eChapters

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the oldest and most widely cultivated vegetable crops, with a history of domestication extending over five thousand years. Valued for its culinary, medicinal, nutritional and cultural importance, it has travelled across continents through migration, trade and agricultural exchange. Its broad ecological adaptability has enabled cultivation in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. The chapter examines probable centres of origin, historical evidence of cultivation, domestication and geographical dispersal. It also explains onion’s nutritional and therapeutic significance, global production status, genetic diversification and role in human civilization, providing a historical foundation for understanding modern onion improvement and cultivation.

Deep learning enables automated analysis of agricultural images for crop classification, disease detection, weed identification, yield prediction and soil monitoring. This chapter examines Convolutional Neural Networks, Recurrent Neural Networks and Vision Transformers applied to imagery collected by satellites, drones and ground-based sensors. These models automatically identify patterns and features that conventional methods may overlook. Integration with precision agriculture can improve decision-making, increase crop productivity and reduce resource waste. Challenges include shortages of annotated datasets, limited interpretability and high computational requirements. Transfer learning, data augmentation, edge computing and real-time processing are discussed as approaches for enabling practical deployment in remote and resource-constrained agricultural environments.

This chapter presents laboratory procedures for measuring the major physical properties that regulate soil behaviour, water availability, aeration and root development. It begins with particle-density determination using a pycnometer and proceeds to bulk density, soil texture, moisture content, total pore space, porosity and water-holding capacity. Each practical exercise provides the underlying principle, required apparatus, procedural steps, calculations and relevant precautions. The hydrometer method is introduced for estimating the proportions of sand, silt and clay. Methods for evaluating moisture retention and pore relationships are also described. Collectively, these measurements help characterize soil structure, compaction, drainage, water storage and its suitability for crop production.

Deep learning has significantly advanced automated plant phenotyping and disease detection by enabling computers to identify complex patterns in large volumes of plant imagery and sensor data. This chapter examines the fundamentals and applications of deep learning architectures in plant science. It discusses convolutional neural networks for image-based plant analysis and advanced architectures including recurrent neural networks, transformers and hybrid models. Data acquisition through imaging and sensor technologies is also considered. The chapter highlights how deep learning can support automated identification of plant characteristics, disease symptoms and crop health conditions. Challenges related to datasets, environmental variability, computational requirements and model generalization are examined alongside emerging research opportunities.

The fungal exometabolome represents the collection of metabolites secreted by fungi into their surrounding extracellular environment. This chapter introduces the concept of the fungal exometabolome and distinguishes it from the intracellular endometabolome. It discusses the composition of extracellular metabolites, factors influencing their production, methods used for exometabolome analysis, and their biological functions. Fungal exometabolites can contribute to communication, nutrient acquisition, competition, host interactions, and environmental adaptation. The chapter also examines industrial and medical applications and the role of fungal exometabolomics in systems biology. Advantages, limitations, analytical challenges, and future perspectives are discussed to demonstrate the value of extracellular metabolite analysis in fungal research.

Quality Control addresses the standards and management practices required to ensure reliable and effective biofertilizer products. It introduces general quality concepts, quality-control parameters, microbial functions, and properties of microbial products. The chapter then explains quality-management procedures for important biofertilizer groups, including Rhizobium, nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixers, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria. Quality-control measures are linked to product performance, consistency, storage, and application suitability. By emphasizing systematic assessment and management, the chapter highlights why quality assurance is essential for maintaining viable microbial populations and delivering predictable agricultural benefits from biofertilizers and related biological inputs. across production and distribution systems effectively today.

Role of Bioinputs explains how biological inputs contribute to soil health, plant performance, ecological interactions, and long-term agricultural sustainability. It introduces the conceptual framework and classification of bioinputs before examining their effects on soil microbial populations, enzyme activities, organic carbon, nutrient availability, soil structure, rhizosphere activity, and soil-fertility indicators. The chapter further explores plant–microbe interactions and plant–faunal relationships involving earthworms, beneficial nematodes, arthropods, microarthropods, protozoa, and the soil food web. By linking biological processes with physiological and agronomic outcomes, the chapter presents bioinputs as important components of resilient, ecologically balanced, and sustainable farming systems. across sustainable and natural farming systems.

Food, clothing and housing are the three basic needs of a man. After that the additional requirement of a man are personal health and happiness. These can be considered as human factors. The material factors are agriculture, industry, trade, water resources management, insurance.

The continuous increase in population made the planners, researchers and cultivators to increase the food production to feed all the people. So, the second green revolution has to follow. Due to increase in air temperature and climate change, the cultivation practices to change based on the changing climatic condition. The study of climate is not only necessary for food production, but also needed for transportation, storage, value addition and consumption.

The need of the cloth for man is not only for style. The basic need is to protecting the human body from the climatic factors like heat and cold. Clothing must provide to maintain the body heat at about 37^oC. Clothing must be made based on the local climatic condition. So, the traditional fiber for making the cloth is better for health.

Housing provides the internal controlled climate to the human being. It provides comfort to the inhabitants. Like clothing traditional styles, sites and methods of housing have to be followed based on the climatic condition. Though people are living in the multi-storied building, they have to concentrate on comfort in the case of sufficient aeration and ventilation. In India, the Vastu Sastrum is nothing, but it provides the needs of the human livings for their comfort with sufficient light and air.

The climatic factors for a particular day are not similar to previous day. Similarly, definitely the climate of one season is not similar to other season. Man needs some recreation in the comfort climatic areas. So, he/she needs cool climate for stay that necessitate to air conditioner particularly during summer.

