eChapters

Throughout history, humanity has been locked in a perpetual struggle with the forces of nature, and one of the most insidious and destructive of these forces is drought. A creeping disaster that seeps into the very fabric of communities, drought leaves behind a trail of devastation and despair, testing the resilience of societies and pushing the boundaries of human endurance. From the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia to modern-day cities, droughts have ravaged the landscape, claiming lives, destroying livelihoods, and reshaping the course of human history. • The impact of drought is far-reaching and multifaceted, affecting not just the environment, but also the economy, health, and overall wellbeing of individuals and communities. Crops wither and die, livestock perish, and entire ecosystems are disrupted, leading to food and water shortages that can have catastrophic consequences. The economic toll of drought can be equally devastating, as agriculture, industry, and tourism is severely impacted, leading to widespread unemployment and poverty. • What makes droughts particularly pernicious is their ability to unfold slowly, their effects accumulating over time,

The chapter will delve into the fundamental physics governing energy exchange at the Earth’s surface and how water is managed within the soil profile. These concepts are crucial for understanding microclimate, evapotranspiration, and overall water availability for crops. This chapter explores the intricate interactions between incoming solar radiation, its transformation into various energy forms at the Earth’s surface, and the dynamic movement and storage of water within the soil. Understanding these processes is vital for agricultural meteorology, as they directly influence temperature, humidity, and water availability for plant growth.The Earth’s surface, particularly a vegetated land surface, continuously exchanges energy with the atmosphere. The Surface Energy Budget quantifies these energy fluxes, explaining how incoming solar radiation is partitioned. It operates on the principle of conservation of energy: the energy received must equal the energy expended or stored (Fig. 6.1). The Earth’s surface energy budget numbers derived from Kiehl-Trenberth 1997. The surface of the Earth is cooled 40 W/m2 by radiation; this part of surface radiation is radiated straight into Space. 324 W/m2 of all outgoing surface radiation returns nearly simultaneously as back radiation. The remaining 26 W/m2 of surface radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases and results in the warming of the atmosphere near the

The Asia-Pacific region is highly vulnerable to climate change, with impacts such as more frequent natural disasters, sea-level rise, floods, droughts, and changing weather patterns. Rural areas, particularly those reliant on agriculture, are disproportionately and non-identically affected. The Asia-Pacific region, home to over 60% of the world's population, is among the most vulnerable to climate change due to its diverse geography, dense coastal populations, and socioeconomic disparities [IPCC, 2022a], Climate change is an emerging threat that affects all countries to varying degrees. The recently released IPCC Assessment Report identified agriculture as one of the critical sectors both susceptible to climate change and contributing to it through Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. Countries in the Asia-Pacific region are investing significant resources to strengthen agriculture on various fronts. These investments focus on the research and development of new varieties and agro-technologies to adapt agriculture to emerging climatic threats and, simultaneously, mitigate GHG emissions from the agricultural and allied sectors. These initiatives are in their early stages, and there is a need to assess the current status of countries' vulnerability to climate change and the measures taken to address

Climate-resilient rural development is a critical priority for CMCs, given their vulnerability to climate change impacts such as floods, droughts, cyclones, and rising temperatures. This note explores case studies and success stories from some of the CMCs, highlighting innovative approaches, community- driven initiatives, and policy interventions that enhance climate resilience in rural areas. The examples draw from documented projects, emphasizing practical outcomes and lessons learned. Case studies of specific CMCs 1. Bangladesh: Saemaul Zero Hunger Communities (SZHC) Project In central Bangladesh, the Saemaul Zero Hunger Communities (SZHC) project (2014-2017) focused on 19 flood-prone villages to strengthen resilience to climate shocks and improve food security (UNDP, 2018). Implemented in collaboration with local communities

Commercial Advertising
In today’s highly competitive market, businesses rely on advertising as a vital tool to promote their products and services. Commercial advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions, driving sales, and building brand identity. It is a strategic communication process designed to inform, persuade, and remind potential customers about a company’s offerings. This chapter explores the definition, objectives, types, strategies, and impact of commercial advertising in modern business environments.
Definition of Commercial Advertising
Commercial advertising refers to paid marketing communications that aim to promote a product, service, or brand to consumers. It is executed through various media channels, including television, radio, print, online platforms, and social media. The primary goal of commercial advertising is to increase awareness and influence consumer purchasing decisions.
Objectives of Commercial Advertising
The primary objectives of commercial advertising include
1. Brand Awareness – Creating and maintaining brand recognition among target audiences.
2. Customer Persuasion – Convincing potential customers to choose a product or service over competitors.
3. Sales Generation – Encouraging immediate and future purchases.
4. Market Expansion – Entering new markets and reaching broader audiences.
5 Brand Loyalty – Establishing long-term relationships with customers through consistent messaging.
6. Competitive Advantage – Differentiating a brand from competitors in the marketplace.

Newspapers remain a powerful medium for social advertising despite the digital revolution. Their tangible nature, credibility, and broad reach make them particularly effective for communicating social messages to diverse demographics. This chapter explores the principles, strategies, and techniques for designing impactful social advertisements specifically for newspaper publication.
Understanding the Newspaper Medium
Newspapers offer unique characteristics that influence advertisement design. Unlike digital media, newspaper ads exist in a physical space with specific technical constraints and opportunities:
Physical Properties
• Limited color options (full color, spot color, or black and white)
• Variable paper quality affecting image reproduction
• Fixed column layouts and standard sizes
• One-time viewing opportunity without replay options Reader Behavior
• Average viewing time of 2-5 seconds per advertisement
• Selective attention in a content-rich environment
• Higher trust factor compared to digital advertisements
• Linear reading patterns that affect optimal placement

