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‘Hydroponics’ technique was first developed on commercial scale as early as in 1930 by

A. De. Condole             B. J.D. Hooker

C. W.F. Greicke            D. Hugo De Vries

Till date, there is no complete agreement on the terms used in cropping system. An attempt was made to standardize the terms and their usage at the symposium on Multiple Cropping held by the American Society of Agronomy, in Knoxville, Tennessee, during August, 1975. Some definitions published in the proceeding (Andrews and Kassam, 1976) which forms the basis for the improvement and additions of definitions made subsequently (Francis, 1989). The terms commonly used in cropping system and their definitions are given in the following paragraphs.

The main objective of cropping system is to utilize the available resources in an efficient manner. There are several indices to evaluate the yield advantage of cropping system and also to compare the efficiency of different cropping system in terms of land use.

Definition: Agro-forestry is a land use system where woody perennials (or trees) are deliberately grown in conjunction with field crops, horticultural crops and pasture, with the objective of meeting various requirements of the farmers from the farm; it also acts as an insurance against the risk of uncertain / abnormal weather condition

System is a set of principles or procedures according to which management is done; it is an organized scheme or method. A system is a group of interrelated or interacting elements (crops or livestock) that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole.

Crop: Plants grown in association, sown (or planted) and also harvested by human being, are collectively known as crop.
Crop plants have some economic values and there is an interaction or competition among the plants.

The United States of America (USA), European Union (EU), Brazil and China are four of the largest agricultural producers and users of agricultural pesticides in the world. Comparing the inclination and ability of different regulatory agencies to ban or eliminate pesticides that have the most potential for harm to humans and the environment can provide a glimpse into the effectiveness of each nation’s pesticide regulatory laws and oversight.

Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests such as insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. It can be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.

Weeds can be defined as plants which are undesirable, persistent, damaging and interfere with growth of other crop plants thus affecting agriculture, natural resources and economy of the country. These plants influence the produce of farmers in several ways.

A number of plant substances have been considered for use as insect antifeedants or repellents, but apart from some natural mosquito repellents, little commercial success has ensued for plant substances that modify arthropod behavior. Several factors appear to limit the success of botanicals, most notably regulatory barriers and the availability of competing products that are cost-effective and relatively safe compared with their predecessors.

Many chemical and visual lures attract insects and therefore can be used as attractants to monitor or directly catch and reduce insect populations. These attractants are used in ways that do not injure other animals or humans or result in residues on foods or feeds, and can be used in an environmentally sound manner in pest management programs.

The application of insecticide to control a particular crop pest should have options of the pesticides, as some may be less effective than other due to various reasons.

Slugs and snails occasionally cause serious damage to seedlings, tender, lowgrowing leafy vegetables; or ripening fruit that are on the ground. Feeding damage, hollowed-out areas, can be found anywhere on fruit, but is usually concentrated near the stem. Slugs leave a tell tale slime trail (silvery trail) behind on the surface of fruit or leaves.

Nereistoxin (NTX) was originated from a marine annelid worm Lumbriconereis heteropoda and its analogue pesticides (table 51) including cartap, bensultap, thiocyclam and thiobensultap have been commonly used in agriculture, because of their low toxicity and high insecticidal activity.

Pyrethrum is the most widely used botanical insecticide. The active ingredient, pyrethrin, is extracted from a chrysanthemum plant, grown primarily in Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Ecuador. Pyrethrum is the powdered, dried flower head of the pyrethrum daisy, Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium.

Medicines used for controlling insect pests are known as Pesicides which have assumed great importance in today’s high yielding and intensive agricultural system as well as public health programme, all over the world. The term pesticide is an all-inclusive word meaning killer of pests and includes substances used for controlling, preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.

Sixteen chemical elements are known to be important for a plant growth, their metabolic activities and survival. These can be divided in to two main groups

Fruit drop just before harvest is a serious problem for various crop varieties. The severity of fruit drop is influenced by several factors but plant stress and premature ethylene production is at the basis of true physiological drop. Stress factors such as late season heat, primary and secondary pest infestation, and nutrient imbalance or deficiency, and heavy summer pruning, all can contribute to drop.

The use of flower inducers stimulates flower growth during the resting year so the tree produces annually. Flower inducers can also increase the number of viable blooms during the natural fruit producing year, for an increase in production. These can also be used on varieties that provide a crop every year, to boost harvest.