Laparoscope

The term laparoscope derived from Greek word “Laparo” meaning “flank,” which is the side of the body between the ribs and hips (abdomen) and “scope” means to look at or examine. Laparoscope can be defined as an instrument through which structures within the abdomen and pelvis can be seen or a fiber optic device that consists of a flexible tube. Fiber optic scope is used to directly visualize the internal anatomy of a hollow organ. Laparoscope is used in laparoscopy and laparoscopic surgery. It has lenses like a telescope to magnify body structures, a powerful light to illuminate them and a miniature video camera. The camera sends images of the inside of the body to a TV monitor in the operating room. Specialized surgical instruments can be inserted through the laparoscope.

Among the various modern surgical methods, laparoscopy is now held as one of the most potent and promising aids for both diagnostic (laparoscopy) and therapeutic (laparoscopic surgery) use. Laparoscopy is an endoscopic procedure that bridges the gap between clinical evaluation and surgical exploration. The laparoscopic surgical techniques in both and human and veterinary medicine have grown tremendously. Laparoscopy requires a minor surgical intervention and it provides the only available practical means of making repeated direct observation of abdominal viscera. The advantage of surgical laparoscopy over the conventional open surgical laparotomy include faster patient recovery because of smaller surgical sites, decreased hospitalization, improved cosmetic, improved visualization of abdominal organs, lower postoperative morbidity with lower infection rates, and less postoperative pain and stress. Surgeons are commonly looking for more progressive and stressful surgical methods of sterilization in dogs, particularly in canine birth control programs in urban industrial areas. Demographically dense urban and industrial areas require effective animal birth control programs that can overcome the problems of hospitalization, postoperative complications and reduction in the overall cost of operation. In a large scale animal birth control program, the conventional methods of sterilization require a long period between capture of dogs and their release, due to the time taken for the surgical wounds to heal. In this aspect, keyhole surgery (laparoscopic surgery) can revolutionize the entire program, as it needs only a very small surgical wound, which usually needs no postoperative care or regular dressings.

Abstract

In recent years the quest for improving the quality of life has ventured into many aspects of utilizing plants for the aesthetic sense. One such is an increased utilization of flowers /flowering plants for beautification of homes, offices, gardens etc. The increased interest in use of cut flowers has brought challenge of bringing in varieties of natural flowers from different sources. India’s rich biodiversity also contributes addition of lot of new species to the cut flower industry. Banana and Plantains have been revered only for their utility as dessert fruit or staple food. But aesthetic dimension has never been much explored. Musa comprises more than 50 species and sub species traversed across the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Musa Ornata is one such plant, native to north eastern regions of India, belongs to the family Musaceae and section Rhodochlamys. It draws its attention by virtue of its bright inflorescence and its long lasting nature. It is a medium statured plant, hence suitable for gardens also. It is a fertile wild species, multiplies mainly through suckers and through seeds to some extent.

Abstract

Agricultural practices prior to the eighteenth century were completely dependent on crop landraces and their mixtures. The knowledge of plant genetics and its application to crop improvement programmes led to increase the production potential of agriculture. Contrary to this, the wonders of crop improvement have resulted in the erosion of genetic diversity of many crops in farmers’ fields, including wheat, due to the replacement of landraces and farmers’ old cultivars with modern high-yielding cultivars.

Wheat is cultivated over an area of 216.6 million hectare globally and the production is 674.9 million tons. The seven largest producers of wheat are China, India, the Russian Federation, the USA, France, Turkey and Canada. During 2012-13, India produced 92.46 million tons of wheat from 29.65m ha area with productivity of 31.19q/ha (4th Advance Estimates, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of India). Three wheat species namely, T. aestivum L., T. durumDesf. and T. dicoccumSchubl are grown in India as commercial crops covering 95, 4 and 1 percent area, respectively. The cultivation of T. dicoccumis confined largely to the regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra.

Abstract

A profile study of organic pigeonpea growers was conducted during 2007-08 in Gulbarga district of Karnataka state. Two taluks namely, Gulbarga and Jewargi were selected based on highest area under organic pigeonpea cultivation. One hundred twenty respondents were selected with simple random sampling procedure, to know (1) the practices followed by farmers in organic pigeonpea cultivation and (2) the forward linkage activities followed by organic pigeonpea growers. The study revealed that majority of respondents (63.33 %) had medium level knowledge about organic pigeonpea farming practices, with regard to individual organic farming practices, majority of respondents had knowledge about the practices like recommended seed rate (81.60%), recommended sowing time (98.33 %), application of FYM (100%), crop rotation (96.67%), pheromone traps (98.33%), NPV (100%) and NSKE (100%). With regard to post harvest operations, cent percent of respondents graded the produce manually and jute bags used to store the produce, whereas, 71.67% of the respondents sold later when price was suitable in regulated market (90.00%) through commission agents (77.50%) and got price information by personnel visit/phone call to regulated market (81.67%) and others who visited the market (68.33%). But no farmer certified the produce and sold at premium price. With regards to personal characteristics, majority of respondents (31.62 %) were illiterate, 59.17 per cent were had joint family, 61.17 per cent were having low farming experience, 60.83 per cent of respondents were big land holders and 69.17 per cent of respondents possessed medium level of scientific orientation.

