eChapters

India has witnessed a phenomenal increase in foodgrains production since Independence and from a food deficit state producing about 51 million tons in 195051 it become food surplus country with a record harvest of more than 250 million tons in 201112. This particular year also saw a remarkable record production of pulses at about 18.1 million tons. However, to meet the increasing demand of the continuously rising population about 23 million tons of pulses have to be imported every year costing the country about Rs.3000 crores in foreign exchange. Despite the changes in the dietary habits in which the large middle class has moved away from traditional cereals towards high value dairy, meat, fruits and vegetable products, pulses in India are still considered an important source of proteins, particularly for the poor. Pulses are not only an excellent source of protein (2040%), carbohydrates (5060%) and minerals (24%) but also provide calories almost equal to that of cereals energy to the tune of 300 to 540 Kcal/ 100g (Ofuya and Akhidue, 2005). Thus, pulses play an important role in achieving food and nutritional security for small and marginal farmers. However, the per capita availability of pulses has been declining over the time – it has declined from 60.7 gm/ day in 1951 to about 32 gm/day in 2010 – mainly due to stagnant production (except in recent years), rising demand for consumption and other uses. Pulses not only are used for consumption, but also play an even greater role in maintaining and enhancing soil fertility through nitrogen (N₂) fixation. Though the estimates of Nfixed by pulses depends on crop species, soil type, agroclimatic zone and crop management practices, it was reported that early, medium and long duration pigeonpea varieties fix 7, 55 and 69 kg/ ha¹, respectively, in Vertisols of Patancheru (Kumar Rao and Dart, 1987). Pulses ^N2 are grown not only as sole crops but also as intercrops and the biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) of pulses substantially benefits the associated or succeeding crops in terms of nitrogen contribution (1668 kg/ N₂ ha¹ for succeeding cereals). Thus on a conservative estimate, the BNF (@46 kg/N₂ ha¹) by pulses, excluding the intercrop area, alone amounts to 1.06 million tons annually.

India is the largest producer of pulses in the world with 24% share in the global production. During 201011, the total production was 18.09 million tonnes from an area of 25.6 million hectare (Table 1). The important pulse crops grown in India are chickpea (48%), pigeonpea (15%), mungbean (7%), urdbean (7%), lentil (5%) and fieldpea (5%). The major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, which together account for about 80% of the total production. The pulses production does not keep pace with the domestic requirement and consequently, the nation has to import 23 million tonnes and the per capita availability of pulses has declined progressively from 41.6 g in 1990 to 37 g in 2008 (Indian Council of Medical Research recommends 65 gm/day/capita). Thus, increasing production from the current level poses a serious challenge for the nation.

Even with the best of efforts, pulses production and productivity has more or less remained stagnant. Due to the low productivitylow input nature, pulses are grown as residual/alternative crops on marginal lands after taking care of food/income needs from high productivityhigh input crops like rice and wheat by most farmers. Also, they grow as rainfed crops with little or no modern yield enhancing inputs. The low priority accorded to pulse crops may be related to their relatively low status in the cropping system. As a crop of secondary importance, in many of these systems, pulse crops do not attract much of the farmer’s crop management attention. In deficient soils, the application of micronutrients has also been found to be remunerative, yet the farmers hardly use these inputs. Seeds of newly developed varieties are not available to the farmers in the required quantities. As a result the seed replacement rate is hardly about 2 to 5%. In addition to this, these crops are adversely affected by a number of biotic and abiotic stresses, which are responsible for reduced yield. Lack of onfarm storage facilities and the vulnerability of pulses to store grain pests also results in considerable losses. Stray cattle and blue bulls are responsible for a lot of damage to the pulse crops especially during offseason, thus affecting adversely the cultivation of crops like mungbean, urdbean, pigeonpea, fieldpea and lentil in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana also resulting in instability and low yields.

Pulse production in NE states in still too low as compared to whole India. However, there is very good potentialfor enhancing pulse producity in the region and contribute to food grain production of the country. In view of these constraints, prospects for increasing pulse production from this region have been visualized.

