eChapters

1. Farm is complex structure comprising living and non-living things.

2. The engineering components and structures aqua farm. basic necessities of an

3. Ponds, Water transportation systems - primary structures of an aqua farm.

4. Machineries, builtin structures and other peripheral accessories secondary structuresof an aqua farm.

5. Secondary structures may vary from one pond to another pond based on the

a. Type of culture

b. Method followed

c. Economic status of the farmer.

6. Site selection - Pre-requisites of a successful aquaculture farm.

7. Soil bottom must be impervious to prevent excessive seepage.

8. Fine textured soils - a high clay content.

9. Embankment ponds are also called as Hill/ Water shed ponds.

10. Excavated ponds are principally used for the commercial fish and shrimp production.

1. Luther Gullick denoted the functional elements of the administration POSDCORB.

2. CIFNET Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical Engineering and Training. It was started in 1963. The head quarters situated in cochin.

3. CIFNET have two units one Chennai, another one Visag.

4. IFP-integrated fishery project was started in 1952.

5. During 2008 the FPT was renamed as NIFPHTT. It has situated in cochin.

6. FSI-fishery survey of India. It has head quarter in Mumbai.

7. CICEF-Central Institute of Coastal Engineering for Fishery. It is situated in Bangalore.

8. CICEF was renamed in 1983 as PISFH-pre investment of fishing harbor

9. NFDB-national fisheries development board.established in 2006. It has head quarters in Hyderabad.

10. CAA-coastal aquaculture authority established in 2005. It has head quarter in Chennai.

11. Coastal zone regulation notification - 1991.

1. The word Extension was first used in U.S.A.

2. The word Extension is derived from Latin meaning out stretching.

3. Extension education = non formal education.

4. Extension work out of school system of education.

5. Learning active process on the part of the learner.

6. Motivation need satisfy goal-seeking behaviour.

7. Steps in extension teaching methods = AIDCAS.

8. Teaching is the process of providing situations in which learning takes place.

9. Learning is the process by which a person becomes changes in his behaviour through self-activity.

10. Lecture is the best method for presenting information to large number of persons in a short period of time.

1. Biotechnology arises from the field of Zymotechnology.

2. The word Biotechnology was coined by Karl ereky in 1919.

3. OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1981).

4. National Biotechnology Board - 1982 by GOI.

5. ICGEB International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Bio-technology (1988).

6. Cohen & Boyer - Recombinant DNA technology (1973).

7. Restriction enzymes are called as Molecular scissors.

8. Frederick Sanger - DNA Sequencing techniques.

9. Modified red glow zebra fish came on to the market in 2004.

10. Tissue culture Osowski 1914.

11. The term molecular biology was used by Warren weaver.

Introduction

S tates/organizations/agencies with statuary powers constitute Legislation, which are directly or indirectly related to their basic needs, smooth functioning of targeted system and to facilitate the safe survival of present as well as future generations of human being under jurisdiction. Legislation is a Latin word and customary that include all law constituted or in the process of constitution by empowered statuary houses/persons/group of people. Such Law has been categorized as Bill, Act, Rules and Regulations etc. Policy is a multipurpose dynamic tool, which activates different levels of administrative mechanism to perform various assignments systematically according to legislation systems. It includes collection of important information and statistics along with usefulness and validity of prevailing system of law. It brings required changes based on authentic and evaluated proper information. Legislation and policy and appropriate administrative mechanism are linked to each other in circular sequence.

Constitution of legal documents and its success is totally linked with administrative mechanism presumed to implement it. Basically administrative mechanism for implementation of legislation and policy is the responsibility of state/government. To devise a good administrative mechanism to implement legislation successfully, is a complicated, dynamic and multidimensional process system which ensure the balance functioning of the different components with automatic feedback of the targeted output and effectiveness of the legislation system in place.

1. A good market always serves to safeguard the interest of the trader and the consumer.

2. The core fish marketing system is classified the three types as market penetration, market development and products development.

3. College of Mangalore developed technology for fish sausages.

4. CIFE Mumbai developed technology to manufacture fish wafers.

5. Mandala committee - Gujarat.

6. Aratdars is commonly called as Commission agent.

7. Selling is also done by contract method.

8. Concentric diversification the products have technological and marketing synergies with the existing fish commodity sale.