Abstract

Many people’s food and livelihood security depend on the sustained management of various biological resources that are important for food and agriculture. Agro biodiversity is the result of the interaction between the environment, genetic resources and management systems and practices used by culturally diverse peoples. The management of agro biodiversity by the indigenous communities is for a variety of reasons. The land use types, land use stages, aspect, soil fertility, availability of water and quality seed of crops etc. are essential variables which an indigenous farmer considers while cultivating a diversity of traditional landraces in the farm for food security. India is the largest producer of many kinds of millets, which are often referred as coarse cereals. However, realizing the nutrient richness of these grains they are now considered as nutria-cereals. Small millets, as a group includes several grain crops namely finger millet (ragi), proso millet, barnyard millet, italian millet, kodo millet and little millet. In the four decades since 1961, the area under millets declined by nearly 50% from about 18 million hectares to about 9 million hectares. During this time, production of millets declined from about 8.8 million tons to about 7.2 million tons; a decline of 18%. Tremendous decrease in area and production is directly or indirectly resulted in the loss of agro biodiversity of these crops as these crops are grown on marginal or rainfed areas without any fertilizers. Therefore, more emphasis should be given for maintaining bio diversity of these highly rich crops by increasing area under these minor millets and developing proper agro techniques for increasing its productivity.

Abstract

The genetic divergence among 249 germplasm lines of maize was assessed by D2statistics based on nine parameters at Agricultural Research Station, Karimnagar. The germplasm lines were grouped into eleven clusters. Clusters I and II were the largest clusters with 73 and 79 genotypes, respectively. The highest inter cluster distance was observed between cluster X and XI followed by cluster V and XI indicating more variability in the genetic makeup of inbreds included in these clusters. Cluster V showed highest mean values for grain yield/plant and ear length. Cluster XI had the lowest mean values for plant height and ear height and these two characters showed maximum contribution towards total divergence among different characters. Based on inter cluster distances, inter crossing among the genotypes belonging to cluster V, IX, X and XI has the chance of getting high yielding hybrids with higher heterosis.

Abstract

Indigenous chickens play vital role in sustainable rural development by providing livelihood and nutritional security to the rural and tribal people. However, indigenous chickens in the country increasingly face the threat of their replacement or erosion in their genetic diversity due to introduction of exotic or improved chickens to enhance productivity of backyard poultry production. Therefore, it becomes imperative to improve the growth and productivity of indigenous chickens in order to make the rearing of indigenous chickens economically attractive proposition. Aseel is one of the important indigenous breeds of chicken that is being conserved and improved for growth and egg production at Directorate of Poultry Research (DPR), Hyderabad. The averageegg production of improved Aseel chickens recorded in a laying cycle of 72 weeks of age was 150.3±5.63with an average egg weight of 48.66 ±0.34g. The average body weights of male and female birds recorded at 72 weeks of age were 3156 ± 27.4 and 2133±36.1 g, respectively while corresponding shank lengths were 135.23±0.7 and 104.9±0.4 mm. Another indigenous chicken germplasm, Ghagus-ecotype was collected from border area of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh at Kolar district and is being characterized and conserved at DPR. The comparative growth performance of these indigenous chickens was also studied under similar management conditions. It was observed that the growth and egg production of improved Aseel breed was significantly higher than the Ghagus-ecotype chickens. The improved Aseel breed with its better growth and production performance appears to be a promising indigenous chicken for sustainable rural poultry production.

Abstract

The human race has been dependent on plants for both material and financial needs for millions of years. This has enabled them to evolve a unique system of knowledge on the utilization and conservation of plant genetic resources. Tribals rich traditional knowledge is associated with biodiversity. This knowledge has been acquired over years, treasured and are endowed with and passed on by the local communities and the tribals. Farmers with their age old experience in farming developed a comprehensive knowledge on nutrient content and medicinal properties of various plants. Cereals, small millets, pulses, oilseeds & many more forest plants form important component of food source for the tribal people of North coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh. This knowledge was documented from older generation who could provide age old information about the landraces and traditional life styles which are under threat. This paper briefly describes the extent of knowledge possessed by tribal respondents on Agrobiodiversity in terms of crops and landraces cultivated in selected mandals of Visakhapatnam district. Results indicated low knowledge on landrace of Jowar whereas medium knowledge in case of oilseeds and millets and high knowledge in cereals, pulses and vegetables. This calls for a immediate attention from various stake holders for Agrobiodiversity conservation.

Introduction

Wheat is an important cereal crop and is widely cultivated across the world. Wheat is consumed in different forms and major products are chapati, bread, biscuit, noodles and pasta products. Wheat has three groups of cultivated species namely bread, durum and dicoccum wheats. The common or bread wheats account for approximately 95% of world production. Nearly all of the remaining 5% cultivated varieties are durum wheats used for pasta products and couscous and dicoccums represent very little of the total wheat production. The bread wheat is divided into two broad classes based on grain texture; hard and soft. Hard wheats with high protein content and strong gluten are used for making bread and some noodles while soft wheats with lower protein content and weak gluten for biscuit, cakes and pretzels. Semi-hard wheats having some combinations of the above characteristics are utilized for making unleavened breads such as chapati, Asian steamed bread and some noodles. There can be large disparity within wheats of various classes; therefore to provide consistent quality, it is divided into grades. The grading is determined by the test weight, protein content, moisture and foreign material. The major wheat exporting countries have distinct grading patterns designed to provide wheat for specific purposes and consistent quality.

INTRODUCTION

Carbon dioxide gas is fundamental to sustaining life on earth for two reasons (i) it is a source of C for photosynthesis, and (ii) it acts like blanket in atmosphere that keeps the earth warm. Molecular CO₂ absorbs short wave solar radiations and release them as long wave infra red radiations. An atmospheric concentration of 300 ppm is adequate to support life on earth. CO₂ accounts for about half of the greenhouse effect. The natural concentration of green house gases (GHGs) has been essential to life on earth, creating the average temperature of 15ºC. Without the naturally occurring green house effect, the average temperature would be minus 18ºC. CO₂ concentration has now reached 400 ppm. If present trends continue then CO₂ levels would reach 600 ppm in 2100 and 1300 ppm in 2200 and level off at 1800 ppm in the year 2400 (Harvey and Danney, 2000). With increasing CO₂ concentration the amount of solar radiation absorbed by atmosphere would increase and make earth warmer. The higher atmospheric temperature can affect global hydrological cycle and alter the distribution and productivity of terrestrial biota. This can have devastating consequences for human life as each 10C increase in temperature, vegetation zones may change dramatically, moving toward the poles by 200-300 km. Further, each 1ºC of global warming will also increase water evaporation, leading to about 2% greater mean global precipitation.