Choosing an appropriate location for an apiary is a crucial aspect of natural beekeeping. The productivity, health, and survival of bee colonies are strongly affected by environmental elements such as vegetation diversity, local climate conditions, availability of water, and absence of regular disturbances. In natural farming systems, selecting a site takes on greater importance, as it aims to harmonize with nature, reduce interference, and integrate smoothly with the broader farm ecosystem. An ideal apiary should be situated in a calm, shaded location, away from frequent human activity, loud noises, and pesticide contamination. Bees are extremely sensitive to chemical residues; therefore, the surrounding area should follow organic or chemical-free farming practices. The site must offer year-round access to nectar and pollen sources—like flowering plants, trees, herbs, and native vegetation—to maintain steady nutrition for the bees. Having a clean water source within 500 meters is essential, as bees use water for cooling, honey processing, and nurturing the brood. If there’s no natural water body nearby, shallow containers filled with water and pebbles or floating sticks should be provided. The area should also be shielded from high winds, harsh sunlight, and heavy rains through natural barriers such as hedgerows, bamboo groves, or dense shrubs. In the context of natural farming, the apiary setup should promote simplicity, bee comfort, and ecological balance. Hives are best placed on raised stands, about 1 to 1.5 feet above the ground, to protect against dampness, pests, and surface heat. Maintaining a gap from 3 to 4 feet between hives—arranged in rows or semicircles—allows beekeepers to work efficiently and ensures clear flight paths for bees returning with food. Hive entrances should preferably face east or southeast to capture early sunlight, encouraging bees to begin foraging sooner. Slightly tilting the hives

Introduction
Fertilization is sequence of events that begins with contact between a sperm and an oocyte, resulting in fusion of two gametes and formation of a zygote (unicellular embryo). Site of fertilization is distal end of ampulla of fallopian tube (ampulla-isthmus junction) in mammals and in birds, is infundibulum. Only 1% of sperms deposited in vagina enter cervix. Movement of sperm from cervix to uterine tube occurs by muscular contractions of uterus & uterine tube and by their own propulsion. Immediately after ovulation, ovum is caught by the fimbriae of the infundibular part of oviduct and is brought to the ampulla.Cilia along epithelium of oviduct moves OCc. In farm animals (except swine) corona radiata cells drop off in ampulla. In swine, they persist and help in attachment of ova to each other in forming egg-clumps. The optimum fertilizable life of egg in most mammals is 12-24 hours after ovulation, but in dog it may extend up to 4 days.
Site of ejaculation is
Cow, primates, sheep, goat: Anterior vagina
Horse, pig: Body of uterus
Capacitation
Spermatozoa are not able to fertilize the oocyte immediately after arrival in female genital tract. To acquire fertility, they must reside there for a certain period of time. The changes that occur during this period constitute capacitation. Ejaculated spermatozoa must be exposed to secretions of female reproductive tract for a variable period of time before they attain capacity to fertilize oocyte. The secretions of uterus & oviduct participate in capacitation. Important processes during capacitation are: 1. Surface of spermatozoa in region of epididymis acquires certain molecules (proteins & carbohydrates in nature) and in seminal plasma, these molecules are masked by surface proteins. In female reproductive tract, these molecules along with surface proteins are removed. Removal of cholesterol and GAGs sperm cell surface.

Introduction
Introduction: The digestive system, or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, plays a fundamental role in the overall health and well-being of animals. In veterinary anatomy, understanding the structure and function of the digestive system is essential for diagnosing and treating various disorders that affect food intake, digestion, and nutrient absorption. This complex system is responsible for the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, the absorption of nutrients, and the elimination of waste, making it crucial for maintaining homeostasis in animal species. Structural Organization: The digestive system can be divided into two main categories: the gastrointestinal tract and the accessory digestive organs. The gastrointestinal tract is a continuous tube extending from the mouth to the anus and includes the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. Each segment of the GI tract is specialized for specific functions, reflecting the dietary habits and evolutionary adaptations of different species. Mouth and Esophagus: The digestive process begins in the mouth, where food is mechanically broken down by teeth and mixed with saliva, which contains enzymes like amylase that initiate carbohydrate digestion. The esophagus serves as a conduit for food, transporting it to the stomach through peristaltic movements. Stomach: The stomach is a muscular organ that serves as a site for food storage and initial digestion. It secretes gastric juices, including hydrochloric acid and pepsin, to denature proteins and activate digestive enzymes. The morphology of the stomach can vary significantly across species. In ruminants—such as cattle, sheep, and goats—the stomach is uniquely adapted for processing fibrous plant material through a complex structure consisting of four compartments: the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
1. Rumen: The largest compartment, the rumen, acts as a fermentation chamber where microbial digestion occurs. It is lined with a stratified squamous epithelium and contains millions of microorganisms, including bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, that help break down cellulose and other complex carbohydrates. The rumen’s large surface area, facilitated by papillae, enhances absorption of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) produced during fermentation, which serve as a primary energy source for ruminants.

Introduction
The integumentary system is a vital organ system in animals, encompassing the skin, hair, nails, and associated glands. This complex system is essential for protecting the body, regulating temperature, providing sensory information, and facilitating communication among individuals. The development of the integumentary system is a remarkable evolutionary adaptation that reflects the diverse environmental challenges faced by different species. The integumentary system has evolved to meet the specific needs of various species, playing a crucial role in survival. As organisms transitioned from aquatic to terrestrial environments, the integument had to adapt to prevent dehydration, protect against UV radiation, and manage temperature fluctuations. For example, the development of a thicker, keratinized epidermis in terrestrial animals minimizes water loss and provides a barrier against environmental stressors. In mammals, the integumentary system exhibits even greater complexity. The evolution of hair, fur, and other adaptations allows for enhanced thermoregulation, sensory perception, and social interaction. For instance, many mammals have evolved specialized hair types, such as the insulating undercoat found in Arctic species or the short, coarse hair of desertdwelling animals that aids in heat dissipation. Anatomical Structure The integumentary system is composed of several key components: the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis (subcutaneous layer), and associated appendages such as hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands.
1. Epidermis: The outermost layer of the skin, the epidermis, is primarily composed of keratinocytes, which produce keratin, a protein that provides strength and waterproofing. Melanocytes, located within the epidermis, produce melanin, the pigment responsible for skin color. The thickness of the epidermis varies significantly among species, with adaptations reflecting the ecological niches of each animal.