9. Horizontal diversification-adding new product to the present products.

10. Conglomerate diversification-it is a firm seeking add new commodities to new classes of customers because this will set some of the deficiencies of old products.

1. Project monitoring is an integral part of project management.

2. Concurrent evaluation is carried out during implementation of the project.

3. Terminal evaluation is undertaken at the time of completion of the project.

4. Ex-post evaluation is also called as impact evaluation.

5. Network techniques are used for minimising cost and time of the project.

6. PERT-Program Evaluation and Review Technique.

7. LOT-Latest Occurrence Time.

8. CPM-Critical Path Method.

9. Project presentation - 30 pages.

10. National level project goal of economic growth.

Introduction

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), fish and fishery products accounts for 17% of the global human consumption of animal protein. Per capita food fish supply has grown to 18.4kg per person, an 8% rise since 2006. Approximately 54% of the seafood protein supply for human consumption comes from wild catch; unfortunately about 30% of the world’s wild-capture fisheries are overexploited and many fisheries are in bad shape and getting worse. Solving this problem will require innovative monitoring and management tools, but we can provide tremendous benefits if we act now to reverse our course. Taking a serious, in-depth look at fisheries could help feed the world’s growing population, and conserve marine species. Humanity is reaching farther and deeper into the oceans and, until recently, there were only anecdotes and guesses about the complete effects of our actions. Recent reports show that some fisheries are being managed sustainably and good progress is being made in reducing exploitation rates and restoring overexploited fish stocks and marine ecosystems.

Sustainable fisheries management is an integrated process that seeks to attain an optimal state that balances ecological, economic, social and cultural objectives for fisheries. It involves information gathering, analysis, planning, consultation, decision-making, allocation of resources and formulation and implementation, with enforcement as necessary, which govern fisheries activities to ensure the above mentioned fisheries objectives. A thorough knowledge on the fish resource assessment is of utmost importance for a fishery manager to effectively make decisions and implement it. In this chapter, an attempt is made to briefly explain the basic concepts of fish resource under management, its assessment and techniques to be applied.

1. Taxon names. group of organisms in a classification and given biological

2. Category the level or rank at which the taxon is placed.

3. Systematics is a biological science that discovers names, determines relationships, classifies and studies evolution of living organisms.

4. Alpha taxonomy description of new species.

5. Beta taxonomy relationships are worked outon the species level and on higher categories.

6. Gamma taxonomy studying the intraspecific variations and its evolutionary relationship.

7. Right eye flounders - Pleuronectidae & Soleidae.

8. Left eye flounders - Bothidae & Cyanoglossidae.

9. Cyanoglossidae - Tongue sole (only pelvic fin present and absence of pectoral fins)

10. Morphometric characters are measurable characters

Introduction
The Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir is blessed with various water resources dispersed over an area of 0.40 lakh hectares due to its distinct terrain and three distinct climatic conditions. There is enormous potential for coldwater, warm-water, reservoir, and sport fishing due to the existence of coldwater streams, rivers, lakes, high-altitude lakes, springs, and sars, among other features (DoF-J&K, 2022). Three-quarters of the cold-water fisheries Exclusively Distributed by NIPA GENX Electronic Resources and Solution Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi are derived from J&K. Still, the UT makes for no more than 1% of the nation's aquaculture output. According to DoF (2020), J&K had 0.21 lakh tonnes of inland fish output in 2019–20. In Kashmir, just 15% of the 70% of people employed in agriculture are fishermen (Qureshi, 2013). Limited infrastructure and connectivity in the highlands are substantial obstacles to the sector's expansion. However, the fishing industry still plays a significant role in the existence of the inhabitants of Kashmir, providing subsistence fishing as a means of nutrition and operating as an affordable and dependable supply of protein in the landlocked area (CMFRI, 2015). Approximately 70% of the entire output comes through the lakes of Dal and Wular, which account for the bulk of the harvest (Qureshi, 2013).
The characteristics of cold-water assets, including creeks and upland streams, contain exceptional transparency, high dissolved oxygen (DO), bedrockboulder- sand substrata, and high flow rates. These natural settings consist of gushing waters, cascades, torrents, and deep pools. The slopes of the Himalayas are home to 272 fish species (Sarma et al., 2018). Elevated heights result in reduced human influence and nutrient-poor water bodies due to catchment features. The glacier lakes are ultra-oligotrophic at relatively high elevations (Gopal, 2012). Fish in these waters develop slowly and only to tiny sizes because of the limited biological production. Large-scale commercial fisheries are therefore not supported by these cold-water resources. Likewise in other areas, human footprints have had a noticeable effect on Kashmir's flora, wildlife, and water sources. Challenges include things like contamination, eutrophication, and the inundation of alien species. Massive sedimentation has been made worse by tourism and growing urbanisation, which has reduced fisheries. Particularly impacted are native fish species, notably those in the Schizothorax genera (Qureshi et al., 2013). The future value of resourcefulness is diminished by this deterioration, which affects regional populations' ability to make a living and provide adequate nutrition. At this stage, the lakes in Kashmir are frequently contaminated, weed-filled, vulnerable to harmful algal blooms, bordered by marshlands (Tahseen et al., 2018). The concern must be addressed, with special attention to the larger context of Kashmir. Under several topics, this section examines the primary human interactions and how they affect the cold-water fishing industry and management.

