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During his visit to India, President Barak Obama pointed out that our country is fortunate to have a youthful population with over half of the total population of 1.2 billion being under the age of 30. Out of the 600 million young persons, over 60 per cent live in villages. Most of them are educated. Gandhiji considered the migration of educated youth from villages to towns and cities as the most serious form of brain drain adversely affecting rural India’s development. He therefore stressed that we should take steps to end the divorce between intellect and labour in rural professions.

The National Commission on Farmers (NCF)(2004-06) emphasised the need for attracting and retaining educated youth in farming. The National Policy for Farmers, placed in Parliament in November 2007, includes the following goal of the new policy:

To introduce measures which can help to attract and retain youth in farming and processing of farm products for higher value addition, by making farming intellectually stimulating and economically rewarding.

Introduction

The rumen ecosystem is essentially a fermentation system that houses a vast array of different microbes. Ruminants typically browse low energy forages, such as grasses or other plant material, rich in fibre but not easily accessible to the ruminant without rumen fermentation. These forages are literally food for the microbes present in the rumen first and then, in turn, the products of these microbes are the feed for the ruminant. Microbes break down forage in the anaerobic rumen environment and the products of microbial fermentation provide the ruminant with metabolisable compounds, such as short chain fatty acids, while the microbes themselves account for around 90% of the amino acids entering the lower intestine. There are many significant challenges to investigate rumen ecology.

Introduction

The Indian arid zone, which occupies 38.7 million hectares in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, is characterized by low and erratic rainfall with a coefficient of variation fluctuating from 40 to 70% and extremes of temperature (1–48º C), poor-quality underground water, high wind velocity, and sandy soils. These vast land resources are blessed with rich agro-biodiversity despite all these aberrations that support the high human and livestock populations and have beneficial climatic conditions for producing quality fruits and vegetables. Recently, the immense potential of arid horticulture has been realized, and the area under cultivation of arid crops is increasing enormously. The production also increases with the increased cultivated area, which opens up the probability of establishing a market glut with underutilized foods.

Arid Fruits and Vegetables

Arid and semi-arid regions of the country are blessed with a variety of horticultural crops such as date palm, bael, aonla, pomegranate, fig, mulberry, Jamun, ker, karonda, lasora, wood apple, ber, bordi, khejri, kachri, snap melon, drumstick, cluster bean, and methi. Most of these crops are highly perishable and cannot be stored for extended periods due to uncongenial atmospheric conditions such as high temperatures and low relative humidity.

13.1 Introduction

Winds are the motion of air around the earth. This movement in air is caused by the uneven heating of the planet’s surface by the sun. The idea of using wind as a form of power is not new. The traditional applications of wind were primarily as sources of kinetic energy for rural, agricultural and a limited number of industrial uses such as pumping water and grinding grain.

Presently wind energy can be used for two major applications, such as wind mills for pumping water for drinking as well as for irrigation purposes and second application is as aero-generator for electricity generation for domestic and industrial uses. In addition to this, presently wind energy battery charger are also available, which can store energy for lights, radio communication, hospital equipment and to power various emergency related equipment.

The wind energy has an enormous resource, but the problems of utilizing the winds are many and varied. Wind energy is very diffuse in nature and local topographical features significantly alter the prevailing winds thus leading to the extremely site specific nature of wind energy.

Scientirsts have estimated that as much as 10 per cent of >the world’s electricity could be provided by wind generators by the middle of 21 century. India has estimated wind power potential of 45,000 MW. India now, ranks fourth in the world in wind power generation.

The world’s largest wind farms are in California, where wind turbines can generate power upto about 1120 MW. The first wind mill used as source of electric power was built in Denmark in 1890. Presently in India about 2382 MW of electricity is being produced through wind energy.

Introduction

Microbial inoculants are “microorganisms that are added to soils or plant surfaces to promote plant growth and health”. These microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that have beneficial effects on plants. They have been used in agriculture for many years to improve plant growth and health. They can be used in various ways, including in seed treatments, soil inoculation, and foliar sprays. They work by colonising the root zone or plant surface and providing a range of benefits to the plant. These benefits include nutrient acquisition, disease suppression, and stress tolerance (Callaghan., 2022). Ultimately, their application in agriculture is to increase crop yields, improve soil health, reduce the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and generate sustainable income for farmers. The microbial inoculant market size is expected to generate revenue of USD 24.6 billion by 2027 and is estimated to be valued at USD 12.9 billion in 2022, at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13.7% from 2022 to 2027. (Markets and Markets: Global Forecast Report 2022–2027). The biofertilizers market in India is estimated to increase from $110.07 million in 2022 to $243.61 million by 2029, at a CAGR of 12.02% during the forecast period (Biofertilizers market Size: Global analysis, 2029). This chapter discusses the use of microbial inoculants in agriculture and their potential as an income-generating tool for farmers.

1. Introduction

Web 2.0 speaks about the second version of web advancement and draft that aims to make it easier to communicate and safer to share information, as well as to make the web more interoperable and user-centered. Social networking sites, video-sharing sites, Wikis, blogs, and folksonomies are just a few of the web-based communities, hosted services, and apps that have grown and changed because of Web 2.0 ideas. (King and Brown, 2009; Wikipedia, 2010c). According to Birdsall (2007) web 2.0 is a social revolution since these tools have brought new changes in the society. According to O'Reilly (2005) the advent of Web 2.0 has revolutionized the way individuals and organizations interact with the internet, marking a significant shift from a static web experience to a dynamic, user-driven environment. This transformation is characterized by the emergence of platforms and tools that empower users not only to consume content but also to create, share, and collaborate on it. As a result, Web 2.0 has fostered a more participatory online culture, where users actively engage in the generation and dissemination of information.

