eChapters

Introduction

The traditional approach to transferring genes from wild to cultivated species is based on interspecific hybridization followed by selection of hybrids that combine the trait with the cultivated genetic background. This breeding strategy is achieved by various backcross generations in which the selected hybrids at each generation are crossed back to the cultivated genotype with the aim of reducing the wild genome and its undesirable traits. The use of molecular markers has allowed this breeding approach to be greatly improved, since these markers directly reveal genetic variability through DNA analysis (Staub et al. 1996), and therefore their detection is not influenced by environmental effects. Since the development of numerous molecular markers for plant genometatic analysis, the possibility to select the genotype instead of the phenotype has been closely examined, leading to the concept of molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS; Paterson et al. 1991). The basic concept of MAS for crop improvement has been well discussed by Collard et al. (2005) which is most appropriate for this chapter. The most widely used markers suitable for MAS are RFLP, RAPD, AFLP, and SSR. Their common origin is point mutation or chromosome rearrangements that were accumulated during the evolution of the species without negatively influencing their survival and reproduction. The choice of the most suitable markers for MAS can differ and depends on the labor required for their detection, possibility of revealing single or multiple loci, dominant or co dominant nature and costs.

1. SEED PROCESSING

1.1. Purpose

Seed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level, remove or reduce to the extent possible the various undesirable materials, weed seeds, other crop seeds, deteriorated or damaged seeds, uniform size grading and seed treatment to upgrade the overall seed quality.

1.2. Physical characteristics that aid in grading and upgrading

The threshed produce are pre-cleaned either manually or mechanically and are graded using different, but optimum sieves of specified sizes. This grading bring homogeneity in the lot which aids in obtaining uniformity among the population in the subsequent sowing.

Different kinds of seeds can be separated when they differ in one or more physical characteristics. Physical characteristics normally used to separate seeds are size shape, length, weight, colour, surface texture, affinity to liquids, electrical conductivity, etc.

Nutrient management is one of the key aspects that ensure good quality produce in optimum quantity. Nutrient availability influences growth and productivity of crops. Sixteen elements are recognized as essential nutrients for growth and development of plants. These essential elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine. While carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are derived from air, soil and water, other elements are taken by the plant roots from the soil, according to the requirement of the plant. The soil contains these elements in varying quantities depending on the origin of the soil. According to the quantity of requirement of these elements by plants for its various growth processes,the elements are classified into different categories.

Major nutrients or primary nutrients - These are required by plants in large quantities because they are involved in all the processes of plant growth and development. Major nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Secondary nutrients - These are required by plants in relatively smaller quantities for growth and development. Secondary nutrients are magnesium and sulphur.

Micro nutrients - As the name suggests, these are required by plants in minor quantities for their physiological processes. These elements are iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine.

Each of the plant nutrients has a definite quantitive role and specific function in the physiological processes of plants. If any of the essential element is deficient or absent in the soil sysem, the plant growth is affected negatively and this is reflected as inferior quality produce. On the contrary, if a nutrient is excess in the soil system, it hinders in absorption of other nutrients and also may itself be toxic. Hence to get the required growth, quality and quantity of the produce, optimum availability of all the nutrients should be ensured.

Custard apple (Sitaphal) is one of the most delicious fruit. The genus name, ‘Annona’ is comes from the Latin word ‘anon’, which means ‘yearly produce’ has three species namely Annona squamosa, Annona cherimola and Annona reticulate. Out of which Annona squamosa has been extensively used as fruit crop and traditional medicine for different ailments. The seeds and the leaves also are being used for preparation of medicine. It is hardy, tolerant to drought, salinity and saline irrigation water to certain extent. It grows very well in shallow soil profile. It also sheds off leaves during stress condition to evade moisture loss from plant tissue through transpiration. This crop is known by varied name like sitaphal, shariffa and sugar apple.

Origin and Distribution

The custard apple is believed to be a native of the West Indies but it was carried in early times through Central America to southern Mexico. It has long been cultivated and naturalized as far south as Peru and Brazil. It is commonly grown in the Bahamas and occasionally in Bermuda and southern Florida. Apparently it was introduced into tropical Africa early in the 17th century and it is grown in South Africa as a dooryard fruit tree. In India the tree is cultivated, especially around Calcutta, and runs wild in many areas.

Karonda (Carissa carandas Linn.) is also known as ‘Christ Thorn Tree’ and an important fruit plant of semi-arid and arid regions. It is an evergreen, hardy, spiny bush which is use as live fencing surrounding the orchards or filed. One or two plant was planted in backyards at rural place. It is also grown in wasteland, problematic soil, unproductive land and low moisture conditions. It can be also grown as ornamental purpose due to pink reddish fruits and evergreen nature. Plant produce sufficient amount of fruits and fruits are sour and astringent in taste. Fruits havenutritive value like rich source of iron, fair amount of vit. C and several medicinal values.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca), also known as Armenian plum, is a delicious fruit with a pleasant flavor and aroma. It is consumed fresh, dried or canned and highly appreciated by many. The name ‘apricot’ (albicocco, albericocco) is most probably derived from the combination of arbor and precox from the Latin word praecocia (precocious), due to its early maturation (Faust et al., 1998).

