on extensive grazing in areas defined as fragile zone. On the contrary, the demand for reclamation of low capability soil to more productive agricultural land is ever increasing with the phenomenal growth in human population over the years in India.

1.1 Introduction

Agriculture and allied sector contributes nearly 18 percent of gross domestic product in Indian economy and more than 70 percent population is dependent on agriculture and allied sector. In this sector, livestock is an integral part and it provides essential commodities and livelihood to the majority of its population. Livestock sector provides sustainability and stability to the national economy by contributing farm energy and food security. During last decade, the annual growth rate for livestock population maintained and in contrast the crop production remained stagnant or increased marginally. Between 1983 and 1999, the per capita consumption of milk increased by 37 percent and meat, egg and fish by 24 percent.

Natural disasters frequently lead to significant shortages of animal feed, a common challenge faced by livestock owners. Events such as earthquakes, landslides, heavy rainfall, flooding, droughts, and cyclones can severely impact the well-being of livestock. Intense rainfall is often the primary factor contributing to both flooding and landslides, particularly in the hilly regions of India, where such landslides are a regular occurrence. The essential components of animal feed include both green and dry roughages, with dried roughages, such as straw, constituting approximately 60 to 80 percent of the total dry matter intake for livestock. Unfortunately, the occurrence of landslides or floods can abruptly disrupt transportation networks, including roads and railways. Consequently, livestock owners are compelled to rely on locally available unconventional feed sources during these challenging times.
Unconventional Feed Resources: In periods of resource scarcity, various unconventional indigenous ingredients can be employed. Such times may see the utilization of materials like tapioca, jackfruit, pineapple waste, sugarcane bagasse, rice bran or rice polish, water hyacinth, rubber seed cake, chicken litter and droppings, tea waste, urea and molasses, all of which can serve as valuable feed components. In comparison, low-quality rice straw and fallen leaves from trees are the predominant roughages, constituting approximately 60 to 70 percent of the total feed for cattle. The main sources of roughage during scarcity typically include straws from cereals or pulses, fallen leaves, dried grasses and foliage from forests and jungles. The collection or harvesting of roughages can be challenging due to their bulk, particularly in the case of forest leaves. Additionally, the volume of these materials presents significant transportation challenges. Consequently, chaffing roughages at the harvesting site emerges as the most effective solution for facilitating transport and minimizing costs. The densification of chaffed roughages further enhances their transport efficiency. Chaffing roughage is essential for the preparation of complete feed blocks (CFB) and total mixed rations (TMR).

Patients are unable to consume foods and fluids orally when they are suffering fromillness. Under surgical conditions, severe burns, severe infectious neonatal infants, congenital anomalies, anorexia, coma or dysfunction of elementary tract etc., special feeding methods should be used for feeding such patients.

Objectives

• To provide water and electrolytes to prevent dehydration and correct electrolyte imbalance.

• To make up the loss of tissue protein.

• To provide energy to meet the daily needs of the patients.

The nutrients used in intravenous feeding are :

a) Water and electrolytes : The daily minimum water requirement of an adult on anaverage is 1.5 liters.Additional waterwillbe requiredto correct dehydration that might have occurred before therapy. The water loss made up in about 24 hour and the urinary excretion restored to about 300-400 ml in every 8 hrs.

b) Carbohydrates and alcohol : Glucose, Fructose and Sorbitol are used in intravenous feeding. Three per cent alcohol @ 8 g/h can also be given; because this provides 7.1 kcal energy/ g. Glucose is usuallyadministered as 5 % solution. Fructoseis preferred to Glucose, as it can be administered at a concentration of 10-15 % without any adverse effect.

c) Amino acids : Solution form of Protein hydrolysates, Synthetic amino acid mixture and a mixture of L-amino acids are available for intravenous feeding. Protein hydrolysates prepared from casein, free from peptides and fortified withTryptophan are commonlyusedfor intravenous therapy.

d) Whole blood or plasma : One litre of whole blood provides about 180 gm proteins including haemoglobin. Blood is used mainly to combat circulatoryfailure andloss of bloodfrombody. One liter of plasma contain about 60-70 gm of protein. Plasma infusion is given as a measure for increasing plasma protein level when it is low.

e) Vitamins: All the vitamins (twice daily requirements) should be added to intravenous fluid to meet the daily needs of the patient.