Abstract

More than one-third of food is lost or wasted in post-harvest operations in India. Decreasing the post-harvest losses (PHL) may be a sustainable solution to increasing food availability and improving farmers’livelihoods. As per Associated Chambers of Commerce of India, India loses approximately US$ 14.33 billion annually on account of PHL (ASSOCHAM, 2017). The objective of this study is to analyse the agricultural wastes that are produced in the value chain for a modern trade retailer, identify their causes, and discuss methods for minimising field wastages. A case study approach has been used to depict the agricultural value chain (vegetable segment). A field visit was conducted to a farmland and a privately operated Collection Center in Barasat area of West Bengal. The author discusses solutions towards minimising harvest wastages in the farm by focusing on waste reduction. Post-harvest wastages beyond the farm can be reduced by undertaking measures that focus on waste management. Going forward, adoption of technologies by farmers may lessen inefficiencies such as wastages and improve their income. Further scope for research lies in exploring joint interventions by private players, government agencies, non-profit organisations and entrepreneurs through public-private partnership models or through development of clusters for creating sustainable value chains and achieving greater profitability.

1. INTRODUCTION

Every fruit or vegetable is harvested keeping in view, its intended use. At what stage it should be harvested, is indicated by the maturity index. The chapter focuses on these and postharvest quality of fruits and vegetables.

2. FRUIT MATURITY

"Maturity of a fruit can be defined as that stage at which a commodity has reached a sufficient stage of development that after harvesting and postharvest handling, its quality will be at least the minimum acceptable to the ultimate consumer”. Maturity is of two types:

21.1. What?

Harvest is the process of gathering the end produce from mature crops in the fields. Harvest marks the end of the growing season, or the growing cycle for a particular crop. Harvesting is the most labour-intensive activity. Moreover, timely harvest before shattering of the produce or before rain assumes significance. As adjacent fields sown at the same time come to harvest simultaneously, farmers face great problem in getting manual labour for harvesting and cleaning their produce. To overcome these difficulties, different types of harvesters have been developed from time and again to suit different crops, situation and conditions.

21.2. Harvester and reaper

Harvesters are used to cut the crop after they mature. In such cases, threshing is to be done separately. Harvesters are available for a wide range of crops belonging to cereals, pulses, millets, oilseeds, fruits and plantation crops. Reapers are used to harvest crops such as rice, wheat, soybean, mustard, rapeseed, safflower and other thin stemmed crops. Reapers are operated using power tiller.

Introduction

Harvesting and handling are the equally important activities as the entire production system as an individual activity. Therefore, proper harvesting and handling is essential to assure the farm income. There are various factors which directly affect the storage life of fruits and vegetables as below. The natural limits to the post -harvest life of all types of fresh produce are severely affected by other biological and environmental conditions.

Temperature: An increase in temperature causes an increase in the rate of natural respiration of all produce and food reserves and water content become depleted. The cooling of produce will extend shelf-life by slowing the rate of respiration.

Transpiration and water losses: High temperature, low humidity in the store and injuries to produce can greatly increase the loss of water from stored produce beyond that unavoidable lost from natural causes. Maximum storage life can be achieved by storing only undamaged produce at the lowest temperature tolerable by the crop and at the relative humidity appropriate for the produce.

Mechanical damage: Damage caused during harvesting and subsequent handling (i.e. injuries, impact bruising) increase the rate of deterioration of produce and renders it liable to attacks by decay organisms even under refrigerated storage. Mechanical damage to root crops will cause heavy losses owing to bacterial decay and must be remedied by curing the roots or tubers before storage. Curing is a wound –healing process.

Decay in storage: Decay of fresh produce during storage is mostly caused by the infection of mechanical injuries provoked by micro organisms, mostly bacteria and fungi. Furthermore, many fruits and vegetables are attacked by decay organisms which penetrate through natural openings or even through the intact skin. These infections may be established during the growth of the plant in the field but lie dormant until after harvest, often becoming visible only during storage or ripening.

After doing all hard work during fruit production the last operation is harvesting on field. Though it is last operation, it should be done very carefully to get the quality harvest. Harvesting of fruits mainly depends upon the nature of fruit. Here nature refers to the classes of fruits divided on the basis of their respiratory pattern and ethylene production. On the basis of the respiratory pattern the fruits can be divided in to two categories, first one is climacteric and the second one is non climacteric.

1. Climacteric fruits: The meaning of word „climacteric is a critical period or event. Here, climacteric refers to the event of respiratory rise before the ripening phase. Those fruits which show such patterns are known as climacteric fruits (Taiz and Zeiger, 2002) Examples: Mango, guava, apple, banana, sapota, papaya, peach, pear, plum, fig, Annona.
2. Non climacteric fruits: Non climacteric fruits do not exhibit the respiration and ethylene production rise (Taiz and Zeiger, 2002). Examples: Citrus, grapes, pineapple, pomegranate, litchi, ber, jamun, cashew, cherry, strawberry.