Origin and Distribution

Apricot is native to north-eastern China whereas wild apricot, known as zardalu, belongs to India. It is introduced in India by the european settlers and missionaries during the late 19^th century.

It is grown in different countries viz., Turkey, Uzbekistan, Italy, Spain, Japan, Algeria, Iran and Pakistan etc. Among these countries Turkey, Uzbekistan and Italy are leading producers of apricot (FAO, 2017). In India, it is grown commercially in hills of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and also in some hills in North-eastern states. It can also be grown in the dry temperate areas like, Ladakh, Kinnaur, Lahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and some areas of Jammu and Kashmir. In India, it occupies as area of 13115 ha with a production of 17894 MT (NHB.2010).

All higher plants have some kinds of aroma or flavor in their various parts, which includes roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. This flavor and aroma in a particular plant part due to the presence of some specific essential oils present in special glands in it (Chadha and Choudhury, 1989). Essential oils arethe concentrated liquid, which is highly concentrated and water insoluble liquid (hydrophobic) and it is also known as ethereal or volatile oils, which are fragrant oily liquid that are extracted from the various parts of the plants. Generally they are organic compounds like hydrocarbons likealcohols, aldehydes, esters, ketones and phenols. An essential oil is “essential” in case that it contains the essence of the different fragrance, and the properties of the plants from which they are derived. All though all ornamental plants have some aroma but only few of them are used commercially in perfumes, flavor and cosmetic industries. The essential oil demand by fragrance industry is 60%, flavour industry 20% and pharmaceutical industry 20%. In all the perfumes, rose oil is one of the best and costliest perfume. The first recorded reference of rose perfume is in CharakSanghita. The credit for discovery of rose perfume was given to Queen Noor Jehan mentioned in the book written by Md. Achem of King Jahangir’s regime.

The volatile oils showed the different kinds of biological activities including the antibacterial, antioxidant, antiviral, insecticidal, etc. These oils are also used for cancer treatment, while some other has been used for the food preservations, aromatherapy, and in the perfumery industries. Thus, in the day to day life a large spectrum of usage the essential oil and aroma industry has a bright future. Yet the known applications of essential oilsare opening up ofmore areas which will benefit the industry.

Genotype × environment interaction underlies the efforts of crop ecologists, agronomists, and plant breeders to define ecological regions, mega-environments, and ecotypes and to specify the adaptation and yield stability of individual cultivars. Multi-location testing or multiple year testing gives rise to an important term, genotype x environment interaction. “Interaction” is a statistical term signifying differential response of genotypes over the environments. The environments could be in terms of more numbers of diverse locations or years. Multi-location trials (MLTs) are also called as multiple environment trials (METs) and these have been adequately reviewed by Yan and Hunt (1998) and Kang et al. (2004). The following sections of this chapter derive extensive information on MLT/MET from these two sources.

Introduction

The genotype-environment-interaction (GEI) is a complex phenomenon that undermines the repeatability of experimental results and consequently reduces the selection efficiency. Agricultural researchers have long been concerned of the various implications of GEI in plant breeding programmes. Understanding of the implications of GEI structure/nature is important in crop breeding programmes as a significant GEI can seriously impair selection of superior genotypes in new crop introduction and cultivar/hybrid development programmes. Crop breeders of field and vegetable crops, etc. are in better position to decide whether crop cultivars should be developed for all the environments of interest or if the breeders should develop specific cultivars for specific target/mega environments. Variation among genotypes in phenotypic sensitivity to the environment may require the development of locally adapted varieties.

Genotype-by-environment is widely observed and reported issue. Large numbers of publications both on GEI and stability parameters are pointers to the facts that it is a complex and intriguing issue and these are expected to be more relevant in the light of the fact that greater emphasis is going to be placed on sustainability of agricultural systems.

Radish (Raphanus sativus, 2n = 2x = 18, family Brassicaceae or Cruciferae, cross-pollinated crop) is grown over 7 million ha where China, Japan, India, South Korea, and Europe are the main producers. As per Horticulture Statistics at a Glance-2018 (MAFW, 2018), India produced 30 lakh tons of radish from 2 lakh ha acreage with a productivity of 15 tons/ha during 2017-18. Ten top ranking states in India with acreage within the range of 6000 to 33000 ha are West Bengal, Haryana, Bihar, Assam, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.

Today, radishes are grown throughout the world. Different local people prefer to use various parts of the radish plants including roots, leaves, sprouts, seed pods and oil from seeds as their food according to their own custom. Radishes are low in calories and high in vitamin C, folate, and potassium. Radishes contain sulfurous compounds, such as sulforaphane, which have anti-cancer properties, and are expectorant.

Vegetable pea also known as garden pea (Pisum sativum, 2n = 2x = 14, family Fabaceae, formley Leguminosae, sub-family Papilionaceae), is rich in vitamins and sugars. Its green immature grains are consumed as fresh vegetables. Picked peas, are canned, frozen and dehydrated or freeze dried for super stores markets. Those associated with the immature pod are the snow, sugar or sugar snap types where pods are consumed. The total pea production world-wise has steadily increased owing to increasing green pea volume and top five countries are China (1.4 million ha), India (0.50 million ha), United States (0.08 million ha), United Kingdom (0.04 million ha) and Algeria (0.04 million ha). For field pea, the major producing countries are Russia, China, Canada, Europe, Australia and United States.