Entrepreneurship Development
Entrepreneurship Development (ED) is a recent perspective in extension approaches. It attempts to integrate sociological nature of agricultural sector with capitalistic entrepreneurship. The terms like social entrepreneurship, corporate social responsibility and agricultural entrepreneurship have recently come in vogue. It is the most significant factor to bring about transformation of agricultural sector.
Theories of Entrepreneurship Development
The word entrepreneur is derived from a French root entreprenerd, meaning. to begin something, to undertake. Entrepreneur is a person with a high need for achievement [N-Ach] who is energetic and a moderate risk taker. An entrepreneur searches for change, responds to it and exploits opportunities. Entrepreneur is an innovator and dynamic agent of change, a catalyst who transforms increasingly physical, natural and human resources in a corresponding production possibility. Entrepreneurship is a means by which economy and society are transformed. The emergence of entrepreneurs in a society depends upon closely interlinked economic, social, religious, cultural and psychological variables.
Personality traits perspective of entrepreneurship
In this approach, the entrepreneur is assumed to possess a particular personality type and thus much research has been to enumerate a set of characteristics possessed. The main Concepts studied include innovativeness, dynamism, risk taking, creativity, alertness, need for achievement, aspirations, self-confidence and being ambitious. An entrepreneur is an individual who possesses qualities of risk-taking, leadership, motivation, and the ability to resolve problems. Entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviour also include openness to new information and people, motivation, making independent and self-directed decisions, the ability to see opportunities in a rapidly changing and uncertain environment, persistence, the motivation to achieve, technical know-how, taking ownership, personal integrity, accountable, capacity to manage and
organise.

Similarity between an entrepreneur and a self-employed person is that they both own a business, but self-employment means working for oneself as an independent owner of the business rather than being employed. Majority of business owners fall under the category of self-employed. They begin with a skill or particular set of skills and find that the opportunity to make money arises.
An entrepreneur is a self-employed person having additional attributes of undertaking challenges and moderate risk-taking behaviour to achieve his/her goals. Entrepreneur is a person who organizes and operates a business taking on extraordinary financial risks in order to do so and has a growth orientation. Entrepreneurship is all about risks and rewards. Entrepreneurs think outside the box for the best ways to succeed and move on to their next venture. While the businesses might be of interest it is really the passion of the start-up and leading something to success that drives them every day. Often this can lead to selling the business or moving on to start a new one, once they have everything in place as they are always looking for challenges.
Income generation refers to activities undertaken for monetary returns and livelihood. Income generation is common to entrepreneurship, self-employment and income generation. Activities done for sustenance or low profit activities with minimal challenges are termed as income generation.
Phases of entrepreneurship development
There are three stages of establishing an enterprise:
1. Income generation: In the initial stage one tries to generate surplus or profit. This is done on part time or casual basis to supplement income e.g. a man with some surplus money might put his money in a fixed deposit account in a bank or a chit fund to earn some interest.
2. Self-employment: In the second stage an individual’s fulltime involvement is in his Bown occupation, e.g. a person who starts a general merchant or a grocery shop and s/he remains satisfied with it.

Schemes and projects are functioning in our country for promotion of entrepreneurship development among rural youth, women and would-be entrepreneurs. Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centres (ACABC) central sector scheme jointly managed and implemented by National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), Atal Incubation Centre (AIC) supported by NITI Aayog, Rural Self Employment training Institute (RSETI) managed by Banks with active co-operation from the Government of India and State Government in the line of RUDSETI (Rural Development and Self Employment Training Institute), Rural Technology Park (RTP) of NIRD, MUDRA Bank established under Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY), Agriculture Skill Council of India (ASCI), Rural Livelihood programs under ASPIRE Scheme of Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises etc. are some support schemes and institutions for entrepreneurship development in India. Her are the some of the entrepreneurship Development Programmes and Schemes:
1. PM VIshwakarma Kaushal Samman (PM VIKAS)
• Launched on 1Feb, 2023
• To empower traditional artisans and craftspeople by integrating them with the MSME value chain, financial support, access to latest technology.
2. Self-Reliant India (SRI) Fund
• Launched on 2020
• Launched under: Atma Nirbhar Package
• Fund: Rs.10, 000 cr
• Objective: objective of supporting Venture Capital (VC) / Private Equity (PE) firms to invest in the MSME segment

Agribusiness: A Dynamic Concept
Agribusiness, an ever-evolving concept since its introduction in the 1950s, encompasses a broad spectrum of business and management activities linked to agriculture. Downey and Erickson defined agribusiness as encompassing all activities undertaken by firms that supply inputs to the farming sector, produce agricultural products, and process, transport, finance, or market these products. Chait extended the definition to include agriculturally related businesses such as warehouses, wholesalers, processors, and retailers.
In developed countries, agribusiness is broadly defined as the total output from farm production and processing at both pre- and post-farm gate stages. In contrast, in developing nations like India, agribusiness is categorized into four distinct sub-sectors:
1. Agricultural inputs
2. Agricultural production
3. Agro-processing
4. Marketing and trade
These sub-sectors contribute to adding value and utility to agricultural goods. Agribusiness has emerged as a specialized field within management sciences, focusing on activities and linkages, both backward and forward, related to production, processing, marketing, trade, and distribution of food, feed, and fiber, along with the supply of inputs and services.
Examples of Agribusiness Ventures
• Vermicompost
• Poultry Farming
• Mushroom Cultivation
• Beekeeping
• Livestock Feed Production