4.1 Harvesting

Pomegranate being non-climacteric fruits should be picked when fully ripe. Its fruits become ready for picking 120-130 days after fruit set. Mature fruits should be immediately removed from the plants as delay in harvesting leads to fruit cracking. Fruits harvested at a premature stage have poor keeping quality and are prone to damage during handling and transport. The fruits are harvested when outer rind becomes yellowish and the fruit when tapped produces a metallic sound. The round fruits become flattened from all the sides and basal beak shaped portion shrinks at the time of maturity. Fruits are harvested with the help of secateurs by retaining 1 cm stalk with the fruit. All the fruits should be harvested in 2-3 pickings within a span of one month.

Harvesting: “Removal of entire plant or economic parts after maturity from the field" is called harvesting. It includes the operation of cutting, picking, plucking or digging or a combination of these for removing the useful part or economic part from the plants / crops. The portion of the stem that is left in the field after harvest is called as stubble. The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant.

Harvest Index: (H.I): It is the ratio of the economic yield to the total biological yield expressed as percentage.

H.I = Economic yield / Biological yield x 100

Time of Harvesting: If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture and more immature ill filled and shriveled grains. High moisture leads to pest attack and reduction in germination percentage and impairs the grain quality.

Late harvesting results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting during rainy season and breakage during processing.

Post-Harvest Losses

A post-harvest loss is defined as the measurable qualitative and quantitative food (including fruits and vegetables) loss along the supply chain, starting at the time of harvest till its consumption or other end uses (Hodges et al., 2011). Pineapple fruits are highly perishable in nature and continuously respired even after harvesting which limited its shelf-life leading to the storage problems (Hossain and Bepary, 2015) and decline in production due to post-harvest losses (Babalola et al., 2008). During the storage for distant marketing, pineapple fruits easily losses its moisture content through transpiration and become more susceptibility to microbial spoilage (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). In India the top five leading pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Meghalaya and Manipur (Anonymous, 2018). The measurable qualitative and quantitative losses of pineapple at post-harvest level are from the various stages of handling from the farm level up to the consumers (Table 1 and 2).

The vegetable seed production in India work on the principle of buy back or contract farming where the production agent or organizer distribute the plots of seed production to growers. The grower is responsible for the rising of seed crop till harvesting or pre-conditioning. The organizerguides the growers regarding the plant protection, roguing and pre-conditioning. The harvesting is entirely a responsibility of the grower but facility for pre-conditioning may be established by the seed organizer. The seed pre-conditioning includes activities like acid treatment on wet seed bases or operations which make seed ready for procurement. After the harvesting or pre-conditioning the seed will be procured by the organizer and head for the processing yard for grading & packaging.

2.1 Harvesting and Pre-conditioning

The methods of harvesting and pre-conditioning various with crop to crop. There are mainly two types of vegetables in terms of type of harvesting.

7.1 Harvesting and threshing equipment for cereal crops

Harvesting and threshing is an important operation in the farming. This can be done either manually or with the help of power operated machinery. Harvesting of field crops continues to be one of the most labour intensive operations in agricultural production system. Harvesting of crop is generally done by hand using sickle in India. Power operated harvesting machinery has not caught up with Indian farmers because of limited size of land holdings, economic constraints and non-uniformity of field conditions. Manual harvesting with different hand tools continues to be dominant, which takes 170-200 man-hours to harvest one hectare of paddy crop. Due to high labour demand at the time of harvesting, the operation continues for weeks together, resulting in over drying of crops in the field causes grain losses to the extent of 5 to 15 percent and even results in loss of crop due to untimely rain during harvesting. Mechanical devices to harvest wheat and paddy crops have become popular especially in northern India to minimize the field losses resulting from shattering, unfavourable weather conditions and pilferage.

Harvesting and threshing are the key most important operations in the entire range of field operations required in any crop production system. Both of these operations remain still the most important operations as fruit of labour depends upon them. Crops are harvested after normal maturity with the objective to take out grain, straw, tubers etc without much loss.  It involves cutting / digging/ picking, laying, gathering, curing, transport and stacking of the crop.  Harvesting of major cereals, pulse and oilseed crops are done by using sickle whereas tuber crops are harvested by country plough or spade (Fig. 8.1).

Harvesting is the act of removing crop from where it was growing and moving it to a more secure location for processing and storage. Some root crops and fruits trees can be left in the field or orchard and harvested as needed, but most crops reach a period of maximum quality that is they ripen or mature and will deteriorate if left exposed to the elements. While the major factor determining the time of harvest is the maturity of the crops and other factors such as weather, availability of harvest equipments, packing, drying, transport and storage facilities.

Economic and marketing issues are often even more important to consider when to harvest commodity. Before harvesting of crop, grower must be sure about demand of the produce.

Harvesting the crop at optimum maturity is critical for reaping the benefits of season long efforts on crop production. After final decision on crop maturity, care must be taken to avoid losses during harvest, threshing, transport and storage. Processing is equally important to keep the produce in good condition for realizing good price.

Crop maturity: There are different types of maturity namely physiological maturity, harvest maturity and storage maturity.

Physiological maturity: It is the stage of development in the life cycle of plant when the plant reaches maximum dry weight. At this stage any further increase in inputs does not produce any gain in yield. There is cessation in growth and grain filling at this stage. Grain at this stage has 40 per cent moisture and 90 per cent produce is matured and this remaining 10 per cent still immature. So farmers should harvest at stage to get maximum benefit.