Anti-transpirants are usually foliar sprays, although they may sometimes be used more conveniently as dips for immersing the above ground plant parts. Foliar sprays may reduce transpiration in three different ways

Plant growth regulators or phytohormones are organic substances produced naturally in higher plants, controlling growth or other physiological functions at a site remote from its place of production and active in minute amounts. Thimmann in1948 proposed the term Phytohormone as these hormones are synthesized in plants (Thimmann, 1963).

Proper selection of plant health medicines like fungicide, bactericide, antibiotics, algaecide, viricide, nematicide, weedicide, plant harmones and auxins and its application at the correct dose and the proper time are highly essential for the management of plant health. The basic requirement of an application method is that it delivers the chemical to the site where the active compound will prevent the pathogen/pest damaging the plant. 

Seed is a basic input to raise the crop plants. Healthy seeds produces the healthy crop. However, the seed carries different pathogens either externally or sometimes internally in the seed to affect the seed emergence and healthy seedling growth. Therefore, the seed treatment with fungicides/bactericides, based on the infection of the pathogen, is highly essential to counter the attack and infection of these pathogens to the germinating seedlings.

Protozoan parasites are Trypanosomatids of the class Kinetoplastida predominately restricted to invertebrate hosts (i.e. possess a monoxenous lifecycle). However, several genera are pathogenic to humans, animals and plants, and have an invertebrate vector that facilitates their transmission (i.e. possess a dixenous life-cycle).

The algae associated with the plants belongs to the Order Trentepohliales (Ulvophyceae, Chlorophyta). These are filamentous green algae parasitic to higher plants, generally causing minor diseases characterized by negligible leaf spots, but on certain crops, in moist environments, these algal diseases can cause economic injury to plant leaves, fruits, and stems (Nelson, 2008).

Nematodes are multicellular, unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical roundworms belonging to pseudocoelomates class of creatures. Many of them are parasites of plants. Different crops species are susceptible to several species of plant parasitic nematodes which limits the yield and quality of the food harvest. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.), root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) reniform nematodes (Rotylenchulus spp.) and other ectoparasitic nematodes are the important nematodes species to infect the crop plants.

Plant viruses cause severe crop losses worldwide. Conventional control strategies, such as cultural methods and biocide applications have limited success at mitigating the impact of plant viruses.

It is used in the control of bacterial leaf spots, blights, and cankers mostly on fruits crops and ornamentals. The Bordeaux mixture, however, can cause burning of leaves or russeting of fruit such as apples when applied in cool, wet weather. The phytotoxicity of Bordeaux is reduced by increasing the ratio of hydrated lime to copper sulfate. Copper is the only ingredient in the Bordeaux mixture that is toxic to pathogens and, sometimes, to plants, whereas the role of lime is primarily that of a “safener.”

A same active ingredient are available in the market with different trade name and are the product of different companies. These may also differ in their formulation and hazard class (table 7), the knowledge of which is necessary in the plant disease management in view of their effect on the pathogen, ecosystem and environment.

Development of fungicide resistance in a fungal disease pathogen is a major concern for some of the important diseases in their management. This can be overcome by designing of fungicide use strategies to manage the threat of fungicide resistance.

There are several fungicidal molecules available in the market, some of which are specific for certain diseases/pathogens while others are broad spectrum and can be used against a range of diseases. However, for proper control measures a knowledge of disease specific fungicide are very important. Ready-Reckoner for disease specific fungicide (Table 4) makes available the option for selection of alternative fungicide in the management of specific disease.

Actino-IronOG (Streptomyces lydicus WYEC)

Biological soil and seed treatment for Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Pythium, and Phytophthora with added iron.

Fungicide which is effective only if applied prior to fungal infection is called a protectant, eg. Zineb, Sulphur. Protectant fungicides are prophylactic in their behaviour.

Fungi are one of the major causes of crop damage which affect crop yield, quality and revenue. Therefore to control these fungal diseases, fungicidal crop protection products are used at different stages of crop growth. Many of our current fungicides produce excellent results with respect to efficacy, crop quality, food safety, and improved cost/profit ratios of agricultural production.

Plant diseases are caused by different etiological agents like Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses, Viroids, Phytoplasmas, Rickettsia like bacteria, Nematodes, Algae and Protozoan parasites. To control these specific pathogens and the diseases caused by them, a specific group of medicine/chemical molecule is required.

