eChapters

Insects came into existence in this world some 250 - 500 million years ago, while man appeared in this planet only about a million years ago and intruded into the domain of insects. From this time onwards, a rapport had started between the insects and man. Man considered insects obnoxious and not worth consideration in the early days. However, the real impact of insects on the activities of man became manifested to a greater extent only during the past few thousands of years. Gradually man began to understand the nature of insects and started looking at insects, both as his adversaries and as his beneficiaries. He started exploiting the useful insects for his own benefit and tried to destroy those, which are harmful to him.
 
There are numerous references in the ‘Ancient Epics’ and ‘Puranas’ such as, ‘Ramayana’, ‘Mahabharata’ etc. to show man’s acquaintance with insects even from very early days. Several references to insects are found in the ‘Holy Bible’ also. Ancient people of India were quite aware of insects, which provide honey, lac and silk. They were familiar with honeybees and gathering of honey and bee wax from hives. Honey was used in most of the religious rituals. Honey and bee wax were used in many Ayurvedic medicines against various diseases. The story of the lac palace constructed by the Cauravas to destroy the Pandavas by setting the wax palace on fire at night as narrated in Mahabharata is quite well known. The ancient Indians knew how to manufacture silk from silk thread produced by silkworms. Records show that an Indian king had sent some silken stuff to a Persian ruler even as early as in 3870 BC. References to insects such as, flies, beetles, bees, wasps, moths, ants etc. are found in old Sanskrit literature. The Ancient people also used some Mercury, Arsenic and Sulfur compounds for the control of some of the harmful insects. Numerous references to insects are found in the ‘Holy Bible’ also. King Solomon, the wise (971 BC), who ruled Israel had told his people to learn from the ways of ants, which are so active and orderly (‘Proverbs’, Chapter 6). He had mentioned as to how the ants gather and store food at the time of harvest, when food is available in plenty to be used in summer when food is scarce (‘Proverbs’, Chapter 30).

Insects generally reproduce by laying eggs or ‘ova’. The initiation of growth inside an egg, which in most cases is preceded by fertilization, leads to a long series of changes, finally attaining the adult stage and in due course to sexual maturity and finally to reproduction of a new generation. This chain of events from the egg stage to death constitutes the ‘life history’ or ‘life cycle’ of an insect.

Eggs are laid singly or in batches of only a few or up to hundreds or  even thousands. Generally eggs are laid under conditions, where food is available for the feeding of the future young ones.  The eggs are generally smooth, elliptical or oval, but some have diverse shapes such as, disc-like, hemispherical, conical, globular, spindle and many other forms. The egg surface may also have a variety of textures. In some aquatic insects, the eggs are covered with a gelatinous secretion, which swells in water forming a jelly-like spawn. In mosquitoes, the lateral sides of the eggs are expanded, which serve as floats. Eggs vary in size, from microscopic to about 3.0 mm. in diameter and 5.0 - 6.0 mm. or even more in length.

The development of an insect is a continuous process, but on the basis of external manifestations, it is divided into definite stages. The stage within the egg is termed ‘embryonic development’, that after hatching ‘post-embryonic development’ and the changes of form during the post-embryonic development constitute ‘metamorphosis’.

Introduction

Pearls have been favourite jewel of humanbeing since ancient times. Pearl is a natural gem and is produced by living organisms, the pearl oysters and mussels (Molluscs), unlike other precious stones. It is perhaps, the only gem that does not require the treatment by lapidary. According to our Indian system of gemmology, of the nine maharatnas (Heera, Mukta, Manikya, Pravala/Munga, Gomeda, Indra-neela, Vaidurya, Pushyaraga, and Panna) pearl (Mukta) is only next to diamond (Heera). The science of pearl culture has not been widely popular, however, the art and trade form has reached the zenith.

With the turn of the last century, the demand for pearls increased, but their supplies from the existing fishing grounds have diminished due to overexploitation and pollution. Such a situation necessitated tremendous research attention in the following decades with support from state and trade sectors, the world over. This led to the evolution of culture pearl technology as a booming aquaculture enterprise in Japan and China. These two countries have a monopolistic control over pearl trade.

Introduction

Aquaculture has been shown to offer high potential to fill the gap between supply and demand for fish and fish products to mitigate the problems of malnutrition with ever increasing world population. Globally, aquaculture has been growing rapidly in the last decade, approximately at 10-15% per year. The total aquaculture production, which was 26.7 million metric tonnes in 1996 increased to 37.5 million metric tonnes in 2001, in which tropical countries have been particularly contributing well, with the Asian component exceeding 80% (Ayyappan and Jayanthi, 2004).

The country has varied and enormous aquatic resources (coastline: 8041kms, EEZ: 2.02 million sq. km., river & canals: 171334 km., brackish water area: 1.422 million ha., reservoirs: 2.050 million ha., ponds: 2.855 million ha., beels & oxbow lakes: 0.788 million ha) (Gopakumar, 2000). The North-Eastern region of India is endowed with rich diversity of aquatic and biotic resources, which needs judicious and scientific exploitation for diversification of farm practices so as to mitigate the problem of demand and supply of quality food.

INTORDUCTION

Spices are strongly flavored aromatic substances of plant origin which are commonly used for seasoning, cooking food and for preserving other food stuffs. There are about 70 species of spices grown in various parts of the world. Those which are used most commonly throughout the world are grown in India and other parts of South Asia.

The seed spices are annual herbs, whose dried fruits or seeds are mostly used as spices. The seed spices are used for culinary, confectionary, perfumery, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals industry. There are about 20 seed spices grown in India (Table 1) and nine out of them are prominent. The most important among them are belongs to family Apiaceae (coriander, cumin, fennel etc). about 9 lakh ha area is growing in seed spices in the country with annual production of about 5-6 lakh tones (Anonymous, 2003). India is the world’s largest producer, consumer and exporter of seed spices. The foreign exchange earned through export of seed spices is more than Rs 200 crores annually. India exports raw spices as well as value added items to nearly 70 countries in the world and is meeting 51% of the global demand of these commodities. There is good potential for increasing export of seed spices, if production as well as quality is increased. The level of productivity in various seed spices is comparatively low as compared to other countries. There are many production constrains attributed to low productivity. The lake of suitable high yielding varieties suiting to different agro-ecological regions and more incidences of diseases and insect pests. Among different insect pests, coriander aphid, Hydaphis coriandari (Das) is one of the most destructive and widely distributed pest of coriander (Jain, 1984 and Jain and Yadav, 1989). Recently brown wheat mite was observed attacking coriander and other spices (Jain and Yadav, 1986 and 1989).