Supply Chain Management (SCM) in agriculture refers to a series of interconnected activities, including procurement, order fulfillment, product design and development, distribution, delivery, shipping, and customer service. These activities involve two or more organizations within the agribusiness sector working together to meet customer demand. SCM emerged in the 1980s as an integrative approach to managing the entire flow of goods, from suppliers to end-users, with an emphasis on cost-effectiveness and efficiency. It has since evolved to incorporate broader integration of business processes along the supply chain. The primary focus of SCM is on optimizing costs and ensuring the efficient movement of materials from their source to their final destination. An efficient supply chain plays a crucial role in reducing operational costs.
In contrast, a value chain focuses on a set of linked activities that add value to a product, connecting producers to processors and markets. Value chains prioritize cooperation among actors to produce high-quality products and generate equitable income for all participants. Unlike supply chains, which center on logistics and product movement, value chains also include the transfer of knowledge, finance, payments, and social capital to organize producers and communities. While supply chains begin at the point of production, value chains originate from the consumer perspective.
The Concept of Supply Chain in Agriculture
The supply chain concept is critical for addressing unique characteristics of agricultural produce, such as:
• Seasonal production patterns
• Localized production regions
• Perishable nature of produce
• Post-harvest losses of varying magnitudes
• Low price realization by farmers
• Presence of multiple intermediaries

The physical, social, or experimental context in which research is carried out is referred to as the research setting. This context must be accurately described in a study publication because it might significantlyaffect the outcomes and the interpretation. For instance, in a study that depicts chimpanzee’s social behaviour, the authors may need to give the description of the research environment, includingwherethe chimpanzees were seen whether they are in the wild or captivity, and whether they belonged to the same place,thesametime,the samestudyterm,thetimeof yearandweather, theaccessibility of resources like food, drink, and shelter, the presence of dangers from the environment and so forth. The environment in which studies are conducted, or the research setting, has asignificant impact on how the results are interpreted. Doing a study in an experimental setting, for instance in the lab, you might be able to control variables in ways that you can’t control in the field, and it could be argued that the results don’t accuratelyrepresent reality. It is frequently crucial to undertake complementary research in a variety of research context to strengthen the generalizability of the results.
4.1. Area of the study
The study was conducted at Bilkumari village of Bilkumari gram panchayat in Nakashipara block in Nadia district in West Bengal.
4.2. Profile of West Bengal
On August 15,1947, as a result of the division of the undivided, West Bengal was established as one of the constituent state or the Indian union among the 29 states in India. The location of the West Bengal is in India’s north- eastern region between 21°37'-27°10' north latitude and 85°51'-89°53'east longitude. It is located in the country’s eastern part and fourth most populous state. It has theseventh-highest population density among sub-national entities worldwide. The sixth largest contributor to country’s GDP is WB. It is surrounded bythe countries of Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh and the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Sikkim, Assam with an area of 34,267 sqm with Kolkata as its capital. The sub and Himalayan region in the north, and the Gangetic Plain in the south comprise the two principal natural areas that comprise West Bengal. Despite the factthat West Bengal is oneofthesmallerstates, it isoneof India’slargest states in terms of population with 91million people. Agriculture is the main economicsector, the state’s population is primarily agricultural workers andfarmers. Rice is regarded as the primary food crop. Maize, legumes, oilseeds, wheat, barley, and potatoes are some of the major food crops. Nearly 66% of India’s jute needs are met by the state. Tea is the key cash crop. Darjeeling’s tea plantations are one of its main draws. Being widely known for its artistic achievements, particularly its filmmaking.

12.1 Bactofugation
Using a specially constructed hermetic centrifuge, the Bactofugation® method separates bacteria—including especially the spores produced by particular bacterial strains—from milk. The RPM rises to 60000. Since their density is larger than that of milk, this technique has shown to be a quick approach of lowering the spore count in milk. Usually separating the milk into a portion more or less free from germs, bactofugation produces a concentrate (bactofugate), containing generally both spores and bacteria in general and amounts to up to 3% of the feed to the Bactofuge.
12.2 Dehydration
One can preserve the milk by dehydrating to different degrees. The “shelflife” of the dehydrated milk is longer than that of milk kept refrigerated and pasteurised. Concentrated or dry milk (milk powder) is milk from which some or all of the water has been removed. More than eighty-percent of milk is water. Eliminating water can help to preserve milks the best way. One can accomplish it freeze drying or by drum or spray drying.
12.2.1 Condensed Milk
Eliminating some of the water from whole or partially/fully skimmed milk, either with or without sugar, results in condensed milk. Generally speaking, “condensed milk” is “full cream sweetened condensed milk,” whereas “evaporated milk” is used for “full cream unsweetened condensed milk.” Variations in skimmed milk are labeled “sweetened condensed skim milk” and “unsweetened condensed skim milk.” For full cream products, milk solids have a concentration ratio of about 1:2.5; for sweetened condensed skim milk, that ratio is 1:3. Annexure-I has an exhaustive composition chart for condensed milk.

16.1 Introduction
The fluid product “Cream” is defined by FSSAI standards as an emulsion of fat-in-skimmed milk that is comparatively rich in fat. It is derived by physical separation from cow milk, buffalo milk, or milk of any other species as defined under this regulation, or a mixture thereof. Cream, with the exception of sterilized variants, is composed of a minimum of 25% milk fat and is derived from cow or buffalo milk or a combination of both. It is a high-energy source that is abundant in fat and fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. The vitamin content is contingent upon the fat percentage in the cream.
16.2 Classification
Cream may be broadly classified into Market cream (direct consumption) and Manufacturing cream (manufacture of dairy products). The three different types of cream are:
i. Table cream/Light cream contains 20-25% milk fat.
ii. Coffee cream/ Whipping cream Contains 30-40 % milk fat, and
iii. Heavy cream/Plastic cream contains 65-85 % milk fat.
As per FSSAI Standards, Cream may be labeled according to milk fat content (m/m) along with product name as specified in item 1 of this Standard, as follows:
i. Low fat cream: Minimum 10 per cent. and less than 40 per cent.;
ii. Medium fat cream: Minimum 40 per cent. and less than 60 per cent.;
iii. High fat cream: Minimum 60 per cent.