1. The word "Statistics" derived from the Latin word 'Status' meaning POLITICAL STATE.

2. Statistics are lifeblood of successful commerce.

3. Statistics are not suitable to study the qualitative phenomenon.

4. Statistics laws are not exact.

5. A.L.Bowley "Statistics are numeral statement of facts in any department of enquiry placed in relation to each other".

6. Croxton and Cowden "Statistics may be defined as the science of collection, presentation analysis and interpretation of numerical data from the logical analysis".

7. Alfred Marshall - "Statistics are the straw only which I like every other economist has to make the bricks".

8. Function of statistics

a. Condensation

b. Comparison

c. Forecasting

d. Estimation

e. Tests of hypothesis

9. ANOVA-Analysis of Variance.

10. ANOVA-developed by Prof. R.A. Fisher.

Introduction Technology is the application of knowledge and/or equipment in undertaking and accomplishing certain activity. Fisheries technology is a systematically organized knowledge and materials applicable to production problems to help to boost the present level of fish productivity and or extend the existing range of production. Fisheries technologies are wide range of importance; Technological innovation in aquaculture is leading an evolution in aquaculture practices, thereby reducing losses and increasing efficiency. Technology in aquaculture affects many areas of fishery, such as seed production, feed production and management, pest and diseases management, production, harvesting, marketing, processing, etc. Induced breeding technology in Indian Major Carps transformed the growth of aquaculture sector from traditional to intensive aquaculture practices and led to success of modern aquaculture industry. Mechanization in fishing increased the harvest with less time and minimal human drudgery. Fish processing technologies improved product shelf-life, reduced fish loss and added value to the products.

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.

India is endowed with 8118 kilometers of coastline and access to 5.3 lakh square kilometers of continental shelf to facilitate marine fishing.195210 kilometers long river and canal system, more than 6 million hectares of water bodies under reservoirs, ponds, Fish is an integral part of food and culture in India. Indian coastal region is rich in aquatic bio diversity with various identified fish species and also in aquatic resources. India with its vast and varied marine and inland resources stands third in world total fish production and second in inland fish production. India’s fish production has increased from 5.6 million tonne during 2000-2001 to 6.9 million tonne during 2006-2007. During the year 2006-07, the country witnessed foreign exchange of Rs.8363.53 crore through export of sea food. Fish processing industries in India are gaining importance in recent years due to increase in demand of processed food by the developed countries. In India fishery sector provide livelihood to an estimated 10 million people and the Inland fisheries are of particular importance to the rural poor accounting for about 15% of total global employment (FAO, 2000). Sustainable utilization of available resources with appropriate farming system approaches will increase fish production and also will generate employment opportunities.

1. The removal of moister from the timber is known as seasoning.

2. For boat building purpose timber should have moisture about 18-20%.

3. Mild steel contain 0.15-0.30% of carbon.

4. Low carbon steel contain less than 0.15% of carbon.

5. High carbon steel contain 0.8-1.5% of carbon.

6. The specific gravity of steel 7.84.

7. The aluminum boat was firstly built in France 1892.

8. Ferro cement boat was introduced in France 1847.

9. Specific gravity of aluminum-2.7.

10. Specific gravity of Ferro cement 2.4-2.6.

1. Fiber are basic material for constructing the gear.

2. Fibers length will be 200 times greater than that width.

3. Cotton fibber have length about 20-50 mm.

4. Ramie, hemp, liner are also known as soft fiber.

5. Ramie fiber - china grass.

6. Sisal and manila fiber are hard fiber.

7. Poly amide also known as nylon.

8. Polystyrene also known as terylene.

9. Poly condensation water eliminating process eg PA, PES.

10. Poly vinyl chloride is the first synthetic fiber to be produced by on an industrial scale. And also first synthetic material for gear.