To sustain the meat industry in profitable manner, efficient utilization of meat by-products is an important issue. In today’s competitive world the realization of old saying “Only the last cry of the animal is wasted” has become essential. The utilization of by-products not only ensures additional revenue but also reduce the cost of various mandatory disposal treatments. The live animals are becoming costlier over the dressed carcass which compels the utilization of by-products. Moreover, unused by-products is also a great threat to environment and public-health apart from loosing nutritional resources. According to FAO (2004) estimates 106.75 million livestock and more than 650 million poultry birds were slaughtered annually in India leading to production of 6.3 million MT meat and different by-products of appreciable value. Now a day’s various techniques are available for the utilization of by-products for different purposes still significant portion of the by-products are unutilized and poses huge economic losses.

Animal By-products are the portions of animal body which are not included in dressed carcass. Animal by-products can be estimated by subtracting the dressing percentage from 100. Dressing percentage is inversely proportional to the byproducts means lower the dressing percentage, higher will be the yield of by-products and vice versa. In normal cases dressing percentage usually ranges between 50-70 percent and by-products yield in between 30-50 percent. However, the actual percentage may be higher because it excludes the weight of bones in muscles which is a part of dressed carcass.

In its original concept, vaccination aims to mimic the development of naturally acquired immunity by inoculation of nonpathogenic but still immunogenic components of the pathogen in question, or closely related organisms. The term “vaccine” (from the Latin term “vacca,” meaning cow) was first coined by Edward Jenner to describe the inoculation of humans with the cowpox virus to confer protection against the related human smallpox virus and illustrates the close relationship between human and animal infectious disease sciences. The famous proverb saying ‘Prevention is better than cure’ implies perfectly to the vaccines. Vaccines have proven to be boon for animals which can be regard a potential weapons against infectious diseases caused mainly by bacteria and viruses. The major aims of veterinary vaccines are to improve the health and welfare of companion animals, increase production of livestock in a cost-effective manner, and prevent animal-to-human transmission from both domestic animals and wildlife. Vaccines have long been used to combat infectious disease; however the last decade has witnessed a revolution in the approach to vaccine design and development. Apart from improving animal health and productivity, veterinary vaccines have a significant impact on public health through reductions in the use of veterinary pharmaceuticals and hormones and their residues in the human food chain.

Introduction

Seed spices have prominent place in India’s national economy because of their very high domestic consumption and growing demand for export. This group of spices, being consisting of mostly annual crops, is grown extensively in rotation with food and cash crops and also as inter crops under rain fed as well as irrigated conditions.

There are about 20 seed spice crops grown in India. Out of which nine are important in terms of production and export. The most important ones are coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek (major seed spices) and ajowain, aniseed, black cumin, celery and dill (minor seed spice crops). Although these crops are grown all over India but Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are the main seed spice growing states.

Major cucurbits grown in India are cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon, ash gourd, pumpkin and squashes, snake gourd, ridge gourd, smooth gourd, bottle gourd, round gourd, bitter gourd, pointed gourd, ivy gourd,pointed gourd and oriental pickling melon. After independence,a lot of breeding work were done in these crops at many research institutes in the country which  resulted in  release of several high yielding/disease resistant varieties/hybrids.

Being warm season crops, cucurbits are tropical in origin, mostly in Africa, Tropical America and Asia. Flowering in cucurbits normally start in 40 to 45 days after sowing depending on weather conditions. Sequence of flowering follows a set pattern, namely the first 4 to 6 flowering nodes would bear staminate flowers and later pistillate flowers appear. Many sex forms are seen in cucurbits viz., monoecious, dioecious, gynoecious,trimonoecious, gynomonoecious and andromonoecious. Sex modification is also possible in cucurbits by exogenous application of plant growth regulators. GA₃ and AgNO₃ are used for inducing male flowers in gynoecious lines. Conversely,ethrel and TIBA  are used to promote greater number of female flowers. This kind of sex modification is more useful and practicable in  cucumber and bottle gourd where continuous and simultaneous flowering, fruit set and fruit picking take place.

Karonda is an indigenous, under utilized fruit of India. It is a hardy multipurpose horticultural bush flourishing well without much care in arid and semi-arid areas. At present ,emphasis is being laid on protection and  production value of karonda plant. It is grown as hedge for beautification which  serves as one of the best bio-fencing materials because of  thorny  nature. It is also grown as an ornamental plant due to its beautiful cherry like fruits. Karonda plants are useful in many ways as detailed  below:
 
Fruit: Karonda fruit is a rich source of iron and contains a fair amount of vitamin C, and therefore very useful for curing of anaemia and has antiscorbutic properties. Enthomedically,  fruits are used as an astringent, antisorbutic and as a remedy for biliousness. Mature fruit contains high amount of pectin  and therefore, besides being used for making pickles and chutney, it can be exploited  for making jelly. Raw fruit can be used for making chatney.

Leaf: Karonda leaves are palatable and contain a fair amount of nutrient which are browsed by sheep, goats and camels in arid and semi arid areas.If fruits fall on ground, enrich soil by adding organic carbon and other mineral nutrients. It reduces evaporation  from  soil underneath due to dense foliage. Leaves  are used for feeding silk worm.  Leaf decoction is used against intermittent fever, diarrhoea, oral inflammation and ear ache.

Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt), a climbing, herbaceous perennial plant in family Cucurbitaceae, grows well under hot-humid conditions. The genus name is derived from the Latin coccineus, which means scarlet in reference to the fruit color. Thus, it is also called scarlet-fruited gourd. Other vernacular names are: little gourd in English, courge écarlate in French, pepino cimarrón in Spanish, tam leung or phak tam leung in Thai, kundree or kundru in Hindi, pepasan in Malay, hong-gua in Chinese, and tindori in East Africa (Schippers, 2002; MMPND, 2007; USDA, 2007). The plant is often collected wild or cultivated in home gardens in tropical Asia, and its tender shoots are consumed as potherb (Wasantwisut and Viriyapanich, 2003). Bundled tender shoots of ivy gourd in the village market setting are common scenes in Southeast Asia (Boonkerd et al., 1993; Engle et al., 1998). The fruit of its sweet type cultivar is also used widely as a vegetable in India (Ramachandran and Subramaniam, 1983; Sarnaik et al., 2001; Bharathi, 2007). Ivy gourd has a potential to be a valuable vegetable in the tropics to diversify cropping system in peri-urban and urban agriculture, and to improve diet and health, especially where vitamin A deficiency is of developing concern.

The requirements for a given nutrient is the minimum quantity of that nutrient that will maintain normal growth and reproduction, when all other nutrients are supplied in adequate quantities and at the same time, prevent the development of symptoms of nutritional deficiency.
 
The accurate way to express the nutrient requirements is in amount per day per animal. Poultry are fed in groups and hence, it is not practicable to express the requirements in amounts per day per animal. So, they are expressed in relation to energy content of the diet as poultry eats within limits to satisfy their energy needs. However, the estimation of energy content of the diet is not possible on routine basis and the calculated values may very much from estimated values. Because of these difficulties, the nutrient requirements of poultry are expressed on unit weight basis. 