Pulse production scenario

Despite immense importance of pulses in humanand animal nutrition, the share of north-easternregion inthe total pulse areofIndiaistoolow (0.76%)andthisregion contributesonly176.44 thousandtons(0.99%) in the all Indiapulse production (Table 1). WithinNE Region, mostof the pulsearea isoccupied by Assam and 47% of total N.E. Region’s pulse production is contributed by this state alone. After Assam, Nagaland and Tripura are major pulse growing states with 33.5 and 14.5 thousand hectares of area and 36.46and 24.20thousandtons ofproduction, respectively. In Meghalaya, pulseswere grownon4 thousandhaarea and4.2 thousand tonnesof pulses wereharvested in 2010-11. Thefactthat theaverage pulse productivity of NE region (883.0kg/ha)is much higher thanthatof whole India (689kg/ha) offers opportunityfor increasingarea and production of pulses in the region.

Indian agriculture is characterized by small farm holdings. The average farm size was only 1.21 hectares during 2005-10 and it would be 0.68 ha by 2030. Around 85% of farmers have land holdings smaller than 2 ha and they cultivate nearly 60% of the available land. The contribution of agriculture sector to the total (GDP) has decline from 38% in 1980 to 29% in 2000 and 15% in 2010-11. The per capita availability of land was 0.15 ha in 1999-2000, which will reduce to 0.11 ha by 2020. As per estimates, India would require about 345 million tones of food grains for feeding about 1.5 billion populations by the year 2020. Approximately 90% of total farm holdings are categorized as small and marginal. There is hardly any scope of horizontal area expansion. The situation is, further, aggravated due to globalization of market and trade relaxations, which call for competitiveness and efficient agricultural production system to face never challenges on the ecological, climatic, equity, social justice and employment front. In areas, endowed with adequate irrigation resources, short duration pulses, oilseeds and other high value crops will find their definite niche as sequential or intercrops, rather than replacing the major cereal crops having higher yield potential combined with high stability. Hence, an increased cropping intensity will contribute substantially to additional demands of food and cash crops.

The relevance and need for an eco-friendly alternative farming system arose from the ill effects of the chemical farming practicesadopted worldwide during the second half of the last century. The methods of farming evolved and adopted by our forefathers for centuries were less injurious to the environment. People began to think of various alternative farmingsystemsbased on the protection of environment which in turn would increase the welfare of the humankind in various ways like clean and healthy foods, an ecology which is conducive to the survival of all the living and non-living things, low use of the non-renewable energy sources, etc. Many systems of farming evolved as an outcome of the efforts of many experts and laymen. However, organic farming is considered to be the best amongall of them because of its scientific approach and wider acceptance all over the world.

Organic farming means farming in the spirit of organic relationship. In nature, organic relationship is a pervasive phenomenon. Everythingis connectedwith everything else. Hence, organic farmingis not mere non-chemicalism in agriculture. Since, organic farmingmeans placingfarmingonintegral relationship, wehave to know therelationship between soil-water and plant; betweensoilandsoil microbes andwasteproducts;between the plant and animal kingdom of which the apex animal is the human being; between agriculture and forestry; between soil, water and atmosphere etc.It is the totality of the relationship that is the bedrock of organic farming. However, the understanding of this totality of relationship is not sufficient for success in organic farming. Understanding the local specificity in respect of each of these aspects of these multiple relationship is also important (Pal, 2006).