1. Examples of grappling gears Clamps, Tongs and Raking devices.

2. Wounding gears with sharp projectiles Spears, Lances, Fish plummets, Fish comb, Arrows, Harpoons, Blow guns, Rifles.

3. Brail net-Large scoop net.

4. Jerk net a rectangular net kept under tension between two sticks which are pushed forward.

5. Collection of shells and corals for decoration and small fishes for aquarium is called as Aesthetic fishing.

6. Fish plummets are also called as plume lines or plumed lines.

7. The cross section of the two scam trawl during operation is elliptical.

8. Bridles-legs of trawl.

9. Sweep lines serve as false netting under water and vibrate in the water column.

10. The size of the trawl net is generally referred by the length of the head rope.

Aim: To know the method of securing thomas splint, in the forelimb.

Description

After immobilising the fracture site covering the distal as well as proximal end properly the thomas splint is fitted over the forelimb.

The foot is immobilised to the distal end of Thomas splint.

The immobilised forelimb kept closed and straight with the posterior extension of bamboo of the thomas splint. The limb is fixed with posterior bamboo splint with bandage roll at several place to avoid anterior, posterior movement of the limb.

At the time of fixing the limb with posterior extension bamboo of the Thomas splint, bandage are rapped along with the netting of thomas splint, to avoid medullary lateral movement of the immobilised limb.

Finally the immobilised forelimb is rapped along with the bandage roll including both the anterior and posterior extension of bamboo splint.

To avoid outside movement of the immobilised limb, the method of immobilisation of fracture of forelimb has been shown in fig-1.

Plans need not be made for nuts and bolts, but are essential to prevent future bottlenecks. If enough cushions are provided for the future, the economy will grow smoother and faster. The importance of plan is that when you design it before you implement it; you have a better chance of eliminating design flaws from the beginning. If you start out coding and later on figure out you have a design flaw, it is extremely painful to go back and re-implement everything. Certain software engineering experts have estimated that it can cost up to 10x more (time and money) to fix a design problem in the later stages of software development than in the early stages.

Fixation is the first and utmost important step to take good histology of eye ball. The eye is a composite organ made up of layers of different consistencies that tend to separate during fixation and sectioning (Drury and Wallington, 1980).
Fixation (Davidson’s fluid)
Davidson’s fluid is an excellent fixative for fixation of whole eye ball but conventional 10% formalin causes artificial cellular shrinkage and poor cellular and nuclear resolution of the retina. Formaldehyde penetrates tissue well but takes more time because sclera stands as physical barriers that protects the retina and inhibit the penetration of fixative. Davidson’s fixative is acetic acid, alcohol- formalin based fixative in which alcohol denatured the protein by breaking hydrogen bonds and disturbing their tertiary structure and acetic acid increase the penetration. It has been advocated and widely used for the preservation of eye ball, maintaining retinal attachment during fixation and processing and providing better preservation of the retinal nuclear layer and sensory specialization of the rods and cones.

CORPUS

Fixation of rubber slipper over the foot, after application of fracture, immobilising devices the foot is protected with rubber slipper to avoiding soiling and affection of foot (Fig. No-1).

The foot protection the protective rubber slipper is applied given to both their foot (Fig No.2).

Gum bandage, immobilised limb (Fig No.3).

As well as POP cost application (Fig No. 4).

The rubber could be given anterior to posterior derection to avoid entering of soiling towards the foot.

The slipper retain in position with due to splint.

Fixation can be done by either wet fixation or dry fixation. If staining is to be delayed for a few days, cell preservation enhanced by fixation. Fix the slide within 30-60 seconds.

Wet Fixation

Nutrient adsorption in soil is one of the important phenomena in terms of nutrient availability to plants. Due to the nutrient fixation of the added nutrients supplied through fertilizers or manures may result the increase in cost of production due to the non-availability of the added nutrients at the optimum level to the plants. Hence, management options are required to release the sorbed nutrients from soil for better availability to the plants. The ion-fixation is driven by physico-chemical and biological processes and varies under agro ecological situations. The chemistry of ion fixation in the form of specific or non-specific adsorption on soil colloids will help understanding the bonding and adsorption reactions of ions in the soil.