The undesirable constituents includes the toxicants and other adulterants in the feed which are not suppose to be there in the feed and presence of these substances either make the nutrients of feed less utilizable or even the feed become toxic for consumption by animals. Hence it is very essential to find out the presence and also the amount of that substances on which basis decision may be made that the particular feed stuff or ingredient is safe to be consume by the livestock or that has to be rejected. The common undesirable constituents of the feeds are given below in detail:

Systematic management of plant diseases dates back to 1885 with the invent of Bordeaux mixture by Milardet. Thereafter, a number of contact and systemic fungicides have been reported over the years for the management of various plant pathogens, of which many have become obsolete and many are still being used with excellence. However, the ecological hazards caused by the chemical fungicides have prompted scientists to search for other avenues of crop protection. Most of the conventional chemical and biological plant protection procedures, as well as the use of disease-resistant cultivars, tend towards the direct control of pests and diseases by their elimination. But these practices generally and particularly in case of monoculture crops like rice, raise problems. The risk of developing pesticide resistance in plant pathogens is enhanced by the long term use of the same chemical. The resistance genes of the plants can also be overcome by changes in the pathogens. Therefore the situation demands development of new strategies for plant protection which can supplement the use of resistance breeding and chemical control.

The term Geographical Indications (GIs) attained significant status in trade agreement negotiations after the establishment of World Trade Organization (WTO).Under WTO, Agreement on the Trade Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) sets forth standards to regulate international intellectual property protection and enforcement and establishes international minimum standards for GIs. Geographical Indications identify goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess a quality, reputation or other characteristics which are due to that place of origin. Geographical Indications are now widely accepted as valuable marketing tools in the global economy and are useful to protect rights of communities. Geographical Indications are not granted to individuals but are granted to the group/association of producers as the symbol of collective ownership.

1. Introduction

Malaria remains one of the most serious tropical diseases and kills an estimated one to two million people each year worldwide (Snow et al., 2005). Spread of drug resistance has played an important role in the occurrence and severity of epidemic diseases in the world (Majori, 2004). As a consequence of resistance to drugs such as quinine, chloroquine, primaquine and mefloquine, the vehemence of malaria has increased in many endemic regions of the world (Schlitzer, 2007; Basco et al., 1994). One of the biggest challenges to malaria control is the emergence and spread of drug resistant P. falciparum strains. Although human malaria transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes has four Plasmodium species as its aetiological agents P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovaleand P. malariae, the most widespread and severe disease is caused by P. falciparum, which transiently infects the liver before invading red blood cells of the mammalian host. Clinical manifestations occur at the erythrocytic stage and can include fever, chills, prostration and anaemia, as well as delirium, metabolic acidosis, cerebral malaria and multi-organ system failure, which may be followed by coma and death (Fidock et al., 2004; Deprez-Poulain et al., 2005, De Sa et al., 2009).The success of the natural product-based antimalarials such as quinine and artemisinin has showed the importance of plants as potential source of antimalarial agents. Consequently, numerous efforts to identify antiplasmodial activities from plants traditionally used as remedies for fever and malaria (Chen et al., 1997; Havsteen, 2002;

Toxicology is defined as the study of chemical or physical agents which interact with biologic systems to produce a response in the organisms. Toxicity is the relative ability of a substance to cause injury to biologic tissue. Given the broad range of toxicities any substance might eventually invoke in an organism, it is easy to understand the wisdom of Paracelsus (1493-1541) when he said, “All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy”.

Toxicology is the study of the harmful effects of chemical compounds on biologic systems, including their properties, actions, and effects. The toxic agent is referred to as a toxicant or poison. The term toxin refers to poisons produced by a biologic source (eg, venoms, plant toxins); the redundant term biotoxin is occasionally used. Toxicosis, poisoning, and intoxication are synonymous terms for the disease produced by a toxicant. Toxicity (sometimes incorrectly used instead of poisoning) refers to the amount of a toxicant necessary to produce a detrimental effect. Hazard describes the likelihood of poisoning under conditions of use.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Meaning

The word “Rural” comes from the word “Rurale” which means close to nature and environment, and “Development” means growth or maturation.

Rural development is utilization, protection and enhancement of the natural, physical and human resources to make long-term improvements in rural living conditions. It involves provision of jobs and income opportunities while maintaining and protecting the environment of rural areas.

General Definition

1)     It is based on an operational approach with practicalities with the people covering maximum end users for maximum economic return.

2) Definition by Axinn

R.D. is a process of change among the rural people through change in environment, technology institutions and attitude to eliminate the poverty and improve the way of life.

3) Definition by Miller

R.D. is based on the following components

a)     Development of human resource - It includes the development of rural people by providing education to the rural children and employment to rural youth, socio-economic condition of village can be improved.

b)     Expansion of physical resources - Construction of infrastructures like roads, schools, colleges, post office, bank etc will improve the rural condition.

c)     Extension of communit’s control over the resources.

INTRODUCTION

Pulses are edible fruits or seeds of food bearing plants belonging to the family of the leguminosae. The major pulses which find important place in our diet are redgram dhal, bengal gram dhal, black gram dhal, green gram dhal and masoor dhal. Some are used as whole grams cow pea, rajmah and dry peas also belong to leguminous family.

Legumes not only have dietary values but also play an important role in maintaining or even improving soil fertility through their ability to fix atomospheric nitrogen.

Swine influenza (Swineflu) is a highly contagious viral disease of pigs. It is an upper respiratory tract disease of pigs that causes outbreaks in herds. Swineflu infects people every year and is found typically in people who have been in contact with pigs although there have been person to person transmission of the disease. Influenza A virus subtypes namely H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 are circulating around the world. In US, H1N1 subtype was exclusively prevalent among swine population before 1998 however since late August 1998, H3N2 subtype has been isolated from pigs. Most of the H3N2 virus isolates are triple assortants containing genes from human (HA, NA and PB1), swine (NS, NP and M) and avian (PB2 and PA) lineages. Influenza viruses are generally species specific i.e. avian influenza virus will infect only birds, swine influenza virus pigs, human influenza virus humans and so on. Although interspecies transmission of influenza viruses are reported, the transmission of influenza virus from one species to another is not always possible. Again, influenza A virus isolated from pigs can acquire the pandemic potential but not isolated from other species. Further, recent outbreaks of swineflu affecting human beings in Mexico, USA, UK,Canada, Asia etc with a death toll of 49 persons resulted in high alert in all the countries and compulsory checking of all the persons coming from the affected countries to other counties. The causative agent of swineflu is H1N1. So, it is the prime time to create awareness about the disease among the public which in turn help in tackling the disease in an effective and efficient manner and to prevent its transmission to human beings from swine species.