Felid medicine needs to be well understood by the veterinarians in zoos or in any other captive wild animal places. Severe toxic reactions occur by usage of paracetamol in felids. Methaemoglobinaemia is the toxic sign noticed in felids. Hence, the zoo veterinarian can use either meloxicam or ketoprofen, in general. Tetracyclines are the drugs of choice for Ehrlichia canis and Rickettsia rickettsii in feline as well as in canine medicine.

The female genital organs (Fig. 4-6 A) comprise the ovaries where the female gametes (ova) are produced, the uterine (fallopian) tubes which convey the ova to the uterus and where the fertilization takes place, the uterus in which the ovum and the embryo develops, the dilatable passage formed by the vagina and vulva through which the foetus is expelled to the exterior and the mammary glands (udder) which is functionally associated with the female genital organs. All of these except the mammary glands are located in the abdominal and pelvic cavity while the mammary glands are located outside the cavity in the perineal region.

Ovaries

The ovaries are two small oval glands measuring about 3.5 to 4.0 cm in length, 2.5 cm in width and about 1.5 cm in thickness and they weigh about 15 to 20 gm. They are oval in form and are situated a little above the middle of the pelvic inlet and approximately 40 to 45 cm cranial to vulvar opening in a middle sized cow. They are attached to the sublumbar region by the cranial part of the broad ligament of uterus, the mesovarium. Each ovary presents for description two surfaces, two borders and two extremities. The medial and the lateral surfaces of the ovary are smooth and rounded. The attached or mesovarial border is convex. It is enclosed in a part of the broad ligament termed as mesovarium. The vessels and nerves reach the ovary by way of mesovarium to this border and enter the gland through the hilus. The free border which is also convex presents a notch in its middle. The ovarian vessels and nerves enter the gland through this notch. The cranial or tubal extremity is rounded and is related to the fimbriated end of the uterine tube. The caudal or uterine extremity is also round but narrower and is connected to the horn of the uterus by the ovarian ligament.

The reproductive system of female domestic animals consists of (1) A pair of ovaries attached with ligaments to the uterus (2) A pair of fallopian tubes the distal ends of which (infundibula) serve to receive ova expelled from the ovary and the proximal ends enter the uterus (3) The uterus proper with its outer smooth myometrium and inner mucous endometrium which either sloughs off periodically or develops in part into a placenta, depending on whether pregnancy occurs (4) Vagina which serves to receive sperm.

Ovaries

The two ovaries are connected to the back of the female with ligaments inside the main body cavity. When puberty, or sexual maturity is reached, the ovaries begin to function with a rhythm or cycle of activity, the most evident manifestation of which is estrus or heat. The estrus period or heat is the period when the female is receptive to the male. The duration of heat in cattle is around 19 hours. The interval between heats in 19½ to 20 days in cattle. The duration of estrus and cycle is variable in different individuals and in different seasons of the year.

The ovarian parenchyma contains a large number of potential egg forming cells. There are many more of these than are required for the breeding life of female. New follicles begin to grow each estrus cycle one of which finally ovulates.

The ovary is covered by the peritoneum except the attached border where the vessels and nerves enter. In most animals the ovary is some what divided into a cortex, in which the follicles with the developing ova are located and a medulla which is rich in blood vessels, lymphaticus and nerves.

Each Graafian follicle normally contains only one developing ovum. The follicle vary in size according to their stage of development, the more advanced project the surface of the ovary slightly.

Reproduction is essential for the survival of the species but not for the survival of the individual. The female reproductive system is entrusted with the responsibility to produce female gametes ie ova and hormones that regulate and integrate the functional activity of the female reproduction.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) is important seed spices belonging to family Apiaceae, and a native of Southern Europe and Mediterranean area. Later it spread to the far East and far north in Europe. To the ancient Greeks, fennel represented success and so it was called “Marathon” in reference to the battle, fought in fennel field where the Greeks defeated the Persians in 490 B.C. Fennel was also a symbol of success to the Romans. During the thirteenth century in England, fennel was considered as a royal spice and was served to kings with fruits, bread and pickled fish seasoned with fennel seeds. Fennel was even described by Longfellow in his poem The Goblet of Life. According to early Sanskrit writings, fennel has been described as Madhurika and was known as far back as 2000 BC for its cultivation in India.