Among thirty major cropping systems in the country, which contribute significantly to the national food basket, the majority are cereal-based. In fact, continuous cropping of cereal-based systems during last three decades has resulted in second generation problems and the sustainability of these systems is under threat. The major challenge is to produce more from each unit of land on the one hand and to sustain soil health on the other. The depletion of soil fertility by the intensive cereal-cereal production systems is considered to be a major cause of the yield decline. For example, a rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) yielding 7 t/ha of paddy and 4 t/ha of wheat removes 315 kg nitrogen (N)/ ha, 28 kg phosphorus (P)/ ha and 333 kg potassium (K)/ ha, and significant amounts of micro-nutrients (Hegde and Dwivedi, 1992). These off-takes often exceed fertiliser input in many Indian states. Refinement of nutrient management strategies would help maintain the crop productivity and soil fertility, but other rotational strategies could also help especially in situations where greater fertiliser use may be uneconomic or environmentally unacceptable. Legume crops fix atmospheric N and enrich soil fertility, and could help to sustain the long-term productivity of cereal-based cropping systems. Depending on the soil and ecological stresses, a cropping system can be diversified using legumes under different mode. Results from the All-India Coordinated Project on Integrated Farming Systems (AICRP-IFS) of Indian Council of Agricultural Research show consistently better productivity with inclusion of legumes in cropping systems. The benefits of legumes in rotation are not solely due to biological nitrogen fixation but also because it increased nutrient availability, improved soil structure, reduced disease incidence and increased mycorhyizal colonization (Wani et al., 1995). Inclusion of pulses as intercrops in sequential as well as intercropping systems would not only make the country self reliant but also help in improving the soil health. Series of experiments are being conducted under (AICRP-IFS) and elsewhere in the country to identify need based cropping systems for different agro-climatic zones of India. The pre-dominent cropping systems involving legumes as a strategy for nutrient management through different approaches are being discussed here for ready reference of researchers, planners and extension workers.

Tillage management and seedbed preparation is crucial for crop establishment, growth and ultimately, yield. Typically, the aims of cultivation are to incorporate crop residue, bury weeds and loosen soil to allow appropriate soil–seed contact, easy flow of nutrients, air and water and unimpeded root penetration and crop growth (Hermawan and Bomke, 1997; Bengough et al., 2006). The use of tillage to prepare seedbeds and the subsequent benefits are well documented. However, the amount of tillage and best practice in terms of optimumsoil physical properties specifically for the establishment period has received less attention in comparison. The influence of a seedbed can vary greatly in terms of soil aggregation and subsequent porosity. This soil arrangement, therefore, has direct impacts on soil temperature, water content, oxygen availability and strength, all of which have the potential to affect the performance of the seedbed and its ability to provide an adequate environment for crop establishment. In a review, Braunack and Dexter (1989) stated as summary of previous works conducted on soil aggregation that aggregates will exhibit differing physical and chemical properties depending on the size of the aggregates, thus influencing the suitability of a seedbed for germination, emergence and root development, by influencing factors such as intra- and inter-aggregate aeration. Schjønning and Rasmussen (2000) found that cultivation methods can have large impacts on surface soil layers, altering both strength and pore dynamics (air and water filled), which can restrict plant growth. The relationship between soil physical properties and the plant root systems are vitally important in this process since they directly affect seedbed quality (Awadhwal and Thierstein, 1985; Aubertot et al., 1999; Dexter, 2004).

Integrated nutrient management is considered to be the key for achieving higher yield of crops and cropping systems. In general, the productivity of pulse crops has remained low mainly for two reasons: cultivation on agriculturally marginal soils and little if any crop inputs. Among production inputs, fertilizer plays a key role in pulses too like other crops for enhancing productivity levels. Most of the pulses fix atmospheric N, which is the predominant mechanism to meet their N requirement. It can enrich soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. It has been estimated that chickpea can fix (convert atmospheric nitrogen to organic nitrogen which would be available for subsequent crops)up to 140 kg nitrogen per hectare in a growing season, although measured values are usually in the range of about 20-60 kg nitrogen per hectare (Reddy 2004). It has been well established that long duration pigeonpea in northern India can fix nitrogen in the order of 200 kg/ha when grown over a 40 week period. Pigeonpea can also have substantial residual effects on subsequent crops. For example, medium-duration pigeonpea grown at the International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) (Asia Centre) could benefit a subsequent maize crop to an extent equivalent to 40 kg nitrogen per hectare. However, this capability is jeopardized through insufficient supply of other plant nutrients. General recommendations for phosphorus (P) fertilization are made in most states. However, K application is generally neglected, resulting in imbalanced nutrient supply and lower crop yields. Under intensive cropping systems, large amounts of K are removed, leading to serious depletion of soil K reserves. Pulses such as chickpea and pigeonpea remove about 60 and 52 kg K₂O/t of grain, respectively. Information compiled from various sources on integrated nutrient management in pulse/pulse based cropping systems in different agroecological regions of the country suggest that there is a wide scope for practicing integrated plant nutrient (IPN) practices in pulses and pulse based cropping systems. Practicing of INM not only economize inorganic fertilizer use but also helps in balanced fertilization and improving soil health and productivity through complimentaryeffects of fixed N by pulses and applied phosphorus and potassium.