India produced 5.42 million tons of garden pea from 0.54 million ha area during 2017-18 giving a productivity of 10 tons/ha. The major garden pea producing states in India in descending order are UP, MP, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam. UP alone accounts for 40% of the total garden pea area. Within UP, major districts contributing to the vegetable pea are Jalaun, Lalitput, Jhansi, Mahoba, Kasganj, Etah, Sultanpur, Azamgarh, Hamirpur, and Amethi (MAFW, 2018).

Under normal weather situation, agriculture depends on timely occurrence of rainfall for crop management activities irrespective of different farming situations namely, irrigated and unirrigated agriculture. Changes in temperature and rainfall pattern together with frequent occurrence of extreme weather events are major anticipated threats from the climate change that occurs now around the world. This threat in long run, if not addressed properly, would affect food security of a country. Pratap Narain et al., (2000) observed an increase in moderate and severe drought occurrence numbers in the arid zone of India during last decade (1991-2000) as compared to the earlier decades of the last century. Similarly, Pasupalak (2008) reported daily maximum rainfall of 400.3 mm in the last decade against earlier record of 256.4 mm (1969–78) in a location at Odisha State. Further the inter- annual variation within the decade did increase and also the number of rainy days with very heavy rainfall > 125 mm also found increased in the location against the daily mean rainfall of 20 mm/day in India.

A day may be with heavy rainfall or with bright sunshine or windy or in combination of these. When heavy rainfall continues for more than a week with some system like cyclone, floods may be the result. Similarly, if dry spell continues during a cropping season for more than 15 days, drought would initiate in that region. This is again depending upon the nature of the soil water holding capacity and nature of soils, topography and green cover of that region. In between these two extremes, we have normal season, where we get normal seasonal rainfall during a cropping season. Hence like dress code, in agro-climatology, there are three weather codes, namely floods code, drought code and normal code. The jargon weather code was developed by Dr.M. S Swaminathan in India. Across the countries of the World, if these weather codes occur, the impact would be universal. The strength of adaptation capacity to maneuver these extreme events by the farming community rests with their past experience made for similar situations, financial support and also the technology options that are available from the scientific institutions.

7.1 Importance of Weather Forecast in Agriculture

In India, agriculture is in reality to be a “gamble activity” with the monsoon rain, that means the productivity and profit from agriculture depend upon the goodness of the season. If any malevolent weather situation that happens during a crop season, whether it is at the beginning of the crop season or at the mid of the crop season or at the terminal of the crop season or at the whole of the crop season, the productivity of the crops raised would be under stake. In practice the irrigated crop area is lesser than the area under unirrigated crop in India in any region except the regions where irrigation is routed through perennial rivers. Normally the production from unirrigated crop is 30 to 40 per cent of the same crop grown under irrigated condition in an environment in the same season.

In India, in a region or in a taluk, if the irrigated area is lesser than 30 per cent of total cultivable area, there is every opportunity for the occurrence of food shortage. That means assured production depends upon irrigation rather than managing the crops with seasonal rainfall alone. This clearly indicates that the higher probability of occurrence of crop production risks falls under rainfed/dry land situation. The crop production risk is also common to irrigated area like unirrigated crop but the intensity gets varied. In this context one example that happened in India can be quoted. During December- January of 1982, with the occurrence of heavy rain/snow as a result of prevalence of western disturbance weather system, the wheat crop stood for harvest at Punjab got damaged with a loss of 124 crore of rupees. If this was anticipated earlier through weather forecast development, (which is common in all developed countries) and communicated to the farmers in advance, then the yield loss would have been reduced by following some tactical decisions to be taken either by the farmers or by the concerned Government. At that time, India did not have medium range weather forecast system and hence Indian farmers met with greater losses.

Aim

Studies on plane table survey instruments

To determine the area of given open field by radiation method of plane table survey.

Plane table survey

Plane table surveying is a simple method of surveying for determination of area of field. The plane table survey is quite suitable for plotting small-scale and medium scale mappings directly in the field where great accuracy is not required. It is also used for plotting the topographical maps in the field. The plane table survey is generally more rapid and less costly than other types of survey.

In this survey, a plane table is used for taking the measurements and for plotting the plan in the field. Plane table surveying is a method in which the field observations and plotting of the plan proceed simultaneously. The plotted map can be compared with the actual features in the field. Errors in measurements and plotting can be easily detected in the field by taking suitable check lines.

Field Crops: Refers to the crops grown on a vast scale. They are classified in the following ways

1. According to the place of origin

2. Botanical classification

3. Commercial classification

4. Economic classification

5. Seasonal classification

6. Classification according to ontogeny

7. Agronomic classification

8. Classification based on leaf morphology

9. Classification based on serving special purpose

Criterion for essentiality of plant nutrients

Arnon’s (1954) criteria for essentiality of elements for plant growth:

1. The plant must be unable to grow normally or complete its life cycle in the absence of the element,

2. The element is specific and cannot be replaced by another and,

3. The element plays a direct role in metabolism.

Farmyard Manure is the manure prepared by using the mixture of dung and urine soaked litter by microorganisms.