Thrips : Thrips flavus : Thripidae

Infestation of thrips is generally during hot months with high night humidity.  The attack by thrips leads to discolouration, bronzing and drying of affected leaves.

Semilooper : Thysanoplusia orichalcea  : Noctuidae

Bluish green or grey coloured eggs are laid singly on lower surface of leaves.  Larvae feed voraciously on leaves and defoliate plants.

English name : Fennel
Botanical name : Foeniculum vulgare Miller
Family : Apiaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : Southern Europe, Asia and Africa
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller), commonly known as Saunf or Badi Saunf, belongs to the Apiaceae family and is primarily cultivated for its seeds, from which fennel oil is extracted. The main component of fennel oil from cultivated F. vulgare is trans-anethole, which typically makes up 50-60% of the oil. Other constituents include d-2 fenchone, methyl chavicol, 2-pinene, camphene, d-2 phellandrene, dipentenes, B-pinene, terpinene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, a-terpinene, linalool, cis-anethole, anisic aldehyde, anisic ketone, and foenicullin. Recently, the presence of a toxic ketonic constituent has been reported. Indian fennel oil contains over 70% anethole and around 6% fenchone. Sweet or Roman fennel fruits are rich in anethole, phellandrene, and d-limonene, with a high concentration of anethole (up to 90%) and the absence of fenchone contributing to its sweet fragrance and flavour. Anisaldehyde and anisic acid have also been identified as present.

Botany:Fenugreek is a leguminous plant, belonging to the Papilionaceae family. Fenugreek is an annual herbaceous plant between 20 and 50cm high. (sometimes up to 100cm.). Its stem is erect, branched, grooved and with little pubescence. The leaves are compound, petiolate, oblong leaflets formed by three kills reminding those of alfalfa. White or yellow flowers , isolated or arranged in pairs. Fenugreek fruits are narrow and elongated pods. They contain 10 to 20 seeds, tiny yellow, quadrangular, with a groove in the central part dividing them into two unequal lobes.

Land Requirements: Land to be used for seed production of Kasuri methi and methi shall be free from volunteer plants.

Varieties: Co 1, Pusa Early Bunching, Lam selection 1, Rajendra Kranti, Kissar Sonali, RMT1and CO 2.

Soil: A rich well drained loamy soil is best suited.

Climate: Cool and comparatively dry, frost free climate. It requires a warm climate with mild temperatures for a good seed production (between 8 and 27°C).It grows well in full sun. Sow it in places sheltered from the wind. Resistant to frost and temperatures down to -5°C. However, low temperatures during planting causes not all seeds to germinate.

Season: June - July and October - November.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to South Eastern Europe, West Asia and Mediterranean region.

• Cultivated in Central and Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, India, and Northern Africa.

• In India, cultivated in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Punjab.

2.2. Economic importance

• Culinary use in smaller quantities.

• Used as an herb (Dried or fresh leaves), spice (Seeds) and vegetable (Fresh leaves, sprouts, and micro greens).

• Seeds are used both whole and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, dal and spice mixes such as panch phoron and sambar powder.

• Balance cholesterol.

• Soothe upset stomach and digestive problems.

• Reduce menstrual cramps.

• Seeds are aphrodisiac effect.

• Reduce appetite.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fenugreek is one of the oldest cultivated spice crops of the world and grown for its medicinal value and forage in India, Western Asia and Nile valley since remote antiquity. In Egypt, it has been cultivated since 1000 BC and is part of the Indian diet for over 3000 years. Fenugreek is used as an important component of holy smoke in Egyptian incense. It is found growing wild in parts of northern India and cultivated all over the subcontinent for its green leaves and seeds. Fenugreek is a native of south-eastern Europe and Western Asia.  India is also said to be a native of fenugreek (Shanmugavelu et al., 2002) and found growing wild in Kashmir, Punjab and upper Gangetic plains.