Etiology: Swineflu is caused by a virus under the genus Influenza A virus and family Orthomyxoviridae. Influenza A viruses are spherical with a diameter of 80-120 nm and may be filamentous. There are two types of surface glycoproteins namely haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) present on the virus particles. A total of 17HA and 10NA types have been reported in influenza A viruses. It contains 8 copies single stranded negative sense RNA molecules as genome which encode 12 proteins: 3 subunits of the viral RNA polymerase complex, PB1 (encoding 3 proteins PB1, PB1-F2 and N-40), PB2 and PA; a nucleoprotein (NP), two surface glycoproteins, HA and NA, a matrix protein (M1), an ion channel protein (M2), a nonstructural protein (NS1) and a nuclear export protein (NEP- also known as NS2). There are 170 combinations of two surface glycoproteins, 17 HA and 10 NA that determine the antigenic properties and subtype classification of virus. However, human disease historically has been caused by 3 subtypes of HA (H1, H2 and H3) and two types of N (N1 and N2). Further in 1997, the outbreak of avianflu/birdflu in Hong Kong affected 18 persons with a death of 6 persons. The avian influenza virus responsible for that outbreak was H5N1. From that time H5, H7 and H9 ( all from avian origin) have been implicated in causing disease in human beings.

Brucellosis, one of the most ancient diseases, continues to be a problem for humans and animals throughout the world causing enormous economic losses and significant human morbidity in endemic areas. The bacterial pathogen is classified by the CDC as a category B pathogen that has the potential for development as a bioweapon. It is one of the important zoonotic disease and considered as the most common laboratory acquired pathogen with >5 lakh human cases reported annually around the world. Brucellosis is a chronic infection which can result in infertility, delayed heat, interrupted lactation, loss of calves, wool, meat and milk production in animals and undulant fever in humans. Although in most of the counties, brucellosis is a nationally notifiable disease and reportable to the local health authority, it is underreported and official numbers constitute only a fraction of true incidence of the disease. Although the true incidence of human brucellosis is unknown, the estimated burden of the disease varies widely from <0.03 to >160 per 1 lakh population. Although only 17 countries in the world are free from the disease, it has been reported in many countries including India. Bovine brucellosis is endemic in all the states in India and appears to be on the increase in recent time, perhaps due to increased trade and rapid movement of livestock. The preponderance of natural bull service in rural India is perhaps yet another important factor in the maintenance and spread of infection. The Government of India has made it mandatory to regularly screen all the breeding bulls from artificial insemination centres, for brucellosis and to use brucellosis free bulls for semen production.

Etiology: Brucella sp. are facultative intracellular Gram - ve coccobacilli, nonspore forming and non-capsulated. It infects macrophages with principal involvement of liver, spleen and bone marrow. Nine Brucella species are currently recognized, seven of them that affect terrestrial animals are: B. abortus, B. melitensis, B. suis, B. ovis, B. canis, B. neotomae and B. microti and two that affect marine mammals are B. ceti and B. pinnipedialis. The first three species are called classical Brucella and within these species seven biovars are recognized for B. abortus, three for B. melitensis and five for B. suis. The remaining species have not been differentiated into biovars.

SUMMARY

Agriculture is the largest user of fresh water for irrigation to fulfill the increasing demand of food, feed, fiber, fuel and other need of ever-increasing population. Water availability to agriculture is characterized by declining in share with time, over exploitation, improper mismanagement, deterioration in quality as well as environment. This could be addressed using sustainable management of irrigation water. As per the Brundtland Commission report of United Nations, sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable water management aims to improve water productivity, availability and quality over an area.  Improved and efficient irrigation techniques and practices enhance water application efficiencies, and thereby reduction in associated damage to environment, which include water logging, soil salinity, runoff and leaching of nutrients and other chemicals polluting water sources, and over exploitation of ground water. Micro irrigation systems have been characterized to be the most efficient irrigation techniques. These have efficiencies even more than 90%, doubled water productivity with improved quality of produce, reduced runoff and leaching of nutrients and chemicals to water sources. Application of fertilizer through drip irrigation called fertigation could be adopted for efficient use and saving of fertilizer.  Fertilizer savings of 20-60% and 8-41% increase in yields of horticulture and vegetable crops has been realized through fertigation.

In 1850, Bacillus anthracis was first reported by three individuals in two different countries i.e. Delafond (who may have found them as early as 1838) and Davaine in France, Pollender in Germany. However, they could not establish the relationship between the disease and the bacterium. Absolute proof of the anthrax etiology as B. anthracis was established by Robert Koch in 1876-77. The name Bacillus anthracis was first coined by Cohn (1875) and the disease ‘anthrax’ was first named by Hippocrates (5th century B.C.). In Greek language meaning of anthrax is ‘coal’ referring to the black coloured skin or blood in affected animals.

B. anthracis organism has certain historical importance:

a)   Anthrax is the first disease identified to be caused by a bacterium.

b)   Robert Koch first isolated the organism and reproduced the disease in experimental animals. He proposed his postulates (Koch’s postulate, 1876) based on his experiments related to this organism. It later became a fundamental milestone of all microbiological works related to the infectious diseases.

c)   Louis Pasteur first used heat attenuated culture of B. anthracis as vaccine in a group of sheep in 1881 at Pouilly-le-Fort. He cultured the organism at 42-43^oC in presence of oxygen. The bacteria did not produce spores and became attenuated.

d)         First concept of bacterial antagonism was provided by Louis Pasteur and Joubert based on their work on this organism. Injection of other unidentified bacteria along with B. anthracis can prevent anthrax in animals
.

INTRODUCTION

Biological control involves the suppression of pests/organisms with other organisms.  It is an eco-friendly method for management of plant pathogens which can be done exploiting the fungi (Ampelomyces, Trichoderma, Coniothyrium, Candida etc.) or bacteria (Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Streptomyces) from rhizosphere,  as well as phylloplane and endophytes (Jayaraman and Verma, 2002). The rhizosphere microfloras are predominantly composed of gram negative pseudomonads.  The fluorescent pseudomonads constitute a large proportion of the rhizosphere microflora presumably due to their nutritional variability being able to use a large number of organic substances (Stolp and Gadkari, 1981). However earlier workers used fluorescent pseudomonads extensively they now prefer Bacillus sp. due to their spore forming ability and heat tolerance which make its formulation easier.