Good farmyard manure is one

Salt affected soils occupy 962.2 m ha globally which accounts for 33% of the arable land. In India 8.373 m ha is affected with salts. Of which 2.359 m ha are alkali soils, 3.829 m ha are saline soils and 2.185 m ha coastal saline soils. Reclamation of these soils provides additional area for food grains production and employment.

Introduction

During the past 60 years, conventional agriculture has become increasingly dependent upon petroleum-based. Chcmically-synthesized fertilizers and pesticides for crop protection and to supply plant nutrients. Certainly, these energy intensive technologies have contributed greatly to this Nation’s agricultural productivity. However, sharply escalating production costs associated with the increasing cost and uncertain availability of energy i.e., fuel and fertilizers, have generated considerable interest in less expensive and more environmentally compatible production alternatives such as organic farming (USDA, 1980). The apparent decline in soil productivity throughout the world from excessive soil erosion, nutrient runoff and loss of soil organic matter; the impairment of environmental quality from sedimentation and pollution of natural waters by agricultural chemicals and the potential hazards to human and animal health and food safety from heavy use of pesticides, have also stimulated interest in organic farming systems of food production.

Use of organic wastes and residues in agriculture

Most countries have traditionally utilized various kinds of organic materials to maintain or improve the fertility, and productivity of their agricultural soils. However, several decades ago organic recycling practices were largely replaced with chemical fertilizers which were applied to high yielding cereal grains that responded best to a high level of fertility and adequate moisture, including irrigation. Soil cultivation was also intensified to improve weed control and seedbed conditions. Consequently, the importance of organic matter to crop production received less emphasis, and its proper use in soil management was neglected, or even forgotten. As a result of this and failure to implement effective soil conservation practices, the agricultural soils in a number of developed and developing countries have undergone serious degradation and decline in productivity.

Introduction

Weeds are the most costly category of agricultural pests, causing more yield losses and added labor costs than either insect pests or crop disease. Weeds are a constant fact of life in annual row crops, vegetables, and other horticultural crops. In India, the manual method of weed control is quite popular and effective. The usage of herbicides in India and elsewhere in the world is increasing due to possible benefits to farmers. At the same time, the continuous use of herbicides of the same weed shift, herbicide resistance in weeds and environmental pollutions. Application of herbicides also kills species of bacteria, fungi and protozoa thereby upsetting the balance of pathogens and beneficial micro organisms. The complexity of these situations has resulted in a need to develop a holistic sustainable eco-friendly weed management programme throughout the farming period (Gnanavel and Natarajan, 2014). Sustainable development of agriculture is concerned about the conservation of land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable. Sustainable weed management is the use of weed control methods that are socially acceptable, environmentally benign and cost-effective.

Ber (Ziziphus maruritiana Lam.) is cultivated all over the desert part of the Indian subcontinent for its fresh fruits, which are rich in vitamin C, vitamin A and vitamin B-complex and minerals. It can be successfully cultivated even in the most marginal ecosystems of the subtropics and tropics. Ber or Indian jujube belongs to the genus Zizphus of the family Rhamnaceae and order Rhamnales. Ber is adopted to ecologically poor, drought prone areas, which encounter recurrent crop failures and thereby economic crises. It yields nutritious fruit, rich in vitamins and minerals than apple even in drought years and its cultivation is highly cost effective owing to very low input requirement. Ber cultivation also provides employment for people in different farm operations for production and sale of the produce. In India, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are major ber producing states. The area under cultivation with this fruit is 8.7 lakh ha with an annual production of 8.9 lakh tones in India (Baloda et al., 2012). About 125 varieties of ber are available in India. A few of these varieties are known for taste, size, amount of pulp and higher yields. The cultivars Umran, Kathapal and Gola are the most promising varieties of ber in North India (Azam-Ali et al., 2001).

Nutritive Value

Many people are unaware that the ber is one of the most nutritive fruit, since ber is a common fruit. It is one of the richest sources of vitamin C, next only to aonla and Guava but better than citrus fruit and apple. The fruit pulp contains 13-20% total soluble solids and 0.20-0.80% acidity at fully ripened fruit. Ripe fruit of Umran contains 117 mg ascorbic acid/100 g of pulp. Ber fruit contains β-carotene (vitamin-A) at 81 µg/100 g of fruit, 5.6% sucrose, 1.54% glucose, 2.08% fructose, 1.00% starch and 1.13% total carbohydrates. Due this, so ber is often called the “poor man’s fruit”. Table 1 represent the nutritional composition of different ber varieties.