22.1 Introduction
Chhana is a dairy product that is produced by coagulating milk with acids such as citric or lactic acid at high temperatures, with the whey subsequently drained. Chhana is the term used to describe the curd that is produced as a consequence. It has a distinctive spongy texture, a mildly acidic flavour, and an off-white colour. Chhana is defined as the product that is produced by precipitating bovine or buffalo milk with sour milk, lactic acid, or citric acid, in accordance with FSSAI standards. The milkfat content must not be less than 50.0 percent on dried matter, and it must not contain more than 70.0 percent moisture. This product may also be prepared using milk solids.

Low fat chhana shall conform to the following requirements
1. The moisture content should not exceed 70.0 percent.
2. The milk fat content should not exceed 15.0 percent of the dry mass.
Additionally, it specifies that such low-fat chhana shall be sold exclusively in sealed packages. Chhana is primarily made from cow’s milk and is utilised in the production of a variety of Bengali sweets. The production of chhana in India consumes roughly 4 to 4.5% of the total milk produced. Sandesh, rasogolla, chamcham, rasomalai, pantoa, and chhana murki are among the numerous desserts that are prepared using chhana as a base.

29.1 Introduction
Cleaning is achieved using a cleaning agent designed to remove food, dirt, rust stains, minerals, or other residues. It is crucial to choose the appropriate cleaning agent, as not all are suitable for surfaces that come into contact with food. In a food-processing facility, sanitation involves ensuring that utensils and equipment that come into contact with products are kept clean and sterile. Additionally, clothing, air, packaging materials, and non-contact surfaces like floors, walls, and ceilings must be sanitized to prevent product contamination. Employees’ bodies, especially their hands, can also be sources of contamination, so maintaining high personal hygiene and cleanliness standards is essential. Moisture and heat can lead to microbiological contamination of both products and the environment. Moisture on product-contact surfaces and within products creates a medium where microorganisms can thrive and find nutrients, potentially affecting the safety and quality of milk and dairy products.
29.2 Types of Soil
Cleaning involves removing food residues and other types of soil from surfaces like utensils and equipment used in the dairy and food industries.
• In the dairy-processing sector, the equipment must be cleaned of various types of soil including: liquid milk films, air-dried films, heatprecipitated films, heat-hardened films, milk stone, and other foreign materials.
• Soluble soils will dissolve and be carried away in rinse or wash water. For insoluble soil components, chemical detergents may be needed to either dissolve them or soften them to facilitate easier removal.
• Cleaning or sanitizing the product contact surfaces of dairy equipment involves both washing and sterilizing. It’s important to avoid causing undue wear, erosion, or corrosion to these surfaces, as this can reduce their lifespan

The classification of crop diseases is a fundamental aspect of plant pathology, as it provides a framework for understanding the causes, symptoms, and management of diseases that affect crops. Classification is the process of grouping organisms or diseases into categories based on their shared characteristics, and it is essential for developing effective disease management strategies. Crop diseases can be classified in various ways, including by their causes, symptoms, hosts, and environmental factors. Understanding the classification of crop diseases is crucial for farmers, agricultural professionals, and researchers, as it enables them to identify diseases accurately, select appropriate management strategies, and develop new control methods. One of the primary ways to classify crop diseases is by their causes, which can be broadly categorized into infectious and non-infectious diseases. Infectious diseases are caused by living organisms, such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes, while non-infectious diseases are caused by environmental factors, such as temperature, moisture, nutrient deficiencies and some substances toxic to plants. Another way to classify crop diseases is by their symptoms, which can include visible changes in plant growth, color, or texture, as well as reductions in yield or quality. Symptoms can be categorized into different types, such as leaf spots, blights, wilts, and tumors, each of which is associated with specific diseasecausing agents. Classification of crop diseases can also be based on the host plant, with diseases being grouped according to the specific crop or plant species they affect. This type of classification is useful for developing crop-specific disease management strategies. In this chapter, we will explore the different classification systems used for crop diseases, including their causes, symptoms, hosts, and environmental factors. We will also discuss the importance of accurate disease classification for effective disease management and the development of new control methods. The broad classification of crop diseases followed uniformly throughout the world is based on the nature of the causal agent, and it categorizes diseases into two main groups: infectious diseases and non-infectious diseases.
5.1 Infectious diseases
These are caused by living organisms, such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes, which can spread from plant to plant. These diseases can be further subdivided into several categories, including:

Fungal diseases are a significant threat to crop health and productivity worldwide, causing substantial economic losses and compromising food security. The development and spread of fungal diseases are influenced by a complex array of factors, including crop susceptibility, pathogen virulence, and environmental conditions. Among these environmental factors, weather plays a critical role in determining the severity and impact of fungal diseases on crops. Weather conditions, such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, and wind, can significantly affect the life cycle of fungal pathogens, including spore production, dispersal, and infection. For example, high temperatures and dry conditions can inhibit the growth and development of some fungal pathogens, while cool and wet conditions can favor their development and spread. Similarly, wind and precipitation can facilitate the dispersal of fungal spores, leading to the rapid spread of disease (Fig. 7.1). Understanding the impact of weather on fungal diseases is essential for developing effective disease management strategies. By recognizing the weather conditions that favor or inhibit the development of fungal diseases, farmers and crop managers can take proactive measures to prevent or mitigate disease outbreaks. This may involve adjusting planting dates, irrigation schedules, and fungicide applications to minimize the risk of disease. Furthermore, knowledge of the weather effects on fungal diseases can also inform the development of more accurate and reliable disease forecasting systems.