Pulses in India are considered a residual crop and grown under rainfed conditions in marginal/ less fertile lands. About 90 percent of total pulse production comes from 97 million ha of rainfed areas in our country. Presently, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan contribute 85% of the total area and production of pulses in the country. Pulse crops usually face soil water deficits sometime during their growth cycles. Thus, drought stress is a common phenomenon and ranks high among all abiotic stresseslimiting yields of pulses (Ali and Mishra, 2000). Hence, there is an urgent need to increase the pulse productivity to increase the income of farmers and reduce malnutrition. Productivityof pulsesin rainfed agriculture has remainedlowand unstable owing to climate and soil related constraints (Swindale, 1982). Soil moisture is the foremost factor that determines the productivity of rainfed pulses where rainfall is the only source of water. To maintain required soil moisture in rainfed lands, every action must be focused to conserveas much quantity of rainfall in the soil as possible (Rao, 1997). Unfortunately, farmers following rainfed agriculture in our country are not practicing any sort of moisture management techniques though wehaveahandful of techniques suitable for rainfed conditions.

Symbolic to its nomenclature, ’PULSE’ (P = people, U = umbrella, L = livestock, S = soil and E = energy) is a superb group of agricultural crops extending an energy umbrella to people (as a major source of dietary protein), livestock (as a green nutritious fodder and feed) and soil (as a builder and restorer of soil fertility through biological N₂ fixation). On account of these qualities, pulses have occupied a unique position in the Indian farming system. Crop diversification with greater inclusion of legumes is essential to alleviate declining factor productivity, input use efficiency and increasing cost of cultivation for realizing sustainable use of natural resources. Pulses are increasingly becoming a component of the intensive cropping systems as intercrop, substitute crop or catch crop. In upland situations, pulses play an important role as intercrops and ensure more income and efficient use of resources. While analyzing the reasons of low productivity of pulses in various parts of the country, it is observed that non availability of high yielding disease resistant varieties, cultivation on marginal and sub-marginal lands under deficit moisture and fertility and poor pest management are the major constraints in realizing optimum yield potential.

In the past, focus on implementing plant protection measures was given to cereals, largely because of their central role in food security, however, recent shortages in legumes has warranted an all out attention on edible pulses. For more than four decades, the concept of integrated pest management (IPM) - which combines a range of controls, including conserving natural predators, using pest resistant crop varieties, intercropping and rotation, with judicious use of pesticides -has struggled to gain ground against conventional agricultural ideology and practices. But it is now increasingly challenging the methods of high-input agriculture and policies arising with implementation of General Agreement forTrade andTariffs (GATT) & World Trade Organization (WTO) that cannot be ignored. In fact, a major factor responsible for sustaining soil productivity in this country has been the highly diversified nature of the cropping patterns which either include a pulse crop or a legume crop as one of the components. India is the largest producer of pulses in the world with 25% share in the global production. While chickpea is the topper among pulses occupying 39% of pulse area, pigeon pea is next with 21% area. The major pulse producing states are Maharashtra (20%), Madhya Pradesh (17%), Rajasthan (11%), Uttar Pradesh (11%) andAndhra Pradesh (11%) together accountingfor 70% of thetotal production of 14.76 m.t from an area of 23.63 m ha (www.agricoop.nic.in, 2007-08). In general, the pulse production is not keeping pace with the domestic requirements, hence, the country has to import 1.5-2.8 m.t per year, which is a matter of concern. Keeping this in view, the 1PM programme covers the two important pulse crops viz., chickpea and pigeon pea, across different cropping systems which will take care of changing scenario emerging out of climatic changes as well as cropping patterns. The present strategy, which is based on a holistic approach and changing ecosystem, will help in increasing production through reduction in pest infestation that would eventually reduce the need for the import of these two vital commodities.