Tropical fruit tree are important crops which supplement and improve the quality of diet. Many of the species have multi-purpose uses in that they produce non food products such as fuel, timber, fodder, medicines and industrial products for small holders. Harvesting from these trees enable rural people to provide nutrition for a balanced diet and generate income thus alleviate poverty. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L) can be found throughout much of the tropics, it is grown unattended in backyards, roadsides or waste lands. Tamarind is ideally suited for avenue plantings as a roadsides tree, in and around villages as a multipurpose species for agro-forestry system or as protective firebreaks for forest margins. It is a valuable timber species widely used for making furniture, tool handles, charcoal, oil mills, rice pounders and fuel wood. The leaves are an important source of food and herbal medicine and the edible pulp of ripe fruits is used as a flavouring agent in cooking, soups, jams, chutneys, sauces, pickles etc. The fruit pulp of tamarind forms the “Tamarind of Commerce”. The name tamarind is derived from the Arabic word ‘Tamar-u’l-Hind’ because the dark brown pulp of the fruit was thought to resemble dried dates. It was therefore called the Tamere-hindi or ‘date of India. The production of Tamarind in India was estimated 201000 tonees for year 2017-18 (Horticulture statistics, 2018), India is the world’s largest producer of tamarind products. It is particularly abundant in the India states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The production in India is mainly concentrated in the drier southern states and the produce is collected by the villagers and sold in the market. In India, the average production of tamarind pods per tree is 175 kg and processed pulp is 70 kg/tree (Kulkarni et al., 1993).

India is today the second largest producer of fruit and vegetable after China with a total annual production of 281.75 million tons in 2017-18. Fruit and vegetables are essential components of the human diet and nutrition constitute. Fruit and vegetable are also element of diversification in agriculture for additional income generating resource and employment generation area. Although India is the largest producer of fruit in the world, the production per capita is only about 100 g per day. Huge losses to the extent of 20 to 40% of the total production are reported due to lack of adequate infrastructure and transportation facilities and higher the transportation cost. Thus the per capita availability of fruits is further reduced to 60 -80 g per day which is almost half the requirement for a balanced diet. The fruit production in India has recorded a growth rate of 3.9%, whereas the fruit processing sector has grown at about 20% per annum. However, the growth rates have been extensively higher for frozen fruits and vegetables (121%) and dehydrated fruits and vegetables (24%).

Fruit and vegetables are mostly seasonal crops but they are demanded by consumers throughout the year. They are very highly perishable in nature, which is difficult to preserve for the longer period of time under ambient storage conditions. The low temperature storage retarded the activity of various biological and biochemical agents of spoilage and provides longer shelf life to the fruit and vegetables The temperature is brought down by taking out the heat with the help of mechanical refrigeration, This system is based on a liquid absorbing heat as it change to a gas. The more common mechanical refrigeration system use a refrigerant such as (Ammonia, Freon etc.,) takes out the heat from the chamber/ store as it is expand. The spoilage agents are microorganism such as (e.g., bacteria, yeast and molds etc.) and larva. Optimum storage temperature for most products is one slightly above the freezing point of the product. Some fruit and vegetables are particularly sensitive to storage temperature are susceptible to called storage disease when stored at temperature below as or above the critical temperature e.g.,

Introduction

Earth’s magnetic field (MF) is a natural component of environment and is an inescapable factor for all living organisms including plants. Earth has an inner core made of molten iron which rotates at a fairly high speed creating a magnetic field just like a dynamo. This Geo Magnetic Field (GMF) extends from the earth’s interior into outer space. It interacts with the solar wind, which is actually a stream of charged particles emanating from the sun. As earth is engulfed in a GMF, all living organisms, both plants, animals and all biological processes are under its influence. However, local differences in strength and direction of the geomagnetic field have been detected. The vertical component of GMF is maximum at the magnetic poles, which is around 67 μT, and the horizontal component is zero there. Conversely, at the magnetic equator the vertical component is zero and the horizontal component is maximum, about 33 μT (Kobayashi et al., 2004).

Turbulent flows of the fluid metallic inner core of earth mainly contribute to GMF and the effect of external MFs located in the ionosphere and the magnetosphere is very meagre (Qamili et al., 2013). As GMF extends beyond the earth’s surface it is this force along with magnetosphere that protects the earth and its biosphere, from the solar wind by deflecting most of its charged particles (Occhipinti et al., 2014).

1. INTRODUCTION

With the rapid development of Information Communication Technology (ICT), many new services have been introduced in libraries to satisfy the need of users in a better way. Institutional Repository is a type of information service which involves collection, organization, preservation and dissemination of digital scholarly materials such as theses, dissertations, technical reports, journal articles and teaching materials. It is created and maintained by an individual library/ organization or a group of libraries/organizations with an aim to preserve the institutional knowledge .Thus basically it is an online locus for collecting, preserving and disseminating the intellectual output of an academic or research institution in digital form, created and maintained by the institution itself.