English name : Fennel
Botanical name : Foeniculum vulgare Miller
Family : Apiaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : Southern Europe, Asia and Africa
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller), commonly known as Saunf or Badi Saunf, belongs to the Apiaceae family and is primarily cultivated for its seeds, from which fennel oil is extracted. The main component of fennel oil from cultivated F. vulgare is trans-anethole, which typically makes up 50-60% of the oil. Other constituents include d-2 fenchone, methyl chavicol, 2-pinene, camphene, d-2 phellandrene, dipentenes, B-pinene, terpinene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, a-terpinene, linalool, cis-anethole, anisic aldehyde, anisic ketone, and foenicullin. Recently, the presence of a toxic ketonic constituent has been reported. Indian fennel oil contains over 70% anethole and around 6% fenchone. Sweet or Roman fennel fruits are rich in anethole, phellandrene, and d-limonene, with a high concentration of anethole (up to 90%) and the absence of fenchone contributing to its sweet fragrance and flavour. Anisaldehyde and anisic acid have also been identified as present.

Fermentation was known to mankind from time immemorial. But, development of biochemical principles of  fermentation  was originated by  Lavoisier in France in 1789 by way of analysing chemical composition of  sugar and its fermentation products such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and  acetic acid. Many products are produced by fermentation process. In fermentation, controlled action of selected microorganisms is used to alter  texture of foods, preserve foods by production of acids or alcohol or to produce fine flavours and aromas which increase value of raw materials.

Introduction

Fermentation is one of the oldest food preservation techniques that can be traced back thousands of years. Fermentation is referred as one of method of biopreservation as it leads to extending the shelf life of foods that involve the use of microorganisms and their metabolites. (Ross et al., 2002) For millennia, the fermentation of food by using micro organisms has been used as a technique for ensuring shelf life extension and improving the quality characteristics, texture and flavour of food products as well as to develop new innovative products. The major bacteria used in food fermentation worldwide are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). LAB is a multitude of genera including Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Enterococcus. Lactic acid bacteria constitutes a diverse group of bacteria that enjoys the status of “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS) and “qualified presumption of safety” (QPS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), respectively. In this respect, starter microorganisms are known to produce a wide array of antimicrobial and protein-acoustic compounds to inhibit the growth of undesirable flora in foodstuffs resulting in shelf life extension. (Hill et al., 2017).

1. INTRODUCTION

Fermentation is an age old technology. It has been used by man since antiquity. It has been employed to produce a number of fermented products such as wine, beer, curd, vinegar, pickles and several others. Fermentation was discovered quite early and by chance but the underlying principles were discovered very late. Primarly fermentation was used as a method of shelf-life extension of the produce in the time of glut production, though the final product had modified sensory qualities. Thus, fermentation and drying were the main methods of preservation. With the discovery of new methods of preservation, fermentation as a method of preservation has gone into background and as technique of flavour development and product with modified sensory quality came into practice. In this chapter, fermentation as a method of preservation has been described.

Millets are highly nutritious and play a significant role in many people’s diets around the world. They have traditionally been transformed into a range of products through fermentation and malting for centuries. In the era of sustainable development, we still lag in using millets as a primary source of nutrition even after knowing that they are rich in terms of nutrition and other essential elements as compared to cereals. Today we have lots of information regarding different millets; nutrition content, methods of preservation, fermentation, malting, its products etc. Foods made from millet are regarded as potential prebiotics because they can improve the availability or functionality of probiotics, which has major positive effects on health. Foods have been fermented in order to enhance their flavor, texture and palatability. Although fermentation can result in a variety of products, the most prevalent ones are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (H2 ). Commercial applications for these materials include use in food, vitamins, medications and industrial chemicals. Additionally, fermentation increases the amount of protein present, improves the accessibility of carbohydrates and reduces antinutritional components like tannin and phytic acid. Even though it has some drawbacks, such as the potential for contamination with dangerous microbes, fermentation technology is proven to enhance the nutritional quality of food products. This chapter covers the millet fermentation technology’s effects on the nutritional composition of the millets, contemporary developments in fermented millet-based products and technological improvements examined in the millet fermentation technology.