Bacterial diseases are a significant threat to human health, agriculture, and the environment. These diseases are caused by pathogenic bacteria that can infect various hosts, including humans, animals, and plants. The severity and spread of bacterial diseases are influenced by various factors, including weather parameters. Weather conditions, such as temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation, play a crucial role in the development, dissemination, and survival of bacterial pathogens (Fig. 8.1). Fig. 8.1. Bacterial infection on soybean leaves Temperature, for instance, affects the growth and reproduction of bacteria, with optimal temperatures varying among different species. High temperatures can accelerate the growth of some bacteria, while low temperatures can slow it down or even kill them, however every pathogenic bacterium have its own weather window. For example, a daytime temperature of 35°C and nighttime temperatures of 27°C are most favorable for Xanthomonas oryzae infecting rice. Similarly, humidity influences the survival and dissemination of bacteria, with high humidity favoring the growth and spread of many bacterial pathogens. For example, lower soil moisture decreases the chances of infection of Ralstonia solanacearum in tomato plants. Wind and precipitation also impact the spread of bacterial diseases. Wind can disperse bacterial spores and cells, allowing them to reach new areas and infect new hosts. Precipitation, on the other hand, can influence the availability of moisture, which is essential for the growth and survival of many bacterial

History and thorough physical examination is crucial procedures in making diagnosis in horses. Mental attitude of a horse may help in understanding whether it has a localized problem or is systemically ill. Horse is better approached by its left side, keeping himself/herself next to the shoulder. Examination of the horse should be started in a non-threatening, easy, and quiet way. Generally physical examination starts at the head to prevent possible injury to unfamiliar examiner. Abnormalities in demeanor and mentation can be assessed by watching the horse’s initial response to the environment. The locomotor and neurologic systems are examined by observing the horse’s movements and gait at walk and trot, both on straight line and in turns, and backing. Horse weight should be taken. General inspection of the horse should be conducted by standing back keeping a safe distance and looking at the horse for it condition, abdominal shape, muscle symmetry,

Examination of peritoneal fluid provides valuable information about abdominal and systemic disease. This chapter describes the practical collection and evaluation of peritoneal fluid, including appropriate sampling techniques and clinical considerations. Fluid examination helps differentiate transudates, modified transudates and exudates and can provide evidence of inflammation, infection, haemorrhage or other abdominal abnormalities. Physical, biochemical and cytological characteristics contribute to interpretation. Proper collection and handling of samples are essential for reliable diagnostic results. The chapter emphasizes integration of peritoneal fluid findings with history, physical examination and other diagnostic procedures to support identification of abdominal disease processes.

Cerebrospinal fluid examination is an important diagnostic procedure for evaluating diseases affecting the central nervous system. This chapter describes techniques for CSF collection, including appropriate sampling approaches and precautions. Collected fluid may be submitted for physical, chemical, cytological and microbial examination. Important parameters include colour, turbidity, protein concentration, glucose, chloride, enzymes and nucleated cell counts. Cytological evaluation and culture may assist in identifying inflammatory or infectious processes. Proper sample handling and timely processing are emphasized because cellular and biochemical characteristics can change after collection. CSF findings should be interpreted alongside neurological examination and other diagnostic investigations.

Ultrasonography is an important non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique in veterinary medicine. This chapter introduces practical principles, patient preparation and imaging approaches for ruminants, horses and dogs. Abdominal ultrasonography can evaluate organs including the liver, gall bladder, spleen, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, urinary bladder and reproductive structures. Transabdominal, transthoracic, transrectal, transvaginal and other approaches are described according to anatomical and diagnostic requirements. Proper preparation, including fasting and acoustic gel application, improves image quality. Ultrasonography supports diagnosis of gastrointestinal, urinary, hepatic, reproductive and other disorders and provides valuable real-time information without ionizing radiation.

Metabolic diseases are closely associated with nutritional imbalance, production demands and physiological changes surrounding calving. This chapter focuses on practical management of metabolic disorders in dairy herds through appropriate nutrition, monitoring and preventive strategies. Attention is given to metabolic disturbances associated with the transition period and high milk production. Evaluation of feeding practices, body condition, production performance and clinical or subclinical indicators helps identify animals at risk. Herd-level management can reduce disease occurrence and production losses. The chapter emphasizes balanced nutrition, monitoring and preventive intervention as essential components of effective dairy herd health and metabolic disease management.

Vaccination is an important component of preventive veterinary medicine and herd health. This chapter explains the practical role of vaccines in stimulating protective immunity and preventing important infectious diseases. Successful vaccination depends on appropriate vaccine selection, quality, handling, administration, timing and maintenance of the cold chain. Vaccination should form part of an integrated disease-control programme involving biosecurity, sanitation and disease monitoring. Species-specific vaccination schedules are presented for dogs, cats, cattle, buffaloes, small ruminants, swine and equines. The chapter provides practical guidance for implementing vaccination programmes and emphasizes appropriate scheduling and management to improve disease prevention and animal health.

Source: A Colour Handbook on Practicals in Veterinary Medicine, J. P. Varshney, Sujata Turkar and Sarita Devi. The chapter sequence is taken from the book's Contents, while the introductions are concise summaries grounded in the corresponding chapter material.