8.0 What is fixation?

Fixation of plant nutrients in soil may be defined as the process, where readily soluble plant nutrients are transformed into less soluble forms by physical or chemical reaction with organic or inorganic compounds and thus restricting the mobility of ions in soil that leads to the decrease in availability to the plants. There are two kinds of fixation in general, viz; cation (N, K, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Ca,Mg etc.) and anion (P, B, Mo etc.) in soils. The fixation of ions in soil is governed by important physical and chemical parameters of soil based on which the available pools of nutrients for plants may be determined.

When an element burns in a flame it emits radiation characteristic of its identity. Flame photometry is the determination of an element in solution by measurement of emission of light by atoms of the element in flame. Initial tests for identification of a few elements by flame tests are well known. Na burns with yellow flame, K with lilac flame, Ca, with red flame, Cu, with green flame etc. Emission of characteristic radiation by an element and correlation of emission intensity with the concentration of that element form the basis for flame photometry.

The sample to be analyzed is prepared in solution and sprayed under controlled conditions into a flame. The light from the flame enters a monochromator to isolate the desired region of the spectrum. A photocell and an amplifier measure the intensity of the isolated radiation. After proper calibration of the photometer with solutions of known composition and concentration, it is possible to correlate the intensity of a given spectral line with the unknown concentration of that element. A calibration curve prepared using known concentrations is useful. Internal standards and addition of known concentration of sample to be quantified are more useful.

Principles of Working
(Lundegårdh, 1929-1934 : Mac Intyre, 1961)

Flame photometry is the measurement of the concentration of an ionic material in a solution introduced in  to a flame, where the intensity of light emitted by the flame under these conditions is measured. We should give credit to Kirchhoff and Bunsen (1860), who developed the idea of emission spectroscopy into quantitative inorganic analysis, later on Janssen (1970) made lot of developments in this direction. The main parts of flame photometer are: (1) burner, (2) atomizer which disperses the solution as a fine spray into the flame; a means of isolating from the spectrum (i.e., filtering system, diffraction gratting etc.) only that portion of the emitted light which is a specific characteristics of the substance being examined ; a photosensitive detector with or without amplifier; and a method of measuring the desired emission. In flame photometry the diluted biological fluid is atomized directly ino the flame without need of preliminary separation. The resulting emissions are those of all the inorganic ions present. For measurement the emitted light is passed through a monochromater where the wavelength most characteristics of the material analysis and which most closely follows Beer’s law is selected.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sensory science is the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation and includes our basic understanding of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could unfold the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) methodology was first described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be the impediments in solving “the problem of flavour characterization” Further, new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by the food industry, but much more needed in be done if it is to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food and it is taste plus odour. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volatile tastants by the tongue while in other words, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all the possible flavour stimuli that could be encountered is as vast as the galaxy.

Introduction

How one can differentiates between sensory science and sensory evaluation? Perhaps the simplest way would be to think of sensory science as the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation. It could include our basic understandings of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could designate the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) methodology was f irst described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be impediments to solving “the problem of flavour characterization” (Stone et al., 1974). As noted by Pangborn (1964), new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by industry, but much more needed to be done if it was to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food. “Flavour is taste plus odour”. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volative tastants by the tongue. On the other word, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all possible flavour stimuli we could encounter is as vast as the galaxy. However, most of the attempts to define these experiences have historically been over simplified.

1. Flavor is a sensory phenomenon depending upon
   1. Taste, texture or mouthfeel
   2. Odour or aroma, appearance
   3. Temperature - sensation of heat or cold
   4. All of these
2. Flavours are minor constituents of foods, usually
   1. Nutritive
   2. Non - nutritive
   3. Energetic
   4. None of them