Food provides a sense of wellbeing and comfort and makes people feel good. In this world of a growing population, the need for affordable, safe and good quality food is rising constantly. On the other hand, there is growing awareness of customers who demand that food be produced and supplied hygienically in socially responsible and eco-friendly ways.

At present, food and nutrition security are the prime aspects which need to be addressed in an efficient way. It has been projected that by 2050 the global population will reach 9.2 billion which in turn enhances annual demand for agricultural products by 1.1 per cent from 2005 to 2050 (McKenzie and Williams 2015).

Nutraceutical is a broad term which represents any substance extracted from food sources with additional health benefits alongside the good nutritional value already present in them. The nutraceutical term was originated by Stephen De Felice in 1989.

Appealing packaging isthe current trend which influences consumer’s decision to purchase foods. These trends have evolved in the last four decades due to constant and drastic changes in the food packaging processes and mechanisms. These changes have shifted the focus of food packaging from the basic function of containment to extending shelf life.

All food legislation is predicated on the food law, which protects public health and consumers’ regarding food. The regulation is applied to stages beginning from producing the food, processing and finally distributing the food and feed, apart from domestic use by consumers.

Water is an essential component of all living things. Although once believed as a resource with a never-ending supply, it has now been understood that water is becoming increasingly scarce and therefore a proper management is necessary to keep a sustainable food production (Kannan & Anandhi, 2020). A continuous and safe supply of water is indispensable for the food industry where it has numerous applications along the agriculture and food production processes.

Food safety is a discipline ensuring safe consumption of food without any injuries to human health. It is multifaceted and influenced by various factors including, food processing, handling and practices, consumer demand and their knowledge, globalization of world food trade, changes in food consumption pattern (Chen et al., 2020).

A healthy life is ensured by having access to safe, nutritious and balanced food. World health organisation (WHO) ensures its contribution in developing food safety systems that are sustainable to reduce health risks from farm to consumer. Thus, safe food, its quality and consumer protection are the priorities of this organisation (FAO and WHO, 2021)

Liberalized economies and evolving businessstrategies push variousindustries to achieve a competitive edge both in the domestic and international markets. Food industry especially, works on the bedrock of quality of products and services in order to attract and retain customers. In this new world of economic order, customers can select from wide range of products and services that are available in the market.

Growing population has increased the demand on food supply. Providing safe and hygienic food to the population is an essential consideration. Food safety systems and tools need to be in place to assure safe food, until which the food businesses would not flourish or be able to build their reputation. Food safety systems and management tools are important as they assist food business organizations to build confidence in people regarding food safety.

Safe, wholesome and nutritious food is vital for sustenance, good health, food and nutritional security and augmentation of sustainable development of an individual. Also, safe food helps in the growth of the national economy and enhances the trade and tourism sector. Foods that are unsafe containing various kinds of microorganisms can cause chronic diseases or illnesses varying from diarrhea to cancer.

Food is essential for human survival. It provides the required energy and vital nutrients for sustainable growth and development. With the increase in population and awareness, the demand for nutritious, fresh and healthy food also increases. Although adequate food is produced in order to meet the increased demands, it fails to reach the consumers in need due to food Food Storage and Preservation Practices   35 wastage and spoilage occurring during various stages of harvesting, food production, storage and transportation. Gajanana et al., (2009) stated that there is a mammoth wastage of food post-harvest. It is estimated that 20 to 60 % of produce are wasted during and after post-harvest. 

History of food safety starts with knowledge about food hazards. The term “safe food” can be defined from different angles since the end users are highly heterogeneous. However, the accumulating data and day by day emerging information aboutfood borne diseaseslead to a boom in public awareness about food safety. Food safety can be defined as “The strategies and activities aimed to protect foods from biological, chemical, physical, and allergenic hazards that may occur during all stages of production, distribution, and consumption” (Paperella, 2020). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), unsafe food,which contains hazardousmicroorganisms or chemicals, causesmore than 200 ailments, ranging from diarrhoea to malignancies among which diarrhoea is common. 

Food safety and hygiene has been an age-old concern. However, today it has become an important aspect due to the rise in foodborne illnesses for the past few decades globally. It is estimated by WHO that annually 600 million suffer from foodborne diseases as a result of unsafe food consumption while 4,20,000 deaths are recorded globally.