Effective feeding strategies and feed management are vital for enhancing fish growth, achieving optimal feed conversion ratios (FCR), and reducing both feed wastage and environmental impact. As feed expenses account for around 60–70% of total aquaculture costs, efficient feeding is key to economic and environmental sustainability. A well-designed feeding approach includes selecting appropriate feed types, setting correct feeding rates, timing feedings properly, and observing fish feeding behavior closely. Feed characteristics—such as floating or sinking nature, pellet size, and nutritional composition—should align with the species, age, and health of the fish. Insufficient feeding can result in poor growth and higher disease risk, whereas excessive feeding not only escalates costs but also compromises water quality due to decomposing leftover feed. Feeding rates are usually based on a percentage of body weight, modified according to factors like water temperature, oxygen levels, fish condition, and seasonal changes. For example, warmer weather increases metabolism and appetite, requiring more frequent feedings,

In modern aquaculture, specialized feeds and functional additives play a crucial role in addressing species-specific nutritional needs, enhancing immunity, improving growth rates, and ensuring efficient feed utilization—especially under intensive farming or environmentally challenging conditions. These feeds go beyond meeting basic dietary requirements and are formulated to offer specific benefits such as stress mitigation, disease resistance, enhanced coloration, reproductive performance, and superior product quality. Specialized feeds include larval and fry diets, broodstock feeds, pigmentenriched diets for ornamental and salmonid fish, and probiotic or prebioticinfused formulations. They are often used in systems like recirculating aquaculture (RAS) or high-density setups. For instance, larval feeds typically contain easily digestible ingredients like microalgae, fish protein hydrolysates

The economics surrounding fish feed production are crucial in determining the profitability and sustainability of aquaculture operations. With feed expenses making up 60 to 70 percent of total fish farming costs, optimizing feed manufacturing and management is essential for improving financial returns. The feed production cost structure encompasses raw material sourcing, processing, labor, equipment upkeep, quality control, packaging, and logistics. Among these, protein-rich ingredients such as fishmeal and soybean meal represent the highest expenditure, and fluctuations in their prices significantly affect overall feed costs. To address this, producers often explore affordable alternatives and substitute ingredients that maintain nutritional standards. Additionally, large-scale feed mills benefit from economies of scale, achieving lower production costs through bulk buying, mechanization, and efficient processes, whereas smaller units often struggle with higher expenses and limited market access. Feed formulation is designed for both nutritional efficiency and costeffectiveness. The use of advanced software allows for precise ingredient balancing to meet dietary needs while minimizing expenses, thereby improving feed conversion ratios (FCR) and reducing waste. Investments in processing innovations like extrusion and automated packaging enhance feed durability and quality, supporting premium pricing and minimizing spoilage. Effective branding, marketing, and customer service also contribute to the economic strength of feed businesses.

The Anthropocene epoch underscores an era of interconnected crises, where climate change, biodiversity collapse, and socioeconomic inequities amplify systemic vulnerabilities. Traditional siloed approaches—scientific research detached from policymaking, and policies divorced from community engagement—have proven inadequate in addressing these complex challenges. This chapter posits that systemic resilience necessitates the integration of science, policy, and community efforts through adaptive governance frameworks. By synthesizing transdisciplinary research, participatory policymaking, and grassroots innovation, the analysis highlights how evidence-based strategies, grounded in local realities, can bridge institutional and societal divides. Case studies, such as Costa Rica’s Payment for Ecosystem Services and Bangladesh’s Cyclone Preparedness Program, demonstrate the efficacy of co-produced solutions that align scientific rigor with equitable implementation. Challenges, including communication disparities, power imbalances, and funding misalignments, are critically examined to identify barriers to integration. The chapter concludes that dismantling sectoral silos, prioritizing marginalized voices, and fostering iterative collaboration are imperative for navigating Anthropocene uncertainties. These insights advocate for institutional innovations that embed inclusivity and adaptability into global sustainability agendas, offering a roadmap for transformative action across science, policy, and community domains.

The skin is the largest organ of the body that plays an important role in defending the body against minor physical injuries, providing some defense against microbial invasion, maintenance of homeostasis, water conservation, temperature conservation, supporting hair growth and heat loss. Changes in the secretion of sebaceous glands lead to compromised defence. Abnormalities of the skin may arise from specific skin disease or by the poor general health status. Therefore, a detailed clinical examination of the animal as a whole and of its skin in particular, is an essential part of the process of diagnosis. The skin has three main layers starting from outside as the epidermis, the dermis and the subcutis. The epidermis consists largely of epithelial cells and pigment. The dermis is a connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands. The inner most subcutis contains fibrous and fatty tissues that provides insulation and support. In healthy animals, the skin has considerable elasticity. It reduces in dehydration and inflammation / injury to skin. General clinical examination should be carried out first as a routine followed by special examination

Large Animals The collection and evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in farm animals with signs of diseases of nervous system provides very valuable diagnostic and prognostic information. Routinely, CSF is evaluated for total protein level, erythrocyte and leukocyte counts, and a differential cell count. Additional tests are available for specific neurologic conditions. CSF is primarily produced by the choroid plexuses in the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles through plasma ultra filtration and active transport across the blood-brain barrier. Smaller amounts of CSF are generated by the ependymal lining, pia arachnoid, meningeal blood vessels, and spinal cord’s central canal. The turnover rate is about 1% per minute, meaning systemic electrolyte or acid-base changes take several minutes to affect CSF

Ultrasonography, popularly known as sonography, is a non-invasive, radiation free and safe medical procedure being increasingly used for the imaging different body organs/ structures for the diagnosis of various diseases not only in humans but also in farm, companion and exotic pets. The technique involves ultrasound unit, patient and doctor/veterinarian (trained in sonography). Ultrasound Unit Ultrasound unit has processor (central processing unit commonly known as CPU), transducers, key board, data storage and printer (Fig. 187). •     The CPU (central processing unit) is basically a computer having microprocessor, memory, amplifiers and power supplies for the microprocessor and transducer. The CPU transmits electrical currents to the transducer to emit sound waves, and receives the returning echoes. Returning echoes are processed to form the image on the monitor. The processed data and/or image are