A. Diseases

1. Anthracnose

Occurrence & severity status

Anthracnose has a serious impact on yield and fibre quality of flax (Linum usitatissimum) and is well-known in Europe, Asia and America. Flax anthracnose increased in Germany when flax production was expanding in the 1930s (Rost 1938). The anthracnose pathogen is seed- and soilborne, causes damping off of flax seedlings (Rost 1938), and is one of the causal organisms of so-called flax-sick soils (Bolley & Manns 1932). It has been recorded in nearly every country where the crop is grown either for fibre or oil. It is known to occur in Belgium, the British Isles, Canada, Formosa, France, Germany, Holland, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, New Zealand, Poland, U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. (including Siberia), in most of which countries its incidence has resulted in appreciable crop losses (Muskett and Colhoun, 1947). The disease is most common in cool and humid flax-growing areas (Nyvall, 1989). The disease is destructive to the crop, especially when the seed source is contaminated by the fungus. It can spread rapidly under favourable conditions causing severe local epidemics and heavy losses in yield and quality of both fiber and seed (Mercer, 1992c; Rashid, 2003b). The losses of 50% in fibre yield in an epidemic year were reported by Muskett and Colhoun (1947). Ondrej (1985) indicated a considerable loss in fibre strength on attack by anthracnose.

The condition is one of the most common pruritic skin disease caused by hypersensitivity reaction to the flea salivary antigens. Type I immediate hypersensitivity, type II delayed hypersensitivity and cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity to the flea salivary antigens have been recorded. Late phase IgG mediated reaction also caused in this condition. It occurs in dogs mostly between 1 and 3 years of age.

Flood-control economics compares the financial, social, and environmental costs of flood damage with the costs and benefits of alternative mitigation measures. Because complete protection is generally impractical, planners must identify an economically justified level of risk reduction. Evaluation considers construction, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation, residual risk, avoided losses, project life, discount rates, and direct and indirect benefits. This chapter introduces economic assessment of flood-control projects and examines flood-damage estimation, depth-damage relationships, benefit-cost analysis, present value, and investment decision criteria. It also considers remote-sensing approaches for mapping inundation and assessing losses. The discussion supports the selection of measures that are technically feasible, socially acceptable, environmentally responsible, and economically efficient.

Flood-control measures aim to reduce the probability of inundation or limit its harmful consequences. Structural measures physically modify water flow or storage and include dams, reservoirs, levees, floodwalls, diversions, channel improvements, detention basins, and watershed-treatment structures. Non-structural measures reduce exposure and vulnerability through forecasting, warnings, zoning, insurance, preparedness, evacuation, public education, land-use control, and disaster-response planning. This chapter classifies and evaluates both groups of measures, explaining their purposes, benefits, limitations, and selection criteria. It emphasizes that no individual intervention provides complete protection. Effective flood-risk reduction normally requires an integrated combination of structures, sound watershed management, reliable information systems, institutional coordination, and community participation.

Flood diversion redirects part or all of an excessive flow away from a vulnerable river reach, settlement, or agricultural area. Water may be conveyed through diversion channels, floodways, canals, tunnels, spillways, or natural depressions and discharged into another river, reservoir, wetland, or safe storage area. A diversion scheme must have sufficient capacity and a dependable control structure while avoiding unacceptable flooding, erosion, sediment deposition, or environmental damage elsewhere. This chapter explains the purpose, principles, and methods of flood diversion. It covers site selection, diversion routes, hydraulic and structural components, design discharge, operational requirements, advantages, limitations, maintenance needs, and the role of diversions within integrated basin-level flood-control planning.

Flood estimation determines the probable magnitude and frequency of flood events for designing hydraulic structures and managing flood risk. Intense rainfall over a catchment generates excess water after interception, infiltration, evaporation, and depression storage have been satisfied. This runoff reaches the drainage system and may cause flooding when channel capacity is inadequate. Reliable estimates help engineers select suitable dimensions for dams, spillways, bridges, culverts, reservoirs, and other protective works. This chapter describes rainfall-based and streamflow-based estimation techniques, including the Rational and Cook’s methods, unit-hydrograph procedures, frequency distributions, Gumbel, log-normal and Log-Pearson Type III analyses, empirical formulae, flow-mass curves, and partial-duration series.

Hydrology examines the occurrence, circulation, distribution, and properties of water in the atmosphere and on Earth. Solar energy drives the hydrologic cycle through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and groundwater movement. Rainfall first satisfies interception, depression storage, evaporation, and infiltration before excess water begins flowing across the surface and into channels. When runoff entering a river exceeds its conveyance capacity, flooding may occur. This chapter explains clouds, precipitation measurement, rain-gauge networks, rainfall consistency, infiltration, runoff mechanisms, hydrographs, unit hydrographs, empirical runoff models, and stage-discharge relationships. These concepts provide the scientific foundation required for analysing floods and designing appropriate control measures.