INTRODUCTION

In India, temperate fruits are grown successfully at locations above 3000 feet mean sea level in hilly areas of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttranchal, Sikkim, parts of North Eastern states like Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya etc. Mount Abu hills of Rajsthan and Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu also provide suitable agro-climatic conditions for growing some temperate fruits. Apart from apple; pear, peach, plum, apricot, cherry, almond and walnut are major temperate fruits being grown over 3.38 lakh hectares of area and play pivotal role in the economy of hilly farmers whose land is not otherwise considered suitable for traditional agriculture. They contribute about 11.5 percent of total area under fruits in the country, yet production is only 5 percent of the total. Incidence of many fungal, bacterial and viral diseases in these fruit crops is a major impediment in their successful cultivation and soil borne pathogens are of foremost importance and are responsible for premature death of the trees in the orchards. Amongst these, white root rot, collar rot, seedling blight, crown gall, hairy root are the major constraints which can cause as high as 40 percent damage in certain situations (Sharma and Sharma, 2001). Threat from the replant problem is causing concern due to its negative effect on the establishment of replanted sites due to soil sickness.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Pratylenchus was established in 1936. It has a cosmopolitan distribution prevalent in temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions. The species of Pratylenchus are popularly known as lesion nematode or meadow nematode. They are migratory endoparasites. Various pulse crops are damaged by them. P. thornei attacks chickpea,  P.zeae on mungbean (Walia and Seshadri, 1986); P. mulchandani on urdbean (Nanad Kumar et al., 1969) and Pratylenchus sp.on lentil (Mishra and Gaur, 1980) and cowpea (Aung and Prot, 1990).
Besides pulses species of Pratylenchus attack a number of other crops also. The infested plants exhibit various types of symptoms and results in heavy yield losses. Investigations have been made on various aspects of host-nematode relationship, distribution, host range, yield losses, biology, life cycle, disease cycle, interaction with other microorganism and management through cultural, physical, chemical, biological methods and host resistance.

INTRODUCTION

Plants are susceptible to different types of pathogens, which are responsible for production of varied symptoms and causing losses. In the absence of the crops pathogens perpetuates in different manners and survival in the soil is one of the most important amongst these. Because of the constant presence of the pathogen in the soil, these become more destructive. These may reduce the plant growth, results in rotting of different plant parts, reduce yield or may cause the death of the plant. The destructiveness of soil borne pathogen increases because of the ability to survive in the soil as dormant structures for several years. Efficient control of soil borne diseases is thus difficult but can be achieved by employing various disease management practices in an integrated manner (Verma and Varma, 1992; Gupta, 1996, Gupta and Sharma, 1999).

Jack bearing the largest edible fruit in the world, is a tropical evergreen tree belonging to the family Moraceae. Previously, it was known as Artocarpus integrifolia.It is an indigenous fruit crop, probably originated in Western Ghats of India (Santapau, 1966) and is widely cultivated in South Asia, East Indies and other warm areas of both the hemispheres. Jack tree is commonly grown in Burma, Malaysia and Brazil. It is hardly recognized as a commercial fruit crop in India even though it is widely distributed in Southern states viz,. Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andra Pradesh. It is also cultivated in other states like Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra and West Bengal. It is an invariable component of Kerala’s homesteads and also grown as a shade crop in coffee, arecanut and cardamom plantations. It is also grown as a standard crop in pepper plantations. The crop has got a rare distinction of being used as the staple food of Kerala tribals and also in some African countries like Uganda.

Gamboge tree Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.), is a member of the Clusiaceae family. It is a botanical cousin of Garcinia indica Choisy. It is a cross pollinated crop. It is called as Kodumpuli in Kerala. It is native of Tropical Asia. It thrives best in the ever green forests of Konkan, stretching from southward to the Kerala coast and Western Ghats upto 1800 m min the Nilgiris (CSIR, 1956). In Kerala, majority of the populations occur naturally in the central districts of Kerala, of different altitudes ranging from sea level to 200 m.

It is one of the potential under-exploited fruit crops. Now, it is gaining momentum for its commercial, industrial and medicinal importance. The dried rind is sold in the market at the rate of Rs. 200 per kg (Muthulakshmi et al.,1999). It is used as a food preservative, spicy source with astringent taste. It is meant for its good flavour, taste and keeping quality. The fruits are too acidic and cannot to eaten raw. The dried rind has unique use in fish curries for imparting its delicate flavour (Sarah, 1998). Dried rind can also be used for polishing gold, silver and coagulating rubber latex. Hydroxy citric acid (HCA) is a very rare natural components being extracted from the rind and is marketed in the name of ‘citrin’ and ‘citrimax’. It has high export value and fetches considerable foreign exchange. In foreign countries, it is used as a herbal medicine against cardiac diseases and for weight management through blocking fat synthesis. The derivatives of acid are potent metabolic regulators of obesity. The unique acid, lowers the blood lipids such as cholesterol and triglycerides by triggering the fatty acid oxidation in the liver through thermogenesis.

Zinnia is a very important summer annual belongs to family Compositae. Zinnia was named for the man who wrote the first scientific description of the flower, “Dr. Johann Gottfried Zinn” a German Professor of medicine, but it was the late 19^th century that plant breeders started to pay any attention to this plant. Zinnia is a half hardy plant. They are popular for bedding however, cut flowers of zinnia remain fresh for several days. They are easy to grow from seeds. Collection of open pollinated seeds is in common practice in India. Non-uniformity of bloom with respect to colour, flower shape and size, height of the plants and excessive etiolation of the plants result into poor sale of zinnias.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The genus Zinnia consists of 20 species, all native to the New World (Bailey, 1951). Further Stemart and Thomas (2007) suggested that zinnia are native to scrub and dry grassland in an area stretching from the Southwestern United States to South America, with a centre of diversity in Mexico.

Zinnias are grown mostly as annual in Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Brazil and Chile. It is sometimes called the Mexican marigold as its designation in some degree is justified in case of the yellow varieties. In early days zinnias were not popular. Although native to North and South America, not everyone found them attractive or desirable as a landscape plant. In fact, when Spanish first saw the zinnia species in Mexico, they considered the flower so unattractive that they named it “mal de ojos” which is Spanish for “Sickness of eye”. Zinnia seeds brought back to Europe in eighteenth century caused little excitement although the plant did not get good name. But it was not until the late nineteenth century that plant breeders started to pay any attention to this species.

The start of real popularity of the zinnia came around 1920 when Bodger Seeds Ltd. introduced the dahlia flowers Giant Dahlia. John Bodger discovered it as a natural mutation in a field of Mammoth and within the next few years selected the California Giant (large, flat-flowered variety) from the strain. The most attractive feature was availability of flowers in different colours. It also was considered to be a new trend in plant habit and flower form. It even won a gold medal from the Royal Horticultural Society of England, making everyone want to grow this prize winning flower. The many garden form of Zinnia elegans developed from the wild plant that grown in Mexico. Common zinnia has escaped and naturalized in part of southern United States including central Florida. Recently cultivation of new hybrid zinnias have started in some American and European countries under open as well as protected conditions for cut flower production.

Lotus belongs to the Nelumbonaceae family and the genus Nelumbo. There are two species in this genus; Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. distributed in Asia and Oceania, and Nelumbo lutea distributed in North and South America (Qichao and Xingyan, 2005). Although, the species nucifera is the most important (commercially and culturally), it is critical to describe the American species, evaluate its horticultural value and its potential as a source of genetic diversity. The American species, represented by Nelumbo lutea (Syn. N. pentapetala or Nelumbium luteum) is known as American Lotus, Water-chinquapin and Yellow Lotus (Sayre, 2004) and is native to the eastern and central portions of the US ranging from Maine to Wisconsin and in the south from Florida to Texas. It is one of the most spectacular and graceful aquatics among all the native plants of India. N. indica are found all over India and extend as far as Kashmir to Kanyakumari exhibiting enormous thermoplasticity and phenotypic diversity with a large number of racial variants with different shapes, sizes and colours. First Indian fossilised record of N. nucifera has been reported from the Pleistocene epoch of Kashmir. The presence of Nelumbo in the Tertiary period of Assam is reported on the basis of impressions of leaves and rhizomes found in the collection from Eocene bed near Damalgiri. These records confirm the evidence in support of the view that N. nucifera is indigenous to India.