Removal of entire plants or the economic parts after maturity from the field is called harvesting. Portion that is left behind on the field is known as stubble. The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant.

Time of Harvesting

If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture and more immature grains. The yields will be low due to unfilled grains. It is very difficult to store the produce as shriveled grains with high moisture are highly prone to infestation by pest. The quality of the grain as well as germination percentage is also reduced. Late harvest results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting in rainy season and breakage during processing. Hence harvesting during correct time is very important.

Plants may be harvested at physiological maturity or harvest maturity. Plants are said to be in physiological maturity when the translocation of the photosynthates ceases to the economic part.

I. FILL UPS

1. The type of harvest in paddy is _____.
2. The type of harvest in cumbu is _____.
3. The type of harvest in bhendi is _____.
4. The type of harvest in brinjal is _____.

It is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking and digging or a combination of these operations for removing the crop from under the ground or above the ground or removing the useful part or fruits from plants.

Thresher is a machine to separate grains from the harvested crop and provide clean grain without much loss and damage. During threshing, grain loss in terms of broken grain, un-threshed grain, blown grain, spilled grain etc. should be minimum. Bureau of Indian Standards has specified that the total grain loss should not be more than 5 per cent, in which broken grain should be less than 2 per cent. Clean un-bruised grain fetch good price in the market as well as it has long storage life.

It is a machine designed for harvesting, threshing, separating, cleaning and collecting grains while moving through standing crops. Bagging arrangement may be provided with a pick up attachment. The main functions of a combine are: (i) Cutting the standing crops (ii) Feeding the cut crops to threshing unit (iii) Threshing the crops (iv) Cleaning the grains from straw (v) collecting the grains in a container.

2. METHODS OF HARVEST

The seed can be harvested either manually or mechanically. In mechanical harvesting, single harvest is possible, but care should be taken to avoid mechanical injury. In manual harvesting, crops can be harvested either as single harvest or as periodical harvest. The crops having continuous flowering habit are to be harvested in different harvests/ pickings.

2.1. Manual harvesting

Harvesting any crop can be done manually. Manual harvesting is done by the hand of harvest worker. Multipicking in pulses and vegetables is done by manual methods.

Harvesting is the process of gathering mature crops from the fields. The timing of the harvest is crucial, as it directly affects the quality and yield of the crop.

Here are Some key Aspects Related to Harvesting Crops

Maturity: Crops need to be harvested when they reach their optimal level of maturity. This varies depending on the type of crop. For example, fruits and vegetables are usually harvested when they are fully ripened, while grains are typically harvested when they reach physiological maturity but before they start to shatter or lose quality.

Methods of Harvesting

Manual Harvesting: In some cases, crops are still harvested by hand. This is common for fruits, vegetables, and certain grains. Manual harvesting requires a significant amount of labor but is often necessary for delicate crops.

Kewda plant occurs wild in the entire coastal belt of Odisha , but abundant in Chhatrapur and Keluapalli areas of Ganjam district. There were about 3-4 lakhs trees of kewda in Ganjam district (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Main season of flowering starts from July-August and lasts for 2-3 months and a few flowers also come during November-December and March-May (Haines, 1961). Averagely, a plant produces 15-20 flowers per season depending on branching of the tree (Plate 32). A fully matured tree bears 30-40 spadices in a year (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Flowering is also dependant on rainfall, being better in years of high rainfall. Size of flower is bigger during rainy season. The spadices take a fortnight to mature, depending upon the weather condition. Ripe spadices, creamy in colour, give higher yield of perfume and of better quality than immature ones (Plate 33). The kewda flower of Ganjam district is also registered under the geographical indications (GI) of goods (Registration and Protection) act (Panigrahy, 2019).

In the vast array of terrestrial organisms, the human species is commonly regarded as possessing a distinctive and elevated status owing to its faculty for moral discernment. This faculty encompasses the capacity to adapt to diverse environmental conditions, adeptly navigate complex circumstances, demonstrate comprehension, exercise authoritative control, and effectively tackle arduous tasks through the assimilation and judicious application of prior experiences. Termed intelligence, this quality is observed to manifest across a spectrum of degrees among individuals.

Social psychology, as previously elucidated, endeavors to delineate the nature of social behavior. Social behavior encompasses four fundamental types of interactions

i) When individuals encounter one another, mutual reactions occur. Each individual influences the other, and reciprocally, they are influenced by each other’s presence.

ii) Individuals may elicit responses from groups, such as when an extension worker interacts with a gathering of farmers.

iii) Conversely, groups collectively respond to individual members, as exemplified by a group’s reaction to its leader during a meeting. iv) Interactions extend to intergroup dynamics, where one group of individuals reacts to another group.

Harvesting is a complex operation that can be divided into three major parts, as follows:

Driving and concentrating the fish stock to the catch basin;

Lifting the fish out of the catch basin and placing them on a sorting table;

Sorting the fish and loading them on the transporting vehicle.