“Clifford Lynch defines “ a university based Institutional Repositories as a set of services that a university offers to the members of its community for the management and dissemination of digital materials created by the institution and its community members. It is most essentially an organizational commitment to the stewardship of these digital materials, including long-term preservation where appropriate, as well as organization and access or distribution” ¹

Similarly Mark defines IR as “An institutional repository (IR) is defined to be a web-based database (repository) of scholarly material which is institutionally defined (as opposed to a subject-based repository); cumulative and perpetual (a collection of record); open and interoperable (e.g. using OAI-compliant software); and thus collects, stores and disseminates (is part of the process of scholarly communication). In addition, most would include long-term preservation of digital materials as a key function of IRs”²

INTRODUCTION

Library Consortia is the sharing of resources among the libraries based on a number and utility over their respected areas. The resources that are shared in today’s consortia atmosphere are largely in electronic form such as electronic journals and databases. The aim of consortia is to accomplish what the members of the group cannot achieve individually, and its intention is sharing of resources, manpower and money, etc. It is regarded as a valuable strategy to increase the buying power and risk-sharing capacity of academic libraries over a short term. It is also a chance to maximize the opportunities for joint collection development and resource sharing over the long term. A consortium has the ability to share resources without forfeiting the individuality of member library. As a result, the end-users can collect the benefits of more resources than would be accessible through one library, while staff can adapt the system to meet their individual library’s needs. It can be a single agency with multiple locations around the world, all sharing one name, or the consortia members can retain their own name, but use the name of the consortia to recognize that they are the part of a larger, often worldwide, organization. It acts as director for the electronic resource sharing at the national, regional and local levels. The accessibility of IT-based electronic information products put forth portions of their budgetary allocation for either acquiring or accessing web-based online full-text search services, online databases shared services, on the one hand, permits flourishing consumption and desktop access to electronic resources at highly increasing users demands and growing cost of journals.

Since the industrial revolution in the 1800s, automation got more advanced to efficiently handle sophisticated tasks and increase production. With increasing demands and shortage of labor across the globe, agriculture robots or commonly known as Agribots are starting to gain attention among farmers. Crop production decreased by an estimated 213 crores approx ($3.1 billion) a year due to labor shortages in the USA alone. Recent advancements in sensors and AI technology that lets machines train on their surroundings have made agrobots more notable. We are still in the early stages of an ag-robotics revolution, harnessing the full potential of the Internet of Things in agriculture, with most of the products still in early trial phases and R&D mode.

The present study has been conducted in one of the agro-ecological zones of the state of West Bengal, New alluvial zone. Four villages from Haringhata block in Nadia district were selected from the new alluvial agro- ecological zone to conduct the study. One hundred farmers were selected from the villages of Dalilpur, Mitrapur, Fatehpur, 25 respondents from each. The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra krishi Viswavidyalaya, etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

Introduction

Recently the terms “governance” and “good governance” are being increasingly used in development literature. Bad governance is being increasingly regarded as one of the root causes of all evil within our societies. Major donors and international financial institutions are increasingly basing their aid and loans on the condition that reforms that ensure “good governance” are undertaken.

Good governance is an essential complement to sound economic policies. Efficient and accountable management by the public sector and a predictable and transparent policy framework are critical to the efficiency of markets and governments, and hence to economic development. Good governance, for the World Bank, is synonymous with sound development management The Bank’s experience has shown that the programs and projects it helps finance may be technically sound, but fail to deliver anticipated results for reasons connected to the quality of government action. Legal reforms, however urgent, may come to naught if the new laws are not enforced consistently or there are severe delays in implementation. Efforts to develop privatized production and encourage market-led growth may not succeed unless investors face dear rules and institutions that reduce uncertainty about future government action.

The Management tools are very useful to achieve the objectives of any extension organization. There are number of management tools, which extensively used for better personal and organizational effectiveness, such as follows: Johari window, SWOT analysis, Agro-Ecosystem analysis, PRA, Transaction Analysis, etc.

• Personal Effectiveness-Johari Window:

The personal effectiveness is very useful for success of management in any extension organization. In Extension organization, the manager or leader has to deal with human beings to obtain the objectives’ of the organization through better personal effectiveness. The basic precondition for personal effectiveness is better self-awareness but understanding one does not alone make a person effective.

The Johari Window: The simple and widely used model of self-awareness is the Johari window, developed by Joseph Luft& Harry Ingham in 1973. In this model, there are two main dimensions for understanding the self: Those aspects of a person’s behavior and style that known to him(Self) and those aspects of his behavior known to those with whom he interacts(Others). A combination of these two dimensions reveals fur areas of knowledge about the self.

The ICAR / Agriculture Universities are playing key role in addressing the gender issues in agriculture as a whole through development of women friendly technologies, efficient extension system and technical backstopping because of the fact that women are the backbone of as nearly contribute 33% of agriculture workforce and silently adorning myriad roles in agriculture sector from home maker to cultivator and even entrepreneur. Traditionally, managing the home, nurturing and grooming children have been considered to be the primary responsibility of women. Besides attending the household chores, they attend to arduous agricultural operations like sowing, transplanting, weeding, harvesting, threshing, agro processing in crop production and cutting and transportation of fodder, milking, cleaning of cattle shed and making of cow dung cakes in livestock rearing. The role of Indian rural women is increasing evidently due to migration of males to urban areas which is having profound and far-reaching effects.

Value Addition in Livestock Product

Mankind has been utilizing different animal species from the dawn of civilization for a variety of purposes viz. production of milk, meat, wool, egg and leather etc. These products are either useful in raw form or in value added form. Value-addition describes economically adding value to the product by changing its place, time and form to characteristics that are more preferred in the market place. Another way of explaining is that what happens when you take a basic product and increase the value of that product, usually the price by adding extras in the manufacturing process, or by tacking on extra products and/or services.