INTRODUCTION

Phytotoxin literally means “plant poison”; it may refer to any toxin produced by a plant. Phytotoxins generally have allelopathic effect. Allelo-chemicals when added/released to substratum may be directly or indirectly harmful or beneficial to the growth and development of the associated vegetation or to the source plant itself. The definition of allelopathy accepted by the International Allelopathic Society is; “any process involving secondary metabolites produced by plants, algae, bacteria and fungi that influence the growth and development of agricultural and biological systems” (Torres et al. 1996). Allelo-chemicals are defined as bio-communicators suggesting the possibility of active mixtures, because of the findings in which single compounds are not active or are not as active as a mixture (Macias et al. 1998). 

Introduction

Plant pests have been a part of the man’s environment, since ages. Traditional agriculture which included diverse crops and indigenous crop management practices provided little opportunity for the pests to build up and spread rapidly (Smith and Allen,1954). Crop production is constantly threatened by increasing difficulties in controlling insect pests, which are a major impediment to improved livelihoods of the poor farmers. However, in the quest for increasing food production for the growing population, use of pesticides became a norm in crop management. Pesticides became an integral part of the process owing to losses from weeds, diseases and pests reducing the harvestable produce. Use of pesticides along with high yielding varieties, irrigation and improved seed did result in increased productivity. But the rampant use of these chemicals, under the adage, “if little is good, a lot more will be better” has played havoc with human and other life forms.

Introduction

Worldwide damage due to insect pest attack accounts for 15 per cent crop losses, despite the use of insecticides which represents over US $100 billion (Krattiger, 1997). The annual cost of insect control itself amounts to US $8 billion, thus warranting immediate and economical control measures. The crop varieties developed in the past 30 years were high yielders, but unfortunately had poor storage characteristics and were highly susceptible to pest damage. Insect-pests are capable of evolving to biotypes that can adapt to new situations, for instance they overcome the effect of toxic materials or bypass natural or artificial plant resistance, which further confounds the problem (Roush and McKenzie, 1987). Under these circumstances, provision of food to the rapidly expanding population has always been a challenge facing mankind. This problem is more acute in the tropics and sub-tropics, where the climate provides a highly conducive environment for a wide range of insects and necessitates massive efforts to suppress the population densities of different pests in order to achieve an adequate supply of food. In developing countries, the problem of competition from insect-pests is further complicated with a rapid annual increase in human population (2.5-3.0 percentage) against a meager 1.0 per cent increase in food production. In order to feed the ever expanding population, crop protection plays a vital and integral role in the present day agricultural production to minimize yield losses. Currently, the crop protection practice in agricultural systems relies exclusively on the use of agrochemicals, although a few specific cases do exist, where inherent varietal resistance and biological control have been successfully employed. The exclusive use of chemical pesticides not only results in rapid build-up of resistance to such compounds, but their non-selectivity affects the balance between pests and natural predators, and is generally in favour of pests (Metcalf, 1986).

Introduction

Plant parasitic nematodes occur wherever plants grow. These nematodes are referred to as plant pathogenic when they cause crop losses by direct injury to roots, stems, leaves and seeds. A large number of plant parasitic nematodes have been found associated with fruit crops in all over India but pathogenisity has not been proved for all. Most of commonly occurring nematodes belong to genera Meloidogyne spp., Pratylenchus spp., Rotylenchulus spp., Hoplolaimus spp., Tylenchulus spp., Xiphinema spp., and Radopholus spp. etc. The nematodes damage the crops not only by feeding on plants but also by interacting with various other organisms like fungi, bacteria and viruses etc. Estimated overall average annual yield loss of the world’s major crops due to damage by plant parasitic nematodes was 12.3%. Estimated annual crop losses in India have been accounted to Rs. 242.1 billion. The crop losses due to nematode pests are not only in the form of reduced plant growth and yield but are also in the marketable quality of the produce.

Introduction

The contribution of agrochemicals in improving food security and human health cannot be undermined. They are, however, like a double-edged weapon; their indiscriminate use could result in a serious threat to the sustainability of the agricultural production system and human health. Though their long-term effects on environment and human health are yet to be fully understood, the short-term adverse effects of their indiscriminate use became apparent soon after their invention during the World War II. Many insect pests have developed resistance to chemical pesticides, and a number of beneficial insects that are natural enemies of the pests have disappeared. Realizing these threats, the scientific community has been proactive and developed safer alternatives using flora and fauna as substitutes for chemical pesticides. These alternatives are claimed to be as effective as chemical pesticides. Experimental evidences indicate that these provide effective protection against pests when used in conjunction with other methods of pest control, including chemical pesticides. The strategy is often referred to as Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Since the adoption of IPM as a cardinal principle of plant protection in 1985, India has devised and implemented many IPM programmes encompassing research, extension and education with the objective to reduce the use of chemical pesticides, improve farm profitability, conserve environment and reduce adverse effect of pesticides on human health. Their effect is revealed in considerable reduction in pesticide-use, particularly during 1990s. The purpose of this paper is to provide a perspective on the IPM with emphasis on food security and safety.