Pulses are the major source of lysine richprotein, which is supplementaryto cereal based proteins (metheonine).Leguminous speciesproducing edible seeds occupy prominent place in Indian dietary habits. They are, even today, a primary sourceof protein forthe majority of population in the country. Avariety of pulse crops such as peas, lentils, urad, tur, moong, yellow peas, chickenpea,pigeonpea andbeans aregrown underdifferent agro-climatic conditions, and India is recognized globally as a major player contributing toabout25 percentoftheworld’sproduction.Thepresent demand forpulsesin the countryis estimated to be about 15 milliontonnes, while the productionhovers around 12 to 14 million tones. The post harvest losses in the legumes take place at farm as well as in storage as reported by DMI (2002) are detailed in Table 1, 2 and 3.

Pulse legumes are considered to be the best choice for intensification of predominant cereal-based systems. The studies conducted in different agro-climatic zones under AICRP on cropping systems have revealed that the productivity of existing cropping-systems can be enhanced by the inclusion of legumes during summer or as catch crop, or in intercropping systems (Gangwar et al., 2009). Further, these food legumes also serve as a feed crop in many farming systems and fetch higher prices compared to cereals and are increasingly being grown to supplement farmers’ incomes (Gouda et al., 1999). Although pulse legumes have many desirable characteristics in terms of increasing system’s productivity, raising nutritional standards and environmental benefits, in most countries of the world they are considered secondary crops. Globally, the harvested area under pulse crops is about one-tenth of the harvested area under all cereal crops. In view of the important and diverse role played by pulses in the farming systems and in the diets of the poor population, this chapter presents the global trade scenario in pulses followed by pulses production and trade opportunities in India. An attempt is also made to highlight the major concerns and to meet the future challenges in production and trade of pulses in India.

Of the total global pigeonpea production, over 90 percent of this is grown in India. The major pigeonpea growing states are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, contributing to 88.2% of the total pigeonpea basket and the same holds goodover the years. Over the decades, whatever little increase in production level was observed i.e. from 1.75 mt (19701975) to 2.75 mt (20052009), it is neither uniform nor steady. It is mainly through the expansion of area from 2.52 mha to a level of 3.58 mha ( 20052009 ) without significant change in productivity which ( 1970 1975) has remained almost stagnant around 700 kg/ha (Table 1) and is a matter of real concern (Srivastava, 1993).The gross geographical shifting of area ( 467 th. ha) took place mainly from traditional areas (Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) to new and less productive areas (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa) with a netgainof area 837 th. ha in Central zoneandSouthzone includingexpandedadditional area (Table 23).

Mungbean (Vigna radiata L Wilczek) is considered to be originated from Vigna sublobata. It is also known as green gram, an important short duration grain legume with wide adaptability, low input requirements, and the ability to improve soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Mungbean is well suited to a large number of cropping system and constitutes an important source of cereal based diets. Mungbean is used for different purpose. The major portion is utilized in making dal, curries, soup, sweets and snacks. The food values of mungbean lie in its high and easily digestible protein. Mungbean is grown throughout Asia, Australia, West Indies, South and North America, Tropical and subtropical Africa. However, India alone accounts for 65% of the world acreage and 54% of the world production. It is widely cultivated in India in different seasons; however, the maximum area is under kharif cultivation. Extremely plastic morphology, phenology and short maturity duration (60 days) makes the crop ideal as a catch crop, inter crop or relay cropping. It is grown as sole relay crop in rice fallows during rabi season in A.P., Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Orissa and sole catch crop during spring/summer season in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana & Rajasthan (Table 1).

Chickpea, Cicer arietinum L, is the second most important pulse crop in the world. In India, it occupies prime position in terms of area, production and economic value and as an important constituent vegetarian diet. Chickpea is traditionally grown in many parts of the world covering Asia, Africa, Europe and North and South America. But the bulk of it is produced and consumed in South Asia and increasingly in Middle East as well as in some Mediterranean countries. Recently, chickpea cultivation started in Australia, Canada and USA mainly for export to south Asia. The cultivated species, Cicer arietinum L. (2n=16 and n=8), is characterized by possessing two distinct types-small and brown seeded known as desi type, and bold and white seeded known as kabuli type. The former is mostly cultivated in Indian sub-continent. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is also known by several common names viz., Bengal gram, Gram, Chhola, Hommes and Garbenzobean.