16.1 Introduction

The broad bean is a hardy plant and can withstand sufficiently cold temperatures. It is cultivated on a small scale in India but widely cultivated in Latin America. This is the only bean which is sown in autumn and is grown as a winter crop (in temperate countries). Broad bean is used as green, shelled and dry beans and as a feed for livestock. Plants have distinguishing features like square and erect growing stems which grow up to 30 cm (dwarf cultivars) to 100 cm (tall cultivars). 

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas.

• Cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, North Eastern States, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• It is the king of spices.

1.2. Economic importance

• Spiciness is due to the chemical compound piperine

• In foods, used as a spice.

• High in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

• May benefit for brain.

• May improve blood sugar control and lower cholesterol levels.

• May have cancer fighting properties.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• The oldest known beverage, tea is native of China (Between China and Burma) in South East Asia.

• Known to the Chinese as early as 2737BC, but it was a popular drink in England in 1664 AD.

• Original species, which produce tea, were C.assamica (Assam jats), C.sinensis (China jats) and their natural hybrid, C.assamica subspecies lasiocalyx (Indo China or cambod type).

• Chinese (Small leaf) tea - C. sinensis var. sinensis: Originated in southern China possibly with hybridization of unknown wild tea relatives

• Chinese Western Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea

• Indian Assam (Large leaf) tea- C. sinensis var. assamica: Originated from Camellia taliensis in the area where southwestern China, Indo-Burma, and Tibet meet

• Chinese Southern Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea: Hybridized with the closely related species Camellia taliensis

• Difference between Assam and China types

2.1. Chromosome number

• Basic chromosome number for the genus Coffea is n=11

• Coffea canephora-diploid (2n=2x=22)

• Coffea arabica (2n=4x=44 )

2.2. Origin and distribution

• Original domesticated coffee plant is said to have been from Harar and native population is derived from Ethiopia (Abyssinia Plateau) with distinct nearby populations in Sudan and Kenya.

• From where, it was taken to Arabia in 11^th century.

• From Arabia, its seeds were brought to India by Baba Budan in the 17^th Century and were raised in the Baba Budan Hills of Karnataka.

• British planters established large coffee estates near Chikmagalur (Karnataka) in 1826, in Manantody (Wynad) and Shevoroys in 1830 and Nilgiris in 1839.

• Almost the entire production is shared by Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, smaller production in Andhra Pradesh, north eastern states and Madhya Pradesh.

• Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for 70% of total coffee production and 60% of the area

• Kozhikode, Waynad, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Palakkad are the chief producing districts in Kerala.

10.1. Preservation through canning

• Process of sealing food stuffs hermetically in containers and sterilizing them by heat for long storage

• In 1804, Appert in France invented this process.

• Also known as appertizing.

• Saddington in England - First to describe a method of canning of foods in 1807.

• In 1810, Peter Durand obtained first British Patent on canning of foods in tin containers.

• In 1817, William Underwood introduced canning of fruits on commercial scale in U.S.A.

• Fruits and vegetables are canned in season when raw material is available in surplus.

• Canned products are sold in off season for better returns to grower.

10.1.1. Principles and process of canning

1. Introduction

Coriander is a vital spice crop with a grave role in delicious food test. It is a tropical crop and cultivated as a major in Rabi season in chill free extents through the blossoming phase. Especially, all portions of the plant are comestible, but the fresh shrubberies and the desiccated seeds are the parts conventionally used in culinary. Approximately of the diverse forms of coriander are greenery, blossom and capsules. Coriander leaves are mainly ironic in vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin K, with moderate pleased of nutritional minerals. Though seeds usually have inferior happy of vitamins, they do widely provide significant quantities of nutritional fibre, calcium, selenium, iron, magnesium and manganese. Mostly, coriander plant productivity is around one and three-fourth tonnes per acre of seed. The root is crushed and used as a condiment in useable form.

1. Introduction

Jackfruit is a fruit crop that is under appreciated and neglected. The jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) is a member of the Moraceae family. India is the world’s greatest cultivator and producer of jackfruit, also known as the poor man’s fruit because it grows more in rural than metropolitan areas. It is a pretty huge tree that bears the world’s largest edible fruit. The jackfruit is a tropical fruit native to Southeast Asia. It is thought to have originated in India’s rainforests, in the Western Ghats, and is now widely farmed throughout the region’s lowlands. The leading jackfruit producers in the world include Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. Jackfruit can be found in East Africa, Brazil, and Caribbean nations such as Jamaica. Bangladesh’s national fruits are the jackfruit, mango, and banana.

1. Introduction

The Indian economy is heavily dependent on agriculture (employing 53 % population). Around 84 % of the holdings are less than 2 ha while approximately 67% of the farms have less than 1 ha of operational farmland (Government of India, 2013; Pandey and Suganthi, 2015). A large fraction of the farming population is mostly reliant on monsoon rains for irrigation. The condition of the farmers is found to be deteriorating year after year with the revelation that 27% of farmers did not consider farming as a profitable enterprise and 40% were ready to migrate to other avenues for employment (NSSO, 2005; Pandey and Suganthi, 2015). 