Introduction

Majority of the commercially important freshwater prawns belongs to the genus Macrobrachium of family Palaemonidae. Among the commercially important freshwater prawns of India the most important cultivable species at present is the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii due to its superior cultivable attributes such as fast growth rate, large size, wide range of salinity tolerance, hardiness and compatibly to grow with carps. The species enjoys good consumer preference and domestic as well as export market demand. Freshwater prawns are cultured in freshwater or low saline brackish water (salinity <10 ppt) and can be cultured either alone (monoculture) or in combination with fishes such as carps, tilapia and milkfish (polyculture). Freshwater prawn culture can be carried out in earthen ponds, cement cisterns, in pens or in cages. However, most of the operations are being carried out in earthen ponds.

Introduction

Market intelligence is a basic requirement for attaining global trade competitiveness in agriculture and allied sectors. In a free market economy, a commodity’s current price and expected future price have consequences on its future supply as the entrepreneur’s production plans are accordingly changed. Additionally market intelligence on non-price issues like changes in consumer perceptions, traceability and quality related issues of HACCP is also equally important. This can guide the farmers in deciding the quality and the quantity of a commodity to be produced for particular target market/market segment. Market analysis and quantity that is likely to be in demand and price forecasts for fish are important to producers for rational production planning and for processors/exporters for taking right marketing decisions. Domestic and international input suppliers, bankers, insurers and policy analysts need market intelligence to estimate the requirements of fishers at macro-level for their advance planning.

Introduction

Linear programming (LP) is one of the most widely applied operation research techniques and owes its popularity to George Dantzig’s simplex method (Danzig 1963). It is an important field of optimization for several reasons. Many practical problems in operation research can be expressed as linear programming problems. Linear programming is heavily used in microeconomics and business management, either to maximize the income or minimize the costs of a production scheme. Some examples are food blending, inventory management, portfolio and finance management, resource allocation for human and machine resources, planning advertisement campaign etc.

In our economy, there are limited resources at our disposal. Our problem is to make such use of these resources to yield maximum quantity of production or to minimize the cost of production. Therefore, there arises the question of Linear Programming that is defined as a mathematical method of calculating the least cost combination of the factors of production, when there are many possible alternative combinations available to an enterprise.

What are Chordates?

The animal kingdom is divided first into several major animal groups called phyla: singular phylum. There are approximately so animal phyla. The last major groups of the animal kingdom are known as phylum chordate it was created by Belfour, in 1880. The name of this phylum is derived from two Greek words, the chorda- meaning a string or cord and ata- meaning bearing. The reference is to a common characteristic feature in the form to a stiff, supporting rod – like structure along the back, the notochord (Gr – noton – back, L-chorda-cord). This is found in all the members of the phylum at some stage of their lives. Chordates are animals having a cord are “notochord” or “Invertebrates” since they have no notochord or back bone in their body structure.

Phylum chordate is the largest to the deuterostiome phyla. It is the highest and the most important phylum comprising a vast variety of living and extinct animals including man himself most of the living chordates are the well known familiar vertebrate animals, such as the fishes, amphibians, Reptiles, birds and mammals.

Three fundamental characters of chordates:-All the chordates possesses three outstanding unique characteristics at same stage in their life history. These three fundamental morphological include,

• Type of Aquatic weeds

• Different control method

• Advantage and disadvantage of Aquatic weeds.

Aquatic weeds are those unwanted and undesirable plants, which reproduce and grow in fast in water bodies. They are more harmful them beneficial for fish culture. Excessive growth of aquatic vegetation prevents effective utilisation of water and reduces productivity because they utilize the nutrients and also prevent the sunlight to read the deep part of the water body. This excessive growth restrict the living space of fishes, resulting into less production. The decay mass of these pollute weeds prevent the growth of more useful microorganisms. And disturb the food web and food chain and equilibrium of physico-chemical qualities of water. Liberation of toxic substance and waste decomposition of water body is most effective so it is necessary to identify and control them. It has the primary problem of management of Inland fishery cultures.

Aquatic plants grow on extremely wet soil and where water is available to plants in abundance such as ponds lanes river banks etc. or those plants which grows and found in the nearby water body or in water body. These plants are called as aquatic weeds because these are not attend the larger size and act as the weeds which is found in water so these are called as aquatic weeds.

• Fish cum-poultry farming.

• Fish cum-duck farming.

• Fish cum-pig farming.

• Fish cum-paddy farming.

A) Fish Cum-poultry farming

Inland fish culture in conjunction with poultry rearing is a compatible business and can provide a readymade fertilizer for fish pond. In a larger sense fish and poultry are mutually complementary the former provides fish meal a protein rich poultry feed and the later is droppings which acts as fertilizers for plankton production to serve as natural proteinous fish feed. Fish meal is recognized as perhaps the choicest poultry feed. In an integrated fish cum-poultry farm, birds have to be housed in deep litter of battery system in which the pen flora is covered with hay. The floor of the pen is covered with chapped straw dry leaves, hay broken up groundnut shells maize straw and saw dust. Each bird should have about 0.3 m² space to live on the deep litter flooring bird droppings falling on the litter react with the flooring organic material. The litter has to be periodically churned for aeration and maintenance of hygienic conditions.

Introduction

The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia. From equal status with men in ancient times through the low points of the medieval period, to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers. The history of women in India has been eventful. In modern India, women have adored high offices in India including that of the President, Prime Minister, Speaker of Lok Sabha, leaders of opposition etc. The incumbent president of India is a woman but the same vast majority of the women suffer from the great discrimination and even the basic human rights are denied to them.