4.1 Dry Flower Garden

Contrary to popular assumptions, the area required for producing large quantity of dried flower material need not also be large. However, the garden should be planned so as to harvest dry flowers all year round by planting evergreens, deciduous plants, annuals and perennials. Rows of flowering plants should be planted in the dry flower garden. Herbs are easy to grow, and can be planted in pots and window boxes. They are useful in transforming simple cooking into gourmet dishes, while also lending their delicate scents to a room when dried and for use in wreaths, pot pourri and arrangements. Gardens for dry flower production should include a wide selection of weeds, grains, seed-heads and pods. Flowers such as hydrangeas, zinnias, roses, dahlias and sunflowers and a selection of line flowers such as golden rods, statice, gladiolus, larkspur and delphinium can also be grown as these will provide a greater variety of flowers needed in flower arrangements.

Introduction

Eggplant or aubergine {Solanum melongena L. Solanaceae), is indigenous to a vast area stretching from northeast India and Burma, to Northern Thailand, Laos, Viet nam and Southwest China and wild plants can still be found in these locations. There is a wealth of eggplant common names. Eggplant is a major fruit vegetable with world production exceeding 31 million tonnes (Mt). Leading producers are China (17 Mt) and India (8 Mt), Egypt (1 Mt), Turkey (0.9 Mt), Japan and Italy (0.4 Mt). Eggplant is particularly favoured in Asia where it has been cultivated for millennia, and in India it is considered King of Vegetables. Brinjal, native to India, shares 31 % area (5.1 × 10⁵ ha) and 28% production (82 × 10⁵ t) of the world (Anon., 2003). It contributes 9% of the total vegetable production in the country. Three states/provinces viz. Orissa (1.41 × 10⁵ ha), West Bengal (1.29 × 10⁵ ha) and Bihar (0.72 × 10⁵ ha) cover 67% of total brinjal area in India (Anon., 2006). It is widely adaptive and highly productive (17.78 t/ha) crop of tropical and sub-tropical regions. It is comparable with tomato for nutritional values like vitamin C, iron and fiber, thereby, can play an important role in combating malnutrition in under-nourished regions (Singh et al., 2001). However, genetic improvement, production technology, post harvest handling and plant protection measures are important for increasing the production, productivity and consumption of brinjal.

It is not just enough to produce fruit and ornamental plants in a nursery, but it is also very much important to consider the post production management practices like harvesting, packing, storage and marketing of nursery plants for successful industry.

Harvesting: Harvesting is one of the important factors considered, when nurserymen are producing seeds, bulbs, etc. The seeds or bulbs should be harvested at proper maturity stages depending on the plant species.

Seeds are generally harvested when they are fully ripe. In some of the annuals and perennials, seeds are likely to fall from the plant at ripening either due to bursting of the fruit/ capsule or due to wind. (calendula, balsam). In such cases, it is better to cover with muslin cloth or butter paper bags. Bulbs, corms and tubers are carefully dug out without injury, along with cormels or bulblets.

Packaging: The package should provide a convenient mode used for marketing and distribution. It protects the contents from undue damage during distribution. It is important that appropriate packaging should be used to preserve quality of material along with maximum survival during transit. Proper packaging of plant material (fruit plants/ ornamental plants/seeds) ensures quality during storage, distribution and transport.

India, as a developing country has reasons to be concerned about the adverse impact of climate change on its economy. A large part of its population depends on climate sensitive sectors for livelihoods which makes it highly vulnerable to climate change. Climate change can have serious impact on its crops, forests, coastal regions, etc. which can in turn affect the achievement of its important national development goals. The issue of climate change cannot however be taken up without linking it to developmental needs such as poverty, health, energy access and education. Traditionally climate change experts have focused on mitigation measures, adaptation measures have also been acknowledged of late as effective and equitable means to deal with climate change impacts. Most of the mitigation measures are high in terms of technology and capital. Therefore, while developed economies choose to mitigate climate change by making heavy investments, developing economies choose to adapt (Monika and Hooda, 2018). There is increasing recognition that the world’s current progress on reducing greenhouse gas emissions is not occurring rapidly enough to avoid impacts from climate change in the coming century. Because of this, the world is “committed” to a certain level of global warming and therefore, subject to a degree of impacts that will require adaptive responses by nations and communities (Bizikova et al., 2008). IPCC have specific observations on India in relation to climate change and its impact in its AR 5 Report. Several workers analyzed monthly, seasonal, annual temperature (1901-2007) and rainfall (1873-2011) variability for entire India over two different spatial scales of 30 sub-divisions and 7 regions of India. The net change in rainfall and mean temperature indicates decreasing rainfall and increasing temperature in most of the months and seasons. In India, an increase in temperature over the country and the subcontinent was observed. As discussed in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5^th Report (IPCC, 2014), the global ocean will continue to warm during the 21^st century, with the strongest warming projected for the surface in tropical and Northern Hemisphere sub-tropical regions. In addition, changes in precipitation will not be uniform (Pachauri and Meyer, 2014). In the light of these projections, it can be assumed that climatic pattern of Haryana can also undergo considerable changes (Anurag et al., 2017). Increasing trend of annual rainfall in Haryana was also reported by India Meteorological Department (Rathore et al., 2013).