Flood management is a continuing process of assessing flood risk and coordinating prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and adaptation. Unlike flood control, which often emphasizes physical structures, integrated flood management accepts that floods cannot always be eliminated and seeks to balance their risks and beneficial functions. It protects life and property while considering river-basin development, environmental sustainability, social needs, and economic feasibility. This chapter explains flood-management concepts, objectives, purposes, and techniques. It discusses structural and non-structural actions, forecasting, watershed treatment, afforestation, rainwater harvesting, floodplain zoning, community preparedness, institutional responsibilities, interlinking proposals, and government programmes. Emphasis is placed on coordinated, basin-wide and risk-informed decision-making.

Flood routing predicts how a flood hydrograph changes as it passes through a river reach or reservoir. Storage, channel geometry, friction, inflow distribution, and outlet conditions generally reduce, delay, or otherwise modify the flood peak. Routing results help forecast downstream water levels, determine reservoir releases, design spillways and channels, issue warnings, and evaluate flood-control alternatives. This chapter introduces the continuity and storage principles underlying flood routing and distinguishes reservoir routing from channel routing. It discusses hydrologic and hydraulic approaches, including level-pool, Muskingum, and related techniques. Attention is also given to inflow and outflow hydrographs, routing coefficients, travel time, attenuation, data requirements, assumptions, calculations, and practical engineering applications.

9.1 Introduction

Flood water which is in the form of a hydrograph when passes down a river section undergoes several changes in its form. There may be some addition of water to the river section when the flood wave passes down the river section. There may be some diversion of water from the section. Thus, depending on the addition or abstraction of water to the incoming flood water, shape of the flood hydrograph in the downstream section may change. Sometimes channel storage and resistance to flow of water in the channel section also affects the shape of the flood hydrograph.

A flood occurs when water exceeds the carrying capacity of a river, stream, drain, gully, or another natural or artificial channel and spreads over adjoining land. Its severity depends on water volume, depth, velocity, duration, timing, and the vulnerability of affected communities. Prolonged inundation can severely damage crops, property, infrastructure, water supplies, and human and animal life. Night-time floods may be particularly dangerous because warnings and evacuation become difficult. This chapter introduces flood occurrence and mechanisms, India’s and the world’s flood history, flood-prone regions, flood types and causes, major consequences, and the responsibilities of Indian flood-control and forecasting agencies.

7.1 Introduction

Flood is an unusually high stage in a river resulted due to high rainfall or snow melt which causes large flow of runoff in it. During flood, the river overflows the banks and inundates the adjoining areas. Flood causes heavy damages to buildings and hydraulic structures besides causing catastrophic loss to human life and property. It causes great economic loss due to disruption of many structures and damage to agricultural fields. Many forest and aquatic lives are affected by the flood. Hundreds of crores of rupees are spent every year to control, forecast and manage the flood.

This chapter portrays flooding as a geohazard that can be managed with ease through simple and effective measures. Flooding is a recurrent geohazard that affects vast lands in India and elsewhere. Unlike many other geohazards, flooding event and probable area to be affected could be predicted with fairly accurate levels and hence, proper safety measures could be taken easily. However, as flash floods could not be predicted and the nature of flooding hazard that it brings in added danger of health hazard, crop damage and cutting off of supply and communication networks, flooding is as serious threat as any other geohazard. Scientifically designed urbanization and flood control measures are suggested for minimizing the potential impacts of flooding.

INTRODUCTION

Flooding is defined as a temporary submergence of a large area (that normally remains dry) under water by overflowing rivers and reservoirs as a result of heavy rains, high winds, cyclones, storm surges, tsunami, melting of snow or dam burst (Arya et al. 2005). The term “temporary submergence” denotes a time period ranging from few hours to about few months depending on type and location of flooding. Although flooding is a natural phenomenon that plays a major role in replenishing wetlands, recharging groundwater and supports agriculture, extreme demands on natural resources due to population growth, people and their property move closer to water bodies

Flooding

Flooding affects both above and below ground ecosystem processes in greenhouses. Below-ground changes may be less obvious, they are as important as the above-ground changes. Soil microorganisms are sensitive to disturbance, and shifts in soil microbial community structure are expected when anaerobic conditions develop from flooding. The useful aerobic microbes are destroyed by flooding. It takes time to built-up their population in the soil to benefit plants. Due to anaerobic condition created by flooding in greenhouse plant roots in soil are not able to breath, function and hence wilting of plants occurs. Flood irrigation in excess create flood like condition in greenhouses at time. Excess water in soils is a major factor affecting plant survival and functioning. In saturated soils, the supply of atmospheric oxygen into the soil is curtailed and various facultative and obligate anaerobic microorganisms use oxidized compounds as electron acceptors for respiration, thus converting them to reduced forms. The reduction and the associated processes influence plant survival, growth and functioning in wetlands. Flood irrigation should always be just wet the soil not flood inviting stagnation of water.