Introduction

Computerization in education is perpetual need of today. Computers store large quantum of data that can be retrieved and used wherever necessary. They can also be used as an interactive media in transfer of technology system, which aids farmers and extension workers to access in formation of their need and to communicate with each other. Positive advantages in web education over distance learning process are that farming community can access it from any part of the world. Web education has also the added advantage of updating its data base on weather conditions, market situation in hourly basis which is not possible distance education as the process need a long time with regard to the availability of human resource and static course material to be developed for a particular time frame. The distance learning process being conventional in nature and also in place for quite a long years has abundance of resources and infra structural facilities however in web education, the professional resources are less in number and still arm journalism is yet to gain popularity among them. So web based interactive knowledge network system in transfer of technology is a present need which has to be addressed with due attention to improve the quality of existing communication system.

Introduction

SWOC analysis is a strategic planning method used to evaluate the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Challenges involved in a project or in a business venture. It involves specifying the objective of the business venture or project and identifying the internal and external factors that are favorable and unfavorable to achieve that objective. A SWOC analysis must first start with defining a desired end state or objective. A SWOC analysis may be incorporated into the strategic planning model.

• Strengths: characteristics of the business or team that give it an advantage over others in the industry.

• Weaknesses: are characteristics that place the firm at a disadvantage relative to others.

• Opportunities: external chances to make greater sales or profits in the environment.

• Challenges: external elements in the environment that could cause trouble for the business.

Introduction

The extension approaches followed in agricultural sector during past decade is reoriented in various occasions and new system of approaches were implemented. The present day orientation is shifting the efforts of extension from production orientation to profit orientation. Under these circumstances, the key factor for success will largely depend upon the extension service provider’s orientation and farmer’s capacity to absorb new knowledge of improved practices and technology. In order to orient officials towards this change HRD is essential. This will help them to impart required competencies in knowledge and skill such as technical, organisational, managerial, communication and business skills.

The present day extension approach i.e. ATMA focusing towards block level planning, farmers participation in planning and implementation of various schemes, group approaches, importance to agri and allied aspects are the major focus of ATMA. The Tamilnadu government in the year 2007 reorganised the extension system in to twotier at district level with the major focus to block level. In each block Agricultural Extension Centres (BAECs) were established which houses for agriculture, horticulture, marketing, agri. engineering departments.

Introduction

Cassava is an important tuber crop in India grown in 2.7 lakh hectare area with a production of 71 lakh tonnes. The average yield of tapioca is 22 tonnes per hectare. Cassava is a richest source of starch (25 to 35%) mainly processed for starch and sago. Cassava is an industrial crop of Tamil Nadu occupies 32.97% of the area and 45.98% of the production in India. (Edison et al 2006). In Tamil Nadu major traditional tapioca growing districts are Salem, Namakkal, Erode, Cuddalore, Dharmapuri and Kaniyakumari mostly as rainfed. Among the districts Salem District stands first in area (27000 ha) and with the production of 10.475 lakh MT(Anonymous, 2006).

Introduction

India now emerged as the world’s second largest producer of fruits, vegetables and tea holding a share of 10 percent. The production base of horticultural crops has been expending since independence (Chadha, 2009). But as a controversy to the previous statement there is a clear indication about the declining farm sector performance-in addition to its deleterious economic ramifications often causing large scale rural distress which often ends up in farmer suicides (Sundaresan, 2009). This distress conveys much on the economic rationale ruling the agri and rural domain for its incompatibility in the changing market environment. The identified major problems faced by farmers in the present scenario were non-availability of information about marketing services including availability of crop specific markets, existing demand of a commodity and daily market price for their produce which can be broadly categorized under lack of market-led extension services.

Introduction

Indian agriculture contributes to 25 per cent of the National Gross Domestic Product. As per Census of India, 2001, India’s total population was 1,028.6 million and the percentage of decadal growth of population during 1991- 2001 was 21.34 per cent. Thus, the main challenge is to produce enough food for increasing population.

Many new agricultural technologies and improved practices are being developed in agricultural research stations. Effective communication of these agricultural innovations to millions of farmers in rural area is essential to bring about accelerated agricultural development. The impact of demographic pressure on reducing farm size further on the one hand and the need for longer or optimum sized farms to take more advantage of modern technology on the other hand would bring into sharper focus the growing contradiction in the farming sector.

Introduction

Soil, water and vegetation are three basic natural resources. The survival of God’s creation depends upon them and nature has provided them as assets to human beings. The management of natural resources to meet people’s requirements has been practised since the pre-Vedic era. Farmers were ranked high in the social system and village management was in their hands. Over-exploitation of natural resources by growing population resulted in various severe problems. Destruction of vegetation has resulted in land degradation, denudation, soil erosion, landslides, floods, drought and unbalanced ecosystems. A balanced ecosystem is an urgent need.

There is an increasing realization throughout the world, about the state of our environment, caused by over-exploitation of natural resources for economic development. Resource exploitation in the developing world has largely been geared to meet the very basic needs of food, fodder, fuelwood and shelter of a large section of deprived societies. On the other hand, developed parts of the world have largely concerned themselves in trying to maintain and accelerate the already very high levels of resource consumption that they have achieved for a much smaller segment of the world’s population, based on an early initiative taken and advantage gained through industrialization. Natural resource base has often viewed as limitless by the industrialized world either due to a myopic view of the future or because of their immense faith in technology being able to substitute for the natural resource capital. This faith in technological quick-fixes for world’s problems linked with over-consumption is still prevalent.