Lotus has good fragrance. About seventy compounds were identified with hydrocarbons representing > 75% of the extract. 1, 4 – Dimethoxy benzene, 10, 8 – Cineole, ferpinen – 4al and linalool were important constituents characterization of the scent of lotus flower (Omata et al., 1991).

Definition

Packaging is the science, art, and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Food packaging is packaging for food. It requires protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical, or biological needs. It also shows the product that is labeled to show any nutrition information on the food being consumed

Packaging may be defined as co-ordinated system of preparing foods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and their use. It is also a means of ensuring safe delivery of goods to the consumer in sound condition without affecting adversely the quality of the product packed in it at a reasonable cost. Packaging thus has as “techno-economic function” aimed at maintaining the quality of food stuff packed, with a view to retain the quality for a reasonable period.

Packaging plays a vital and dominant role in marketing, in maintaining quality and in preserving the food.

Consequent to the increase in the consumer awareness of the healthy hazards, which may be posed by different types of packaging material. It becomes inevitable for the packers to use better quality, hygienic packaging material which could retain the quality of the product for a longer time without posing any health hazard. The choice of a suitable packaging becomes all the more necessary for a number of factors like physico-chemical characters and acceptability of the commodities packed in any packaging material. Apart from this the package should be of the right shape and size and must attract the consumer's eye which could offer an absolute confidence regarding the wholesomeness of the products pack in it.

Rice-wheat (RW) is the major cropping system occupying about 10.5 mha in the IGP of India. It contributes more than 60% of the foodgrains to the central pool. With shrinking land resources and burgeoning population, the RW system will be under pressure to produce more grain output per unit area in the coming decades. Meeting this challenging task requires sustainable management of soil, water and plant nutrient resources. High yields of the irrigated RW system result in production of huge quantities of crop residues. Total production of crop residues in Punjab is about 47.2 mt which includes paddy straw, wheat straw, cotton sticks, sugarcane leaves, maize stalk, and other oilseeds and pulse residues (Beri and Gupta, 2003). Wheat and rice straw constitutes more than 70% ofthe crop residues produced in the country. Paddy straw alone constitutes more than 50%. Cotton and sunflower residues are generally used as fuel. Sugarcane trash (leaves) is generally burnt in-situ or used as fuel after collection from the field. Increasing constraints of labour and time have led to the adoption ofmechanized farming in the highly intensive RW cropping system. Approximately 91% ofthe total rice area is mechanically harvested, while 82% of the total wheat area is mechanically harvested. Traditionally, wheat and paddy straws have been removed from the fields for use as cattle feed and for several other purposes such as livestock bedding, thatching material , for houses, and fuel. While more than 80% ofwheat residue is collected by the farmers after combine harvesting and often fed to animals, paddy straw is considered poor feed for animals due to its high silica content.

Substantial loss ofplant nutrients (especially N and S) and organic carbon occurs during burning of crop residues, with important implications to soil health. About 40% of the N, 60-85% of the K, 30-35% of the P, and 40-50% of the S absorbed by rice remains in the vegetative parts at maturity. One tonne of paddy straw contains approximately 6-7 kg of N, 1.0-1.7 kg of P₂O₅ and 14-25 kg K₂O. Apart from huge loss of precious plant nutrients, burning of crop residues depletes soil health. Air pollution from stubble burning also impacts human and animal health both medically, and by traumatic road accidents due to restricted visibility. In view ofthe serious problems associated with the residue burning, new ways are being sought to efficiently utilize the huge amount of surplus residues produced in the country.

Post independence era brought about a radical change in agricultural scenario which improved economy and living standard of Indian farmers to a great extent. Green revolution, (field crops) during early sixties followed by white revolution (milk) and thereafter yellow (oilseeds) and blue (fish) revolutions made the country not only self sufficient in most of the food commodities but also exporter in many. Several calamities including droughts, floods, and ill effects of national and international conflicts faced by the, people of the country during post independence era could not affect the economy and stability of the country much because of rich agricultural heritage. As usual, the rapid and rather un-planned development creates several problems and this was true in our conditions too. Loss ofindigenous land races, depletion of soil nutrients and water resources, creation of salinity and water logging, resurgence of pest and diseases, declining factor productivity and farm profits and increased environmental (air, water & soil) pollution are among such problems have great concern to agricultural scientists and planners in coming future. The situation further aggravated because of industry oriented government policies and globalization which supported growth of industries and trades rather than agriculture and hence the growth rate in these sectors was considerably high. This fact is more visible by the figures on relative contribution of different sectors in the national GDP during last sixty years (Table 1). At the time of independence of the country more than 75% people were depend on agriculture related occupations which came down to mere 67.4% in 2009-10. Similar is the case of total contribution of agriculture in national GDP which decreased from 57% in 1951-52 to as low as 14.6% in 2009-10. Besides government policies, major factor identified responsible for degradation of resources, stability in production and decreased factor productivity is chemical based farming and that too in imbalanced and improper methods of application practiced by the farmers for getting more andinore production and profits per unit area per unit time The solution of this lies in the increased use of organic sources of nutrients in proper ratio along with chemical fertilizers - IPNS (Integrated Plant Nutrient System). Livelihood of marginal and small land holders who represent a large section (more than 86%) of farming community and remained deprived of advancements in the, field of agriculture has been the main agenda of the Indian Government in Xlth, five year plan and to continue in Xllth plan too. To ensure livelihood improvement with focus on small and marginal farmers Integrated Farming System (IFS) has been proved to be an effective approach. Accordingly, the Project Directorate of Cropping Systems Research renamed as Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research with AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems Research and Network Project on Organic Farming mandated with farming systems perspectives. Since, integrated farming system is a holistic approach wherein all the wastes and residues are recycled within the system and nothing go waste. Output of one enterprise is used as input for the others. This way, farming becomes more economic and environmentally safe.

The population of India is estimated to touch 1.4 billion by the year, 2025, which will need at least 300 million tonnes of food grain. This necessitates the production of additional food grain from the same land without loosing the production potential of the soil. This, in turn, requires extensive research to provide a scientific basis for enhancing and sustaining food production as well as soil productivity with minimum environmental degradation. In order to attain this it is essential that the amount of nutrients removed from the soil should be replenished through judicious use of fertilizers and manures. This needs a more comprehensive approach for fertilizer use, incorporating components like soil test, field research and economic evaluation ofthe results. Soil testing is one of the best scientific means for quick and reliable determination of soil fertility status. Soil test crop response study in the field provides soil test calibration between the level of soil nutrients as determined in the laboratory and the crop response to fertilizers as observed in the field for predicting the fertilizer requirements of the crop.