A chain of reactions is initiated upon soil flooding leading to reduced soil redox potential conditions. These reactions include physical, chemical and biological processes that have significant implications on plants growth. Physical processes include restriction of atmospheric gas diffusion in the soil leading to depletion of soil oxygen and accumulation of carbon dioxide. Shortly after flooding, the limited supply of oxygen in soil pore spaces is depleted rapidly by roots, microorganisms, and soil reductants. This process leads to oxygen depletion and reduction in soil oxidation reduction potential followed by a chain of soil chemical changes. The processes that follow include denitrification, reduction of iron, manganese and sulphate, and changing soil pH

I. FILL UPS

1. A _____ is an unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence with pedicellate flowers along the axis.
2. A _____ is a type of raceme with flowers that do not have a pedicel.
3. An _____ is a type of raceme with a short axis and multiple floral pedicels of equal length that appear to arise from a common point.
4. Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
5. Determinate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
6. A compound raceme is often called a _____.
7. _____ are umbels in which the single flowers are replaced by many smaller umbels called umbellets.
8. _____ is the pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender filament supporting the anther.
9. _____ is the part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
10. _____ is the ovule producing part of a flower.

1. INFLORESCENCE

An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches.

1.1. Types of inflorescence

Inflorescences can be simple or compound.

1.1.1. Simple inflorescence

Inflorescence of sessile disc florets forming the capitulum

1.1.1.1. Indeterminate

Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called racemose. The main kind of racemose inflorescence is the raceme. The other kind of racemose inflorescences can all be derived from this one by dilation, compression, swelling or reduction of the different axes. Some passage forms between the obvious ones are commonly admitted.

Floral decoration in India has got a historical background spreading over different eras. Admiration of natural beauty, plants and flowers were part of civilization process. Many evidences are there in the paintings, carvings on wall of caves, temples, mosque besides literatural references that flowers were in use in many forms since time immemorial. Every religion, culture, rulers and regimes had great influence on the use of flowers.

At present, flowers are integral part of our daily life. We use flowers in various ways and for many purposes. Loose flowers are used for worship while garlands for decoration purpose during social, institutional, official functions etc. In addition, cutflowers in the form of bouquets are very common in use. Arrangement of flowers in the vase, bowl or any other container is displayed extensively for interior decoration. At present, placing flower vase is very popular in houses, corporate offices, institutes, hotels etc. and is a well established practice.

A floral formula is a numerical representation of various parts of the flower. Such notations use numbers, letters and various symbols to convey significant information in a compact form. They may represent the floral form of a particular species, or may be generalized to characterize higher taxa, usually giving ranges of numbers of organs. It also depicts the symmetry, interrelationship of various floral parts, unisexuality as well as bisexuality in the flower.
Floral formulae were developed at the beginning of the 19th century (Prenner et al., 2010). The first authors using them were Cassel (1820) who first devised lists of integers to denote numbers of parts in named whorls; and Martius (1828). Grisebach (1854) used 4-integer series to represent the 4 whorls of floral parts in his textbook to describe characteristics of floral families, stating numbers of different organs separated by commas and highlighting fusion. Sachs (1873) used them together with floral diagrams, he noted their advantage of being composed of “ordinary typeface”.

Introduction

Flowers provide opportunity to convert them into exquisite value added products directly from fresh flowers like garland, bouquet , flower arrangements or after drying the flowers making different dried flowers products like pot pourri, wreath, painted gourds or after processing like rose water, gulkand,gulroban,perfume, essential oil, insects repellants, cosmetics etc. Beside this a number of pigments like xanthophylls, carotenoids, luteins, anthocyanins etc. which have neutraceutical properties and pharmaceuticals compounds are also prepared from flowers. The value addition results in more acceptable quality products for the domestic and export market and hence ensure high premium to the producers.