Introduction

The prosperity of Tamil Nadu depends on the development of rural areas. As per the 2001 Census, Tamil Nadu’s rural population was 36.2 million, amounting to 58% of the total population. Of these 90 percent are earning their livelihood through agriculture and allied activities. The agricultural situation in Tamil Nadu largely depends on the quantum of rainfall received during seasonal rainfall of South West and North East monsoon. North East monsoon which occurs around September to November is more crucial as South West monsoon which will give enormous rainfall to other Indian states is blocked by Western Ghats. So Tamil Nadu is receiving low rainfall and it also comes in three to five heavy showers during October and November. This limits the wet period (good condition for cultivation) to two to five weeks for the whole season. The wet period is further shortened by fast wind and soil type in some area. Thus, the success of the crop is largely determined by one’s capacity to exploit the short wet period. Even though the Tamil Nadu is relatively better position in tapping available ground water resources (92 percent of potential has been tapped), 82 percent of the well is owned by medium and large farmers who is only 10 per cent of total cultivators.

Introduction

In the existing socio-economic scenario, economic independence is considered as one of the main status indicator in the society. Women especially in rural areas are the deprived section of the society on account of their dependence on others for economic reasons. This necessitates generation opportunities so as to make them economically independent. Moreover, women’s contribution to national development is crucial. The process of development would be incomplete and lopsided, unless women are fully involved in it. Many innovations have failed due to non-satisfaction of women on the perceived attributes of innovations. So, it is necessary that they should be informed, trained, convinced of a technology primarily.

Farm women can’t emerge as a good entrepreneur, if they are not equipped with any skill, knowledge, education and information. So, research studies are essential to assess the training needs of them to become a successful entrepreneur. In order to know the training needs of farm women for entrepreneurial development, and the constraints faced by them to become a good entrepreneur.

Introduction

Women are vital part of the Indian economy, constituting one-third of the national labour force and are considered to be the major contributor to the survival of the family. Despite progress in several indicators, gender analysis of most social and economic data demonstrate that women in India continue to be relatively disadvantaged in matters of survival, health, nutrition, literacy and social status. More than 90 percent of rural women in India are unskilled thus restricting them to low-paid occupations. Women generally have no control over land and other productive assets, which largely excludes them from access to institutional credit and renders them dependent on high-cost informal sources of credit to secure capital for consumption and for productive purpose.

Among 621.1 lakh population in Tamilnadu (according to 2001 census) 308.4 lakh are females. The people below poverty line in Tamilnadu are about 21.12 percent, out of this, women share equal percentage of poverty. In a patriarchal society, women have inadequate knowledge on various aspects and depend largely on the male siblings or husbands. They also do not have much access to credit or income as most of the expenditure is controlled by men. Even where they have some measure of control they spend most of their earnings on family needs. Estimates shows that more women and girls experience the vigour of poverty than men in poor holds because of inequalities in access to food, healthcare and education. (www.undp.org.in).

Biological materials

Seeds from self fertilized plants will be obtained from the concerned breeder. Hand picked, uniform sized seeds will be chosen for mutagenic treatments.

Gamma irradiation

Gamma irradiation will be performed in gamma chamber, exposing the seeds to gamma rays from ⁶⁰Co source: well filled and hand picked uniform sized seeds with a moisture content of 8.5 per cent will be chosen for irradiation. A sample of say 120 seeds per treatment will be packed in butter paper cover and placed in 100 curie ⁶⁰Co gamma cell. The treatments will be given for various duration depending on the doses required with the dose rate of say 54.05 rads/sec.

Chemical mutagenesis

The seeds will be soaked in water for say 6 hours before the chemical treatment. The duration of pre-treatment with water will be determined on preliminary blank experiment. In cowpea genotype Co. Vu. 623, there was about 5-10 per cent radical emergence about 12 hours after soaking in water. There was no radicle emergence before 12 hours water soaking. An initial pre-soaking period of 6 hours was therefore adopted for later treatment with mutagens. The total treatment period will be about 12 hours (6 hours with water and 6 hours with chemical mutagen). The duration of treatment with chemical mutagens will also be based on the half-life period of the mutagen solution.

Experimental mutagenesis is an important unconventional source to produce mutations in high frequencies in cultivated plants. It makes possible the achievement of desired breeding objectives or atleast decisive progress in this direction through selection of mutants. By establishing extensive collection of mutants based on productive varieties excellent sources of valuable material for theoretical studies and for breeding work can be provided. The induced mutagenesis helps in diversifying varieties and in internal rectification. The simultaneous realization of different breeding objectives may be possible through induced mutagenesis especially in leguminous crops.

Stubbe (1959) stated that mutation breeding as a modern method of plant breeding has proved its justification. It mutation breeding, basic information is a prerequisite on the type of spectrum of induced mutations and relative effectiveness and efficiency of different mutagens.

Naiad: The immature stage in insects with incomplete metamorphosis that feed and develop in water; an aquatic, gill-breathing, immature instar of hemimetabolous insect.

Narcotic: A chemical that causes reversible depression of the nervous system.

Narrow spectrum (as applied to insecticides): Having an effect on only a narrow range of insects.

Nasus: A nose, the snout of certain termite soldiers (nasutes).

Nasute (pl. nasuti): A type of soldier caste in certain termites; this form bears a median frontal rostrum or snout through which it ejects a defensive fluid; the jaws are small or vestigial.

Nasutus (pl., nasuti): An individual of a termite caste in which the head narrows anteriorly into a snoutlike projection.

Natality: Population ‘increase’ factor; birth rate; often measured as total number of eggs or eggs per female per unit of time.

I beam: A steel beam shaped like the letter I, used in structural work.

I. H.P. (Indicated Horse Power): ‘Pure’ horse power as measured in the combustion chamber before friction and other loses are subtracted.

IC Engine (ICE): Internal Combustion Engine.