INTRODUCTION

For thousands of years fermentation processes were largely natural phenomena exclusively identified with food preservation throughout the world. Fermentations can play a significant role in meeting the ever growing food requirements of world population providing benefits in the form of innovative food products with improved nutritional value and food quality along side better safety. Fermentations can be used to address a large variety of food related problems and in the development of processes to meet the demand for food. In the wake of estimations made by international organizations that global food demand and population would increase by two-fold by the year 2050, much emphasis has been placed over the ways and means to increase food production and preservation.

Introduction

Wine is a very unique fermented beverage. It was an essential part of various religious and cultural ceremonies in ancient civilizations; and continues to be considered as a ‘drink for elite’. The reason is that wine was considered as ‘Gift of God and ‘God’s nectar’ in religious text books, and medicinal value of the beverage is well supported by modern science. Wine is a beverage well tagged with its geographical origin. This concept originally comes from French concept of terroir; which explains that a varietal wine from a defined region possess distinctive qualities. Wine makers of the past enjoyed this definition of quality for better marketing opportunities. Today, globalization and advancement in wine science created empowered consumers who could clearly discriminate quality of wines. In addition to a product with high sensory qualities, consumers expect a healthful beverage produced in an environmentally sustainable manner. Enology research projects focus on such aspects; and this chapter is a glance on enology advancements and proven health benefits of wine, such as cardiovascular health gut health, dental health etc.

Introduction

Fermented foods are those foods which have been subjected to the action of microorganisms or enzymes that cause desirable biochemical changes and significant modification of the food (Campbell-Piatt, 1994). Fermented foods are usually produced using ingredients of plants or animals in combination with bacteria or fungi. The bacteria or fungi are either sourced from cultures maintained by humans or from the environment. The origins of fermented foods go back many thousands of years, with early evidence of the alcoholic fermentations of barley to beer and grapes to wine. Evidence suggests that fermented foods were consumed 7,000 years ago in Babylon (Battcock and Azam-Ali, 1998).Throughout the world, the fermented foods are used by the people. It plays a major role in the diet in many developing countries. Several traditional fermented foods are prepared in rural areas of many countries.

Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions.

2.1. The Story of Fermentation

Human progress depends on man’s tact to tame the forces of nature. It calls for knowledge. Prior to Age of Science, our fund of such knowledge was gained by a process of trial, error and accidental discovery. Progress was due not so much to man’s understanding as it was to his unquenchable spirit, miraculous ingenuity and indomitable persistence.

At last, in the utmost urgency of struggle for a longer, healthier and more satisfying existence, humanity taught itself the scientific method, which has changed the world, and will change it more in the coming years. This chapter deals with one of the most momentous and far reaching of all scientific achievements: the ability to harness microscopic living creatures in the service of mankind. Thanks to the wonders of fermentation technology and biochemical engineering developed by scientists and skilled technicians in industrial, governmental and university laboratories around the world, billions of microbes are now at work in industry, producing substances that give us better food $#x0026; drink, better clothing $#x0026; shelter and better medicines. Thus, the human race has entered a new era of health, comfort and longevity.

In the Beginning Art without Science: The cave man discovered that meat allowed to stand a few days was more pleasing to the taste than meat eaten soon after the kill. The cave man’s earliest descendants learned that intoxicating drinks could be made from grains and fruits.

Introduction

Fermentation is an alluring procedure of biochemical adjustment of essential nourishment microorganisms and their enzymes accomplish by lattice. Fermentation is a utilized to upgrade bio-accessibility and bioavailability of supplements from various crops and improves organoleptic properties (e.g., appearance, generation of sour taste and new aroma compounds, and textural changes such as consistency or viscosity) just as increase the shelf life of realistic usability. It makes foodstuff safe not just hindering the growth of pathogenic microorganisms because of antimicrobial growth of lactic acid and it also detoxifies aflatoxin. With these advantages, fermentation is a successful method to reduce the risk of mineral deficiency among population, particularly in developing nations where unrefined cereal or pulses are profoundly consumed. Tragically, it is additionally connected with multiplication of microorganisms, for ex., yeast and molds caused food safety concerns, (Omemu et al; 2011), decrease in provitamin A and antioxidant (Ortiz et al; 2017), carotenoids, just as loss of nutrients and minerals (Hotz & Gibson, 2007).