Management of metabolic diseases depends on an early diagnosis. For an early diagnosis, metabolic profile test (MPT) is a diagnostic tool being commonly used in veterinary practice, particularly for dairy herds, to assess the metabolic health of the animals. It helps in an early detection by measuring various blood parameters that indicate the nutritional and health status of the cows for their effective timely management. MPT is based on the principle that the imbalance between input (feed) and output (production) is reflected in the abnormalities of key metabolites in the blood. Key components of the metabolic profile test 1. Energy balance indicators •     Glucose- Reflects energy status and carbohydrate metabolism. Low levels can indicate negative

Diseases of livestock cause massive economic losses in terms of reduced productivity and production and some of them have zoonotic potential posing a serious risk to public health. Vaccination is the most efficient and cost-effective method of controlling infectious diseases both in humans and animals. The eradication of smallpox and rinderpest from the globe; the elimination of hog cholera and brucellosis from many countries; and the control of diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease, canine distemper, rabies, influenza, and pseudorabies would not have been possible without the use of effective vaccines. Vaccination not only protects the vaccinated animals but also reduces disease among non-vaccinated animals through herd immunity. They also reduce antimicrobial usage and minimize the risk of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccines Vaccines are prepared antigens to be used to prevent diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, mycoplasma, protozoa, and parasites.

Poultry manure provides an ideal habitat for fly breeding due to high manure moisture leading to increased fly populationand fly menace in poultry farm. The moisture, temperature and humid condition play important role in fly breeding. The flies on poultry farms are unacceptable as they act as a reservoir of many diseases and spread diseases to birds and human beings. In addition to spread of diseases, fly are nuisance to birds as they distract the birds as well as poultry farm employees, nearby farms and residence (Berry, 2003). High fly population contribute tapeworm infestation in flock and disseminate bacterial (like salmonella, fowl cholera, etc.) and viral diseases (Bird flu, New Castle disease, etc. in flocks. Fly population also causes public health issue leading to pressure on poultry farmers to control fly population on poultry farms to acceptable level. The flies on poultry farm includes House fly (Muscadomestica), little house fly (Fanniacanicularis), Black Garbage fly (Hydrotaeaaenescens), Dump flies (H? aenescens, H? ignava, H? capensis), Drosophila flies (Drosophila repleta), Soldier fly (Hermetiaillucens), Stable flies (Stomoxyscalcitrans), Drosophila flies (Drosophila repleta) and Blow flies (Lucilia, Phormia, and Calliphora) and black flies. The Lucilia species include L? cuprina and L? sericata(Axtell, 1999). Among these, the most common

1. Agroecology & System of Rice Intensification (SRI) — Lao PDR, Nepal Agroecology emphasizes sustainable farming that works in harmony with ecosystems, reducing reliance on chemical inputs and improving biodiversity. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is a flagship agroecological method that optimizes plant spacing, soil aeration, water management, and timing of inputs to boost rice yields sustainably. • Impact on Yields and Resource Use: In Lao PDR and Nepal, adoption of SRI has led to rice yield increases between 15% and 25%, outperforming conventional transplanting methods without increasing input costs significantly (FAO, 2021). This yield boost directly translates to higher food availability and incomes for smallholder farmers. Importantly, SRI reduces water use by about 30%, addressing water scarcity challenges faced in rainfed and drought-prone areas (IRRI, 2020). This efficiency stems from alternate wetting and drying practices rather than continuous flooding, improving

The Asia-Pacific region, home to a large proportion of the world’s agricultural producers and consumers, faces complex challenges: climate change, infrastructure gaps, market fragmentation, and inefficient supply chains that result in high post-harvest losses and limited farmer incomes. However, the region is witnessing rapid innovation across multiple fronts that promise to transform agri-food supply chains into more climate-resilient, transparent, inclusive, and efficient systems. These emerging opportunities align with regional sustainability goals and create pathways for economic growth and rural development. 7.1 Climate-Smart Infrastructure: Financing Low-Carbon and Resilient Agri Supply Chains Green Bonds for Solar Cold Rooms Vietnam’s Mekong Delta — a critical rice-producing region — is pioneering the issuance of green bonds to finance solar-powered cold rooms under the “One Million Hectares” low-carbon rice initiative

Soil organic matter is a key component of soil fertility, biological activity, aggregation and carbon storage. This chapter examines the origin, transformation and management of organic matter in agricultural soils, with particular attention to irrigated agroecosystems. It discusses the decomposition of organic matter under aerobic and anaerobic conditions and explains the major factors influencing decomposition rates. Microbial activity plays an important role in transforming organic materials and regulating nutrient cycling within the soil. The chapter introduces humus, humic substances and non-humic substances and explains interactions between clay and humus that influence soil properties. The relationship between soil organic matter and plant growth is also considered, highlighting its contribution to nutrient availability, soil structure and biological processes. Methods for maintaining soil organic matter and conserving soil carbon in agroecosystems are discussed along with factors controlling soil carbon levels. The chapter therefore establishes the importance of organic matter management for improving soil health, carbon conservation and the long-term sustainability of irrigated agricultural systems.

Phosphorus is essential for plant growth and is involved in important physiological processes, but its availability in soil is strongly influenced by soil chemical conditions. This chapter provides a systematic treatment of phosphorus management in irrigated soils. It begins with the functions of phosphorus and the classification of soil phosphorus into organic and inorganic forms. The behaviour of phosphorus in alkali soils is discussed along with phosphate fixation, which can substantially influence phosphorus availability to crops. The chapter examines the sources of soil phosphorus used by plants and the major types of phosphatic fertilizers used in agricultural production. Available and total phosphorus are distinguished, providing a basis for assessing soil phosphorus status. The behaviour of phosphate fertilizers after application is considered in relation to their efficiency and crop uptake. The residual value of phosphatic fertilizers is also discussed, highlighting the continuing contribution of applied phosphorus to subsequent crops. Overall, the chapter emphasizes efficient phosphorus management to improve nutrient availability, fertilizer-use efficiency and sustainable crop production in irrigated soils.