Viable cropping systems involving new rewarding crops infuse new opportunities and challenges as well as demonstrate the potential for land productivity with higher growth and economic achievements.  As far as agricultural production is concerned Haryana is a surplus agricultural state and is one of the largest food supplier to the national kitty. The cropping patterns have undergone drastic changes over the years with a major shift in favour of cereals like paddy and wheat. Consequently, the existing cropping system viz. paddy-wheat, has started showing its adverse effect on soil health and consequent decline in crop productivity. Diversification of existing system by involving pulses, vegetable, fodder and other high value crops, is considered to be the potential alternative to address many present day problems. For example, under assured irrigation, pearlmillet-potato-moongbean gave almost 65% higher yield than the existing cotton-wheat cropping system because the leguminous crop in summer gave higher economic yield and benefit to pearlmillet crop. The package of practices with focus on pulses crops grown in Haryana state are discussed here.

Principles of Incubation

Incubation is a process by which the embryo within egg develops into a fully formed chick capable of breaking free from the shell. Basically, when a hen incubates an egg, it means she is on the egg in order to keep it warm for a certain period of time, 21 days for chicken, until the chick embryo has fully formed and is ready to hatch. The incubation period in other species is given in Table 41. The following factors affect the incubation on egg

1. Temperature

Incubator temperature should be maintained between 99 and 100 oF. The acceptable range is 97 to 102 ^oF. Overheating is more critical than under heating. An incubator should be operated in a location free from drafts and direct sunlight. Temperature is probably the most important single factor influencing the development of the embryo. A higher temperature will advance the hatch and a lower temperature will delay hatch. Younger embryos are especially susceptible to high temperatures because the upper lethal limit is very close to the optimum incubating temperature. High temperature will cause the embryonic membranes to dry out too soon. Chicks that hatch may have an unsteady gait.

Availability of quality fish seed is the critical and basic input for successful fish culture operations. Till the sixties, a major part of the seed required for culture was being collected from the riverine sources, which had several disadvantages. Indian major carps viz. Catla, Rohu & Mrigal and Chinese carps viz. Silver carp & Grass carp mature in the pond but do not spawn or lay eggs in standing waters. Usually they breed or spawn naturally in flowing rivers during monsoon months. In artificial breeding, certain inducing agent (hormone) is injected to fish for successful spawning.

In India, the first successful induced breeding of carp was achieved through use of pituitary hormone in 1957. Increased seed production of fish today is a direct result of improved technologies of breeding, hatching and rearing.

Three decades ago, earthen “pit” hatcheries were used for hatching eggs around bunds. Today large commercial hatcheries exist, where all activities such as raising of brood stock, breeding and fry rearing can be undertaken. This has certainly marked the growth of the industry. Commercial Chinese hatchery facilitates not only large-scale production of fish seeds but also improves the survival percentage of seed.

Feeding of green and succulent fodder is of utmost importance to farm animals. Grazing fresh forage year round at the optimal stage of maturity would supply the highest quality and most palatable form of feed in any livestock operation. In most part of the world, green fodder is limited to a particular season only. Because of fluctuations in seasonal growth and plant maturity, excessive biomass in the spring, it is necessary to harvest and store forages to maximize both quality and productivity. One of the important form of conservation practiced on a wide scale is hay making. Hay making is an art in which the fodder is kept for future use in lean period. Since it contains large quantity of moisture it is to be dried properly to increase its keeping quality without reducing its nutritive value. The objective of hay making is to achieve a rapid moisture loss after cutting so that the forage can be romoved from the field with minimum losses from weathering and microbial degradation (Bareebam, 1992).

Storage of hay at higher moisture contents may lead to some heating due to the activity of aerobic micro-organisms and possibly some plant respiration. The warm, moist conditions in hay will provide the ideal environment for growth of spoilage bacteria, e.g. Bacilli and yeasts, moulds and fungi. These organisms utilize the energy and protein of the hay and can lead to a substantial increase in their respective populations. Their action leads to the following reaction:- 

Hay (plant sugars) + oxygen ® Carbon dioxide + water + heat
 
The resultant heating causes a reaction between the carbohydrates and proteins rendering both less digestible as temperatures continue to increase. The best opportunity to reduce hay-harvesting losses is by shortening curing time. A combination of mechanical conditioning, chemical conditioning and high-moisture baling help accomplish this goal (Collins, 1988; Mahanna, 1994).

Hay quality really means feed value. The ultimate test of hay quality is animal performance. Quality can be considered satisfactory when animals consuming the hay give the desired performance.
 
Characteristics of Good Quality Hay

    1.    Hay should be nutritious therefore prepared form plants cut at an appropriate stage of maturity when it has the maximum nutrients.
 
    2.    Good hay should be leafy. The leaves are generally richer in proteins, minerals and vitamins then other parts of the plant.

    3.    Hay should be green in colour. The green colour indicates the amount of carotene which is precursor of vitamin A. The green colour should be preserved by minimizing the bleaching, leaching arid fermentation losses.

Haylage or baleage or round bale silage, is a somewhat newer method of preserving forage. Haylage is simply forage that is baled at higher moisture content than dry hay and then stored in a sealed plastic wrap. Because of the high moisture level and air-tight environment, the forage ferments and is preserved by acid production during fermentation. The higher pH values associated with baleage are related to a slower fermentation process. During the respiration stage of the ensiling process the oxygen that is trapped in storage is rapidly consumed by aerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria, which survive in the absence of oxygen, begin to grow and multiply in the fermentation stage and convert the plant sugars into organic acids- mainly lactic acid and acetic acid. With production of acids, the pH of the silage is reduced from an original level of 7.0 to a final ideal pH of 4–5. Typical large bale haylage has a pH of 4.5–5.5. Fermentation ceases when bacteria growth is stopped by the accumulation of acids. The haylage will then remain at a stable pH with no bacterial growth and can be preserved for a long time, providing there is no exposure to air. Harvesting forages with a long fiber usually results in a slow release of the plant nutrients necessary for the growth of acid producing bacteria. This generally results in less fermentation in the baleage than in chopped silage.