Fermentation is a minimum cost-efficient procedure for production and preservation of nutrient, therefore fermented food is an important piece of the eating regimen in numerous of the world. In the nineteenth century the scientific study of microbiology began, and just because, the scientific procedure of fermentation was comprehended. several classifications have been utilized to sort the assorted exhibit of the fermented nourishment produced dependent on various microorganisms, and food types, and kinds of fermentation included.

The microorganisms associated with fermentation process fall into three classes: bacteria, yeast, and molds. Yeasts are the principal microorganisms for the fermentation of breads, whereas molds is mainly used in processing of cheese and legumes. Bacteria is included only of the fermentation of cereal product. cereal and tuber fermentation are a lactic and acetic acid producing bacteria. yeast is a piece of mix microbial fermentation by bacteria in weaning food; all the more frequently, be that as it may, alcoholic fermentation of yeast may not totally alluring. Four genera of lactic acid producing bacteria are recognized as overwhelming cereal fermentation to be specific, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Lactococcus spp. all of which require carbohydrate for the energy. Lactic acid and other natural acids produced from hexoses bring down the pH from about 6.5 to about 3.6. In the event that the pH is beneath 4.0, fermented product retard the growth of pathogens and along these lines ensure fermented items.

Fermented foods are food substrates that are produced due to the cumulative activity, usually of edible microorganisms, whose enzymes, particularly amylases, proteases and lipases hydrolyze the polysaccharides, proteins and lipids to non-toxic products with flavours, aromas and textures pleasant and attractive to the human consumer. The role played by fermentation during food processing helps in – enrichment of human dietary through development of wide diversity of flavours, aromas and textures in food; preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcoholic, acetic acid, alkaline fermentation and high salt fermentations; enrichment of food substrates biologically with vitamins, protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids and antibiotics; detoxification during food fermentation processing and reducing the cooking times and fuel requirements.

Fermentation plays a major role in our diet and give the basic foods like bread, yoghurt, wine and cereal and legume based traditional fermented foods. The development of fermented food products can be considered as one of the greatest achievements of human civilization and goes back thousands of years. It arose from the necessity to conserve foods, to make them more digestible and also more enjoyable. During the centuries, man learned by trial and error to conduct the fermentation processes by changing physical and chemical parameters in the basic food ingredients. It took much longer, however, to discover the cause of fermentation processes: only towards the end of the 19th century it was demonstrated, that baker’s yeast is the cause of alcoholic fermentation. Through the development of the technique of "pure microbial culture", the basis for a controlled use of microbes in food industry was established.

The unique feature of fermented foods is the vital role of microorganisms that bring about essential bio-trasformations of the substrates during fermentation contributing number of desirable properties such as improved product shelf life, enriched diet with improved flavor and texture, increased safety, enriched nutritional supplement and probiotic functions. Fermentation is a chemical reaction carried out by many types of microorganisms to obtain energy. Fermentation is a process for production of a product by means of mass culture of microorganisms. In fermentation, microorganisms breakdown complex organic compounds into simpler substances. Although chemical changes and microbial growth usually mean food spoilage, in some cases fermentation is desirable and microorganisms are actually added to foods. For example, in the production of beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages, yeasts convert sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the making of yogurt and cheese, lactic acid bacteria convert lactose, a sugar found in milk, to lactic acid. Alcohol, acids, and other compounds produced in fermentation act as preservatives, inhibiting further microbial growth. In addition to its use with alcoholic beverages, cheese, and yoghurt, fermentation is used to produce yeast bread, soy sauce, cucumber pickles, sauerkraut, and other traditional fermented food products. The variation in agroclimatic conditions prevailing in India and diverse form of dietary culture of various ethnical groups produced traditional fermented foods such as idli, dosa (rice-legume based), vada, papad, wari, balle (legume based), bhatura, jelabi, nan (wheat based), paneer, shrikhand (milk based).