Objectives of soil testing.

Soil testing provides a sound information about the suitability, fertility and productivity of the soil. This enables the farmers to make the most profitable use of some of the costly inputs in farming. However, lack of information among the farmers about soil testing and their importance in management of resources necessitates that the work of soil testing should be taken extensively. Soil testing is a useful tool for making fertilizer recommendations for various crops and cropping sequences as well as reclamation of problem soils. Thus the major objective of soil testing are to identify the type of soil related problems like salinity, alkalinity, and acidity and to suggest appropriate reclamation/amelioration measures and to evaluate the fertility status in terms of available nutrients for making soil test based fertilizer recommendations.

Agricultural systems are complex, and understanding this complexity requires systematic research under shrinking agricultural research resources. Field experimentation can only be used to investigate a very limited number of variables under a few site-specific conditions. The crop growth simulation models simulate crop growth, development and yield taking into account the effects of weather, genetics, soil water, carbon and nitrogen, planting, irrigation and fertilizer (e.g. Nitrogen, Phosphorus) management. Ofthe many factors that potentially affect the growth of plants, the two that are most responsive to management are water and nitrogen. It is therefore not surprising that most crop models include routines to handle responses to water and nitrogen. Less frequently do models attempt to describe limitations due to other soil constraints (Probert and Keating, 2000). In the context of integrated nutrient management, the performance of a crop model depends mainly on its ability to adequately describe the release of nutrients from diverse inputs and their uptake by the crop.

Origins and genesis of a crop simulation model

Crop simulation model approach was started near about 50 years ago, in early 1960s when early simple crop models were developed for estimation of transpiration and photosynthesis. The first step towards crop modeling was the development of simple models to estimate light interception and photosynthesis (Loomis and williams, 1963; De wit, 1965 and Duncan et al., 1967). There are many crop growth simulation models. Some are more generic in nature while others are built for specific purposes. Most of these models simulate crop growth and soil processes using daily time steps. All models are developed with some assumptions and hypotheses, and all have strengths, weaknesses and limitations for appropriate application. Well-known crop modelling groups across the world include IBSNAT/IFDC (International Benchmark Sites Network for Agro technology Transfer/International Fertilizer Development Centre) in USA, WAU/AB-DLO (Wageningen Agriculture University/Centre for Agro-biological Research) in the Netherlands, and APSRU (Agriculture Production Systems Research Unit) in Australia. The IBSNAT project was initiated in 1982, and over the past 20 years it has developed more than 15 models, including CERES (Crop Estimation through Resource and Environment Synthesis) Rice and CERES Wheat, which are available either as stand-alone models or within the DSSAT (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer) shell (Uehara and Tsuji, 1993).

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are used to be the valuable sources of new drugs (Nalawade et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2010;Chacko et al., 2010; Hamilton 2004). In Europe, about 1300 plants were used as medicinal plant, of which 90% are collected from wild resources. In United States, about 118 out of 150 prescribed drugs made up of natural sources (Balunas and Kinghorn 2005)

Moreover in developing countries, about 80 % people are totally reliant on herbal drugs and over 25 % of prescribed medicines derivative from wild plant species (Hamilton 2004). With the increasing demand for herbal drugs, natural health products, and secondary metabolites of medicinal plants, the use of medicinal plants is growing rapidly throughout the world (Nalawade et al., 2003). Between 50,000 and 80,000 flowering plant species are using for medicinal purposes worldwide according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the World Wildlife Fund (Bentley 2010). However, 20 % of the wild resources have already been exhausted with the increasing human population (Ross, 2005). Worldwide loss of species and habitat destruction has increased the extinction rate of medicinal plants, especially in China (Nalawade et al., 2003; Heywood and Iriondo, 2003), India (Heywood and Iriondo, 2003; Hamilton, 2008), Nepal (Hamilton, 2008), Kenya (Hamilton, 2008), Uganda (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012) and Tanzania (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012). China and India used highest numbers of medicinal plants i.e. 11,146 and 7500 species respectively (Rafieian-Kopaei, 2013). So, it is now necessary to find out new medicinally important plants or to utilize the well known medicinal plant sustainably. There are many plants in India that contains different medicinal and nutritional components, which can be exploited much more efficiently to establish a new era of medical science.

This study deals with the ethnomedicinal prospects of common weeds thriving in the wide array of terraced paddy fields used for rhizipisciculture by the Apatanis, a unique tribe indigenous to the remote Ziro valley in the Eastern Himalayas. Surveys were conducted in agricultural fields surrounding three villages in order to record the paddy field flora present on the partition bunds. Elderly villagers were also interviewed with the help of an interpreter to document their traditional knowledge about the medicinal uses of these weeds. A total number of 36 species of indigenous medicinal plants were recorded along with the local name, the plant parts used, the modes of preparation and administration of traditional herbal remedies and the illnesses treated. This easily accessible medicinal plant resource, ameliorating a wide range of common ailments, was found to be a reliable means for managing the primary healthcare of this indigenous agrarian community of the Eastern Himalayas.

Citrus (Citrus spp.) is one of the most important fruits grown in sub-tropical and foot hill regions of Jammu province (Kathua, Hiranagar, Samba, Jammu, Akhnoor, parts of Basohli, Nowshera, Ramnagar, Ramban and Udhampur) upto an elevation of 800 m amsl. The most important commercial citrus fruits in Jammu region are kinnow mandarin, sweet orange, grapefruit, lemon and lime. The area under citrus fruits in Jammu division of state is 14,542 ha with an annual production of 34,191 metric tones.

Climate and soil

Citrus plants being sub-tropical cannot with stand extended cold period. Temperature below 3^oC and above 40^oC are injurious to the citrus. Hot winds and excessive heat during flowering and fruit set cause fruit drop and sun burning. These are the light loving crops.

Citrus fruits thrive well in deep, loose, well aerated soils with the pH of 5.5 to 6.2 devoid of any hard pan layers of calcium carbonate in the rooting zone up to 150 cm. High water table and poor drainage system are quite unsuitable for citrus fruits which cause drying of roots and nutritional imbalance, respectively.

When natural constituents of whole milk are altered by addition, removal, exchange and / or treatment, the resultant milk is designated as special milk. Recent years have witnessed a large increase in market penetration of special milks into the total fluid milk market. In many countries, now a large portion of fluid milk is consumed in the form of special milks. Manufacturers of special milks offer numerous advantages that are broadly related to dietary, cost and scarcity aspects. Special milks provide an avenue to diversify the milk with variety of flavours and other characteristics.