Ideal compression-compression refrigeration cycle: completely vaporizes the refrigerant before it is compressed and expands the refrigerant with a throttling device, such as an expansion valve or capillary tube. The compression-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators, air-conditioning systems, and heat pumps. It consists of four processes:l- 2 Isentropic compression in a compressor; 2-3 Constant- pressure heat rejection in a condenser; 3-4 Throttling in an expansion device; 4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator

Ideal cycle: is an actual cycle stripped of all the internal irreversibilities and complexities. The ideal cycle resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of internally reversible processes.

Ideal gas: Is a gas that obeys the ideal-gas equation of state.

The genus Bougainvillea, although having broad range of adaptability along with diverging habitate is not rich in scientific literature. The available literature on description of elemental species and mode of origin and description of different sports (cultivated species) are very poor and all the literarture are not available at one place. On the basis of available literature (Philbert 1789, Humboldt and Bonpland 1808, Fitch 1854, Bailey 1914, Merril 1923, Standley  1931, Heimerl 1934, Hottes 1947, Bor and Raizada 1948, Preston 1950, MacSelf 1951, Sargeant 1951, Van 1951, Crane and Lawrence 1952, Holttum 1955a-d, 1957a,b, Pancho and Bardenas 1959, Marigowada 1961, Sharma 1962, Menninger 1970, Ramcharan et al., 1974, Zadoo et al., 1976, Linnaeus 1789, Swarup and Singh 1995, Willdenow 1798, McDaniells 1981, Rodale et al., 1997, Gordon 2002, Lopez and Galetto, 2002, Fatima et al., 2007, Kent et al., 2007, Kobayashi et al., 2007a,b, Hammad 2009, Lack, 2004, 2012) an attempts has been made to give a short description of elemental species and important role played by Bougainvillea cv. 

The bougainvillea varieties reported from India have been mentioned above. The exact origin of all the varieties are not available. Breeders, sometimes, do not disclose the origin of varieties. An attempt has been made to trace out the mode of origin of different varieties as per available information (Anonymous 1981, Sindhu 2015, Sindhu and Swaroop 2015, Singh 1999, Singh et al., 1999, Nirody 1932, Sharma 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1968, Sharma 1969, Pancho 1963, 1967, Marigowda 1957, Pancho and Elisco 1959, Pancho and Capinpin 1961, Pancho et al., 1961). Information available is not complete in most cases. Following abbreviations have been used – Hybrid Seedling (HS), Bud Sport (BS), Induced Mutant (IM) :

Cashew has a long history as a useful tree but only in the current century, it became an important tropical horticultural crop. Small-scale local exploitation of cashew for its nuts and cashew apples is the pattern for more than 300 years in Asia and Africa. It was not until early years of 20^th century that international trade in cashew kernels began with first exports from India. Although with slow beginning, cashew became an important commercial crop in the last couple of years. In India, use of cashew apples and nuts was started by local people, and accounts from Africa are similar; making cashew wine/liquor possessing a common practice in both Asia and Africa (Johnson, 1973).

Cashew, an evergreen tree, produces both nuts and apples, has become a crop of importance owing to the highly valued kernel and wide adaptability to varying agro-climatic conditions. India is one of the largest producer, exporter and consumer of cashew in the world. Today, cashew has become a crop of high economy and has moved from a crop of waste lands to commercial crop, even in organized sector (Singh, 1998).

Soil
Cashew is grown on a wide variety of soils in India. It comes up well in all types of soils at an altitude up to 700 m. It cannot stand in water logged or saline soils. It can come up in very sandy soils also. Adoption of cashew has been found in wide variety of soils from coastal sands to degraded laterites. The worst soils, not suited to other crops, are normally allotted for cashew. In Sri Lanka and Philippines, it is grown in alluvial soils. Cashew comes up well even in volcanic soils of Indonesia, Fiji and some part of Philippines. Cashew is not suitable in heavy clays, water logged conditions and ill drained soils. It is grown abundantly in loose sandy soils particularly in South India, East Africa and Brazil. In Karnataka and Kerala, it grows well in poor laterite soils. Cashew prefers well-drained aerated sandy loam soils with adequate moisture. Coastal plains and plateau are very good for cashew cultivation.

In India, cashew is mostly grown on laterite and red soils and coastal sands. The tree has an extensive root system, which helps it to tolerate a wide range of moisture levels and soil types, but commercial production is only advisable in well-drained, sandy loam or red soils with slight acidic pH (4.5-6). The cashew tree can flourish in the sand of open beaches, but it grows poorly in heavy clay or limestone.

Though cashew can be grown on a variety of soils, a well-drained 1-1.5 m deep soil having a water table between 2 and 10 m depth and pH of 5.6 to 7.0 is preferred. Laterites, red and coastal soils rich with organic matter are best for cashew growing. Even the marginal soils can be used for cashew cultivation but the waterlogged condition should be avoided as the cashew is very susceptible to it (Farooki and Sreeramu, 1999).

Cashew being a highly cross pollinated crop, planting of seedling is not recommended. In the past seed propagation was in vogue, which has resulted into large variation in plants due to highly heterozygous nature. However, it is seldom practiced now-a-days except to raise the rootstock materials. Selection of seed is very important for raising rootstock material. Seed nuts which are heavy and sink in water should be selected for raising seedling. Seed nuts should be collected from high yielding trees. Seed nuts collected from the current season’s crop during March, April and May are the best for seed production as they have been found to give high percentage of seed germination. Studies conducted to investigate the time taken and germination percentage revealed that heavy nuts (sunken in water) gave 92 per cent germination on 14-17 days, whereas floating nuts took 14-22 days and gave 64 per cent germination (Krishnamurthy et al., 1985).