The food is considered as one of the essential for the maintenance of life. Manufacturing of the food product is not enough form the food industry. It is necessary that the food available is safe, hygienic; wholesomeness and its quality must be assured. The food industry is an important segment of industries in India and has its own peculiarities unlike other industries. Food processing industry has been recognized by government as a major sector of growth. It must be free from harmful additives, microbes and remain so for a period, it is intended to be consumed. Therefore, the methods employed in quality and food safety assurance programme within the food industry will vary considerably in accuracy and sophistication according to the type of process and size and nature of resources available. Since the international market has become demanding in terms of quality, safety and delivery, installation of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) in food industry would provide a competitive edge to food supplies in the international market. Food control refers to all activities carried out to ensure the quality, safety and honest presentation of the food at all stages from primary production through processing and storage, to marketing and consumption. The term has been used to describe a total national effort involving an integrated approach between government and all segment and sectors of the food industry. Food control is linked to improvement in the health of the population, potential of a country’s economic development and reduction of spoilage and food losses.

A wide variety of quality determinants is employed, including size, colour, maturity and extent of blemishes. Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the consumer. The marketing of fresh fruit and vegetables is aimed eventually ay appealing to the consumer for whom tradition plays a major role in determining the acceptability of a food item. The eating habits of people are conservative. The increase of direct market from producer to supermarket chains is leading to the imposition of standards to predetermined specification by the supermarkets. Important factors in quality for the consumers are: appearance, including size, colour, shape, condition and absence of defects, texture, flavour and nutritional value. Quality is the ultimate criterion of the desirability of any food product to the consumer. The overall quality of food depends on the nutritional and other hidden attributes. Quality of foods can be defined as the ‘composite’ of the ‘characteristics’ that differentiate individual units of a product and have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of that unit by the buyer.

There are specific hazards associated with equipment, operation or a particular section. Such possible hazards and their preventive measures are discussed below.
I. Milk Reception Dock
    1.    Where the top of a vat, into which a 40 litre can of milk is to be dumped, is higher than the milk can, two men should lift and empty the can.
    2.    Where steam jet method of can washing is used, to avoid burning, employees would be furnished with protective equipment, including rubber boots and long aprons
    3.    Cans should be stacked in areas away from frequently used passage ways
    4.    Cans should not be stacked so high that they may fall and injure someone

Introduction

Food Safety is the assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its intended use. The slogan of the World Food Safety Day 2019 “If it’s not safe - it’s not food!” portray, unsafe food is a threat to mankind. Ensuring food safety to protect public health and promote economic development is of utmost importance and it remains a significant challenge in both developing and developed countries. Food borne diseases remain a real and formidable problem, causing great human sufferings and significant economic losses. According to WHO 2019-20 World Water Day report, one third of the population of developed countries may be affected by food-borne diseases each year and the problem is likely to be even more wide spread in developing countries, where food and water borne diarrhoeal diseases kill an estimated 2.2 million people each year, mostly children. While unacceptable rates of food borne illness still remain, new hazards continue to enter the food supply.

A food safety hazard refers to any agent with the potential to cause adverse health consequences for consumers. It occurs when food is exposed to hazardous agents which result in contamination of food. In other terms it can be defined as anything that could contaminate food or could otherwise violate established food safety program criteria, if left uncontrolled. The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF, 1997) defined a hazard as a “biological, chemical, or physical agent that is reasonably likely to cause illness or injury in the absence of its control”.

A hazard may be introduced into the food supply any time during harvesting, formulation and processing, packaging and labelling, transportation, storage, preparation and serving. Food safety hazards are generally categorized into four classes: Physical, chemical, biological and allergens. Food manufacturers can adopt Food Safety Management Systems (FSMS), which include Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Hygiene Practices (GHP), Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) and other practices to strictly check the hazards and make the food safe.

Understanding the hazards that contribute to food borne illness and injury is important to determine the necessary steps to prevent or reduce it to an acceptable level or eliminate hazards altogether before food reaches the consumer.

1. Introduction

Hazel nut also called as European filbert or Bhotia badam (Corylus avellana L.). Apparently the word ‘filbert’ has been derived from Middle English which in turn was a derivation of Philbert - the Saint Philibert, whose feast day in late August coincides with the ripening of the nut. Others believe that the term filbert came from the nut’s long husk being referred to as a full beard in Old English. The name “Hazel” comes from the Anglo-Saxon word for bonnet, “Haesel”; this probably derives from the greek “korys” (as in Corylus), for helmet or hood. The term “filbert” may have derived from “full beard”, descriptive of the long, leafy husk. The scientific name avellana derives from the town of Avella initially and was selected by Linnaeus from Leonhart Fuchs’s De historia stirpium commentarii insignes (1542), where the species was described as “Avellana nux sylvestris” (“wild nut of Avella”). Hazelnut is the 4^th economically important nut crop (748,000 MT/yr) of world after cashew, almond and walnut.