Milk is considered as nature’s almost perfect food. However, milk in its natural form is not considered suitable for many more healthy people who do not like the taste of milk as such. All these problems can be overcome by manufacturing special milks such as dietetic milks, low fat milks, flavoured milks, etc.

Butterfat is the most expensive constituent of milk. Therefore, the cost of buffalo whole milk is very high and many people particularly the weaker section of our society cannot afford to buy it. Consequently, manufacture of low priced toned milk was introduced in many markets. This also enabled the dairy plants to meet the ever increasing demand of milk, particularly during lean season. Replacement of butterfat by vegetable fat could also help in reducing the cost of milk

Due to seasonal fluctuation in milk production, there is acute shortage of milk during the lean period in our country. In certain parts of the world fresh milk is not produced at all. Manufacture of reconstituted and recombined milk from anhydrous milk solids can overcome such whole milk shortage. These anhydrous milk solids could either be prepared from the domestic seasonal surplus or marketed from those countries that have surplus milk production. The machinery and manpower of a market milk plant can be fully utilized all the year round by such diversifications.

Traditionally, Labour Laws have a protective function consisting of established standards both to protect workers in their workplace and to provide them a basic minimum level of living conditions. Alongwith this function, there also existed in most systems, a legal framework for the regulation of industrial relations between employers and workers. These functions had their impact on problems of development. The emphasis was more on labour legislation for its own sake, development being a separate proposition. This mutual lack of concern was perhaps due to historical factors. The most important aspect is the fact that in developed countries of the Western world, labour legislation followed the emergence of industrialization and in response to a demand for economic and social betterment of the workers, whereas in developing countries the emergence of labour laws preceded industrial growth.

4.1    Essential Plant Nutrients
    Macronutrients
    1. Nitrogen
    2. Phosphorus
    3. Potassium
    4. Calcium
    5. Magnesium
    6. Sulphur
    
Micronutrients
    
    1. Iron
    2. Zinc
    3. Boron
    4. Manganese
    5. Molybdenum
    6. Chlorine
    7. Nickel
    8. Sodium
    9. Cobalt
    10. Silicon

Milk

Importance

Milk contains approximately 86% water, 4.7% sugar (lactose), 4.1% fat, 4.2% protein and 1% minerals. It supports the growth of micro-organisms and thus is prone to contamination. The purpose of milking a dairy cow is to obtain milk that is fit for human consumption. Milk from the udder of a healthy cow contains very few bacteria and to ensure that it remains fresh for long it should be handled under conditions of good hygiene. Unclean milk can be a source of disease to the consumer, rejected at the market and so is a loss to the farmer, does not keep for long and is not good for processing.

Seed

A true seed is defined as a fertilized mature ovule consisting of embryo, stored material and protective coats. The seed strictly speaking is an embryo a living organism embedded in the supporting or the food storage tissue.

A seed stands for any of the following used for sowing or planting.

1.    Seeds of food crops including edible oil seeds and seeds of fruit and vegetables.
2.    Cotton seeds
3.    Seeds of cattle fodder
4.    Jute seeds
5.    Seedlings, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, all type of grafts and other vegetative propagated material for food crops or cattle fodder.

Multiplication and distribution of high quality seed of improved varieties is a crucial step in agricultural production of any country.

When an entry is identified by the workshop of the concerned project, the breeder begins the seed multiplication of the strain in the following crop season. The seed produced by the breeder after a strain is identified, but before it is released as a variety is termed as the “stock seed”. This seed is known as breeder seed after it is released and notified. In the crop season following notification foundation seed of newly released variety is produced. In the second crop season following the release of variety, certified seed of the variety is produced. Thus the farmer is able to obtain certified seed of a newly released variety for commercial cultivation only in the third crop season following in the notification of the variety. However the seed of such variety reach the farmer even before its release through mini-kit trials. Many other farmers would obtain the seeds from those farmers who conducted the mini kit trials and so on in the next two years. Thus an outstanding variety is likely to reach many farmers even before its certified seeds have been put on sale.

A systems approach to pest management based on an understanding of pest ecology is referred to as Biointensive Integrated Pest Management (BIPM). It is more dynamic and ecologically informed as compared to IPM that considers the farm as part of an agro ecosystem. Accurate diagnosis of the pest problem is the first step, which then relies on a range of preventive tactics and biological controls to keep pest populations within acceptable limits. It also considers ecological and economic factors into agricultural system design and decision - making and addresses public concern about environmental quality and food safety. As a last resort, the reduced – risk pesticides are used if other tactics have not been adequately effective.

The earlier concept of IPM has failed because of ease of applicability to easy availability of chemical pesticides. Hence, the present concept of BIPM, with more intensive use of biological and other biorational means has emerged. The flexibility and environmental compatibility of BIPM strategies make it useful in all types of cropping system. BIPM would likely decrease chemical use and costs entailing them. BIPM ultimately provides resistance / immunity to the entire system so that no foreign elements (insect pests or disease causing organisms) survive or gain upper hand. BIPM if followed for years shall enhance the natural control system, thus suppressing pest populations below those causing economic injury.

Nematodes are the most numerous metazoa on earth. They are either free living or parasites of plants and animals. Although currently only about 4100 species of plant parasitic nematodes have been described (i.e. 15 % of the total number of nematode species known), their impact on humans by inflicting heavy losses in agriculture is substantial. Most of the developing countries including India lie in tropical or sub tropical regions where climate is suitable for activity and multiplication of nematodes almost throughout the year. Sandy and warm soils such as found in India other developing countries in the arid zone are very favorable for nematode infection, especially in irrigated areas which are used for crop production continuously. The percentage of crop losses caused by plant pathogens, insect pests and weeds world wide has been estimated to 42% according for $500 billion worth of damage. The estimated overall annual yield loss of world’s major crops due to damage by plant parasitic nematodes has been reported to the extent of 12.3% (Sasser & Freckman, 1987). Estimated losses due to nematodes attack on different cultivated crops all over the world by FAO are around 400 million dollars. Annual crop losses in India is Rs. 242.1 billion. A large number of plant parasitic nematodes have been found associated with pulse crops in allover India but pathogenicity has not been proved for all. Plant parasitic nematodes are one of the most unwanted organisms in agricultural soils. They parasitize the roots of our carefully nurtured crops, reduce their ability to produce yields, make them weak and perhaps vulnerable to many pests and diseases. They reduce the crop yields that may equal those associated with more severe and easily identifiable plant diseases and we do not even realize their presence. Damage to crops by nematodes often goes unnoticed or attributed to other causes such as lack of fertility, deficient soil moisture. Sandy and warm soils such as found in India other developing countries in the arid zone are very favourable for nematode infection, especially in irrigated areas which are used for crop production continuously (Taylor, 1967).

• What is Meant by the Term Expert?
• Building Blocks of Expert Systems
• Designing Expert Systems in Problem Solving 
• Applications of Expert System
• An Expert System for Decision Problem
• Advantages of Expert System
• Cases of Expert Systems in Agriculture