Introduction Agricultural extension plays a pivotal role in the advancement of agriculture in any nation. It encompasses the dissemination of knowledge, guidance, and assistance to farmers, rural communities, and various stakeholders involved in the agricultural domain. The primary objective of agricultural extension is to empower farmers to enhance their productivity, income, and overall quality of life. The concept of agricultural extension has undergone significant transformations across various countries, including India. This article will delve into the historical progression of agricultural extension both internationally and within the Indian context.

Introduction The world of agriculture stands at the crossroads of innovation and tradition, and at the heart of this dynamic sector lies the crucial role of farm journalism. In the backdrop of evolving technologies, shifting market dynamics, and the everpressing need for sustainability, farm journalism emerges as a vital conduit of information, education, and advocacy for farmers and rural communities. This chapter delves into the multifaceted realm of farm journalism, exploring its definition, scope, guiding principles, and its indispensable functions and roles in the sphere of rural development.

1. Quantitative characters are governed by

a) Monogene

c) Recessive gene

b) Bi-gene

 d) Polygene

2. Monohybrids are derived by hybridizing two individuals which differ for

a) Single-character

c) Quadruple character

b) Double character

 d) Multiple character

While describing fish, we need complete general information about the different specimens of fish included in the particular class or grade. A flow sheet of the general characters used in this concern may be tabulated as:

1. Origin of the term: The term Pisces comes from the old version of the plural of the Latin word piscis or singular word piscus meaning “fish.”

2. Literal meaning and definition: It describes either the creature or the meat from the creature. It is a streamlined, cold-blooded aquatic vertebrate with scales and gills,

3. Origin and evolution: The first fish appeared around 530 million years ago during the Cambrian period and then underwent a long period of evolution so that, today, they are by far the most diverse group of vertebrates. The Devonian Period is known as the “Age of Fishes”.

24.1 Introduction

Water is a universal biological solvent and the medium in which most of the cellular reactions of metabolism occur. Fish contain a large amount of water in their cells and extracellular fluids. It is important to a fish that its water content be nearly constant. This more or less steady state of water content in the body can only be maintained when there is a quality difference between the amount of water entering and leaving the body. The process of regulating the movement of water and its volume in the body is known as osmoregulation.

28.1 Introduction

The use of biological light in active transport, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction is a feature shared by all living organisms. Surprisingly, a large number of living organisms have evolved the ability to convert chemical energy into light, which is manifested as bioluminescence.

Bioluminescence is a fascinating biological phenomenon found in both terrestrial and aquatic living organisms. The light emitted by living organisms as a result of chemical reactions in their bodies is known as bioluminescence. Cold light is produced by this type of chemiluminescence.

34.1 Introduction

Fishes are the first aquatic vertebrates whose life cycle is largely affected by the aquatic habitat. They exhibit much variation in their social life. Some species show no attraction between males and females, conversely, some provide high social attraction and parental care. Therefore, parental care is developed for their social life and habitat.

41.1 Introduction

Fishes adapted to live at a temperature ranging from 10-200C constitute coldwater f ish. Upland water at high altitudes in the mountains and spring water at low elevations in temperate regions remain cooler than the rest, allowing coldwater f isheries to thrive in these areas. Such bodies of water, which include several hill streams, pools, lakes and reservoirs, are abundant in the Himalayan and Deccan plateau regions of peninsular India. These are fed by either melting snow or springs in the north or rain on the Deccan plateau.

44.1 Introduction

Ornamental fish are a diverse and colourful species benefiting millions of aquarium enthusiasts. The term "ornamental fish" was first coined in the early 19th century to describe fish kept solely for decorative purposes by ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians and Egyptians.

They are known for their shapes, sizes, vibrant colours, intricate patterns and distinct behaviours with hobbyists and collectors. They are widely used to distinguish between fish kept for food or other practical purposes.

47.1 Introduction

Fish are one of the most important groups of vertebrates and have always been a significant species in man’s life, influencing it in a variety of ways. Fish are highly valued in human civilization for their food, cooking, and nutritional value. They have significant economic, nutritional, medicinal, industrial, aesthetic and religious values, and they employ millions of people worldwide. Several species are sought after as luxury foods in high-end restaurants. They help to ensure food security in many parts of the world by serving as a valuable supplement to varied and nutritious diets.

The process for discovering new fungicides has evolved throughout time. Over the past 20 years, a number of novel fungicides with various chemical activity have been created, after the age of site-specific systemic fungicides and multisite broad-spectrum fungicides. Compared to earlier chemicals, they are utilised at considerably lower dosages, making them more ecologically friendly.The most significant of them is called strobilurin (QoI), which is derived from the wild Strobilurus tenacellus fungus. The oxazolidinediones (phaoxadone), phenoxyquinolines (quinoxifene), anilinopyrimidines (cyprodinil, pyrimethanil), and valinamide (iprovalicarb, benchocarb), manderamide (mandipropamide), and phenylpyrrole (fenpicroyl, fludioxonil) are other significant fungicides that were introduced in the last ten years to control a variety of diseases. These substances have distinct molecular structures and modes of action.