Genus : Corylus 
Species : avellana L.
Family : Betulaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=28

European filbert Corylus avellana L, is known by several names common being Cob, cobnut, hazel, Spanish or Lambert nut, which has been due to its origin, fruit shape, husk and the general appearance. ‘Filbert’ has also come from name ‘full beard’ as the nut of commerce is fully enclosed by the long husk. It is this husk or involucres which very often has been used to distinguish between various species and cultivars. Corylus the genus has been derived from korys which indicate bonnet, hood or helmet and there are several other views of its name being derived after the name of some renowned places. The word ‘hazelnut’ is from anglosaxon haesel meaning hood. Further the term hazelnut is used in European and Filbert in Asian countries for and its other species. However in America, the term is used to refer to three native species C. archericana, C. californica and C. cornuta. Filbert is an important member of birch family, Betulaceae which has a long history of cultivation (8000 to 5500 B.C.). 

Hazelnut is also known as a cob nut or filbert nut according to species. The hazelnut was native to the Black Sea coast long before our era, where it was found growing wild. Turkey is one of the few countries in the world having a favourable climate for hazelnut production. Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionery to make praline and also used in combination with chocolate for chocolate truffles and products such as Nutella. Hazelnut oil recovered from hazelnuts is strongly flavoured and used as cooking oil. Hazelnuts are a good source of energy with 60.5 per cent fat content. Hazelnuts have been ranked as one of the most nutritious nuts because they supply significant amounts of protein and fiber, vitamin E and B, minerals like iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium and potassium. 

• Turkish hazelnut production of 625,000 tons accounts for approximately 75% of world productions.
• The common hazel (Corylus avellana) is native to Europe and Western Asia.
• In H P, it is found growing wild in Pangi region of Chamba district and locally known as Thangi.
• Hazelnut is also known as cobnut and filbert.
• Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionery to make praline and also used in combination with chocolate truffles.
• The temperature of minus 10°C is critical, especially if accompanied by wind, which may kill both pistillate and staminate flavours.
• Hazelnuts are more shallow-rooted, most fruit and nut trees do not tolerate wet soils, the tree cannot tolerate excessive dry summer heat and hot winds.
• Hazel will grow in pH ranging from 4.5-8.5 but around pH 7 is ideal.

Skull: The skull of domestic animals has two sets of bones i.e facial and cranial bones. The facial bones are placed in front and cranial bones are placed caudally.

Facial bones: The paired facial bones are premaxilla, maxilla, nasal, pterygoid, lacrimal, turbinates, malar and palatine bones. The unpaired facial bones are mandible, hyoid and vomer.

Headache is the most common of all nervous complaints. The causes are varied and so also its mode of onset, duration, intensity and other conditions associated with it.

Structures of the head, which are sensitive to pain, are:

Tissue – Proliferating Potential of Cell Types
1. Labile Cells
• Continuously dividing cells
• e.g. epidermis, epithelial cells, bone marrow cells
2. Stable Cells - Quiescent cells
• Undergoes division occasionally
• Liver, kidney    pancreas, fibroblasts,
• Endothelial cells
3. Permanent Cells - Non–dividing cells: Neurons, muscle cells (cardiac, skeletal)

(I)  Deficiency Diseases

Mineral and vitamins, in adequate quantities, are essential in the diet of all animals. Many diseases occur due to deficiency of mineral and vitamins. Mineral and vitamins are more necessary in pigs due to their higher growth rate. It is normally seen that when pigs are reared on self made rations, they suffer more with the deficiency of one or more mineral and vitamins. Thus, it is necessary to introduce extra mineral and vitamins in the pig ration. If it is not done, its growth rate and body weight do not increase in proper ratio. The excess and deficiency of one mineral depends on quantities of other minerals present in the ration. It is frequently seen that pigs suffer from deficiency of more than one mineral and vitamin but some time pigs suffer from deficiency of one substance and excess of the other substance, so a balanced ration- with appropriate proportions of various mineral and vitamins- is necessary. Many times it is seen that some infectious diseases increase the necessity of mineral and vitamins in the body. This may cause deficiency of mineral and vitamins in the body and the animal may not recoup.

Following are the description of these symptoms and their prevention.

General Signs of Healthy and Ill Animals

Health

It is a state of freedom from disease. It may also be stated as a condition of an animal in which all the body organs are normal and are functioning to their optimum capacity in relation to animal’s age, sex, work, and production with optimum pulse, temperature and respiration rates appropriate to the species, sex and environment.

Disease

Disease may be any deterioration from normal health or normal functioning of any or all the tissues or organs of animal body. Thus, it shuns animal to perform its normal physiological functions though the nutritional and environmental parameters are maintained normal.

Abstract

Tea is the most consumed, rejuvenating and thirst-quenching beverage. It is bestowed with ‘miraculous’ health benefits which includes promotion of cardio-vascular health, skin protection, antioxidant activity, defence against microbial infection, prevention from cancer, obesity, and many more. Among the four types of tea, green tea has attained much attention of tea consumers due to its magical health potentials.Owing to increased knowledge and marketing of its health benefits, there has been astonishing changes in its consumption pattern and increase in its production. The tea industry drives economies of the tea growing regions and contributes greatly to the country’s GDP growth as well as foreign exchange earnings. However, in recent years, tea farming has become subject to environmental deterioration because of exploitation in cultivation practices.