Chickpea provides 2-3 times more protein than many cereals, constituting a major component of the agrarian diet of the Indian sub-continent. Chickpea grains provide about 18-24% protein, 4-10% fat, 52-70.9% carbohydrate, 10-23% fibre, minerals and vitamins. Among essential amino acids lysine, methionine, threonine, valine, isolucine and leucine are major components of seed protein. It also contains considerable amount of vitamins such as B₁ and B₂, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and niacin also. Chickpea, therefore, plays an important role in human nutrition.

Lentil is one of the most nutritious cool season food legume and ranks next only to chickpea. It is grown throughout the northern and central India for grains, which are used as dal (wholeor dehulled) andin various otherculinarypreparations. Lentil contains about 25% protein, 0.7% fat, 2.1% mineral, 0.7% fibre and 59% carbohydrate. It is a rich source of phosphorus and carotene. It is generally grown as rainfed crop during rabi season after rice, maize, pearl millet orkharif fallow. It is also grown as intercrop with barley, linseed, mustard and autumn planted sugarcane. In North-eastern parts of the country, lentil is also cultivated as paira crop with rice in which seeds of lentil are broadcast in the standing crop of rice 7-10 days before its harvest. It is grown on a wide range of soils from light loamysand to heavy clay soil in northern parts and moderately deep black soils in central India.

Fieldpea is animportantrabi pulse crop which is highly productive and is grown for food, feed as a vegetable. There are two types of peas grown in India viz., vegetable type in which grains arevery sweet when green and become wrinkled ondrying, and grain type where grains are generally white and round. Green seeds of the grain type are not so sweet as in thecase ofvegetable type. The dry grains areconsumed in various forms such as chat, chhola, dal, vegetable and flour. Green seeds are used as fresh, frozen or canned vegetables. The cultivation of grain type is confined to northern and central parts of the country.

It is high protein (20%) crop with all the essential aminoacids important for normal activity of living organisms. The fractional composition is also favourable the most easily assimilated water soluble protein from mature pea seeds varies from 36 to 87% and in green matter from 65 to 82%. Pea contains 4 mgpro-vitamin A, 300 mgvitamin C, 3 mgB₁, 1.5 mgB₂and 1.2 mgpantothenic acid per 1000 g fresh seed weight. Also, it contains 1.1% fat, 2.2% minerals, 4.5% fibre and 56.5% carbohydrate. It is rich in phosphorus. Green pea and the immature pods of pea are typified by a high level of active lipotropic antisclerotic substances-choline and inositol.Choline deficiency may lead to the development and growth of malignant tumors.

Grasspea (Lathyrus sativus L.), also called chickling pea, is an important crop of economic significance in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Ethiopia. It is also cultivated in China, many countries of Europe, the Middle East and northern Africa. It is a food, feed and fodder crop belonging to the family Leguminacaae and the tribe vicieae (Smartt, 1990).

Grasspea is very tolerant to drought conditions and has been grown successfully in areas with an average annual precipitation of 380 to 650 mm. Despite its tolerance to drought, grasspea is not affected by excessive rainfall and can be grown on land subject to flooding (Sinha, 1977). It has a very hardy and penetrating root system and, therefore, can be grown on a wide range of soil type, including very poor soil and heavy clays. This hardiness together with its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen makes the crop ideally to grow under adverse conditions (Campbell et al. 1994). In India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, it is often broadcast into a standing rice crop one to two weeks before the rice is ready for harvest where it flourishes on the residual soil moisture after the rice has been harvested.

Despite all the advantages compared to other crops, relatively little efforts have been made to improve this very hardy pulse crop. The main reason has been the knowledge that excessive consumption of grasspea can lead to a neurological disorder, called Lathyrism in man and domestic animals (Jackson and Yunus, 1984). It appears when Lathyrys sativus forms the main component of the diet contributing to at least 30% of the caloric intake for a period of 3 to 4 months (Campbell et al. 1994).

Guar [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.], internationally known as guar, is extremely drought hardy, deep rooted, summer annual legume of great economic and adaptive significance. Virtues of guar effectively match with low and erratic rainfall pattern and high ambient temperature habitats of arid regions. The crop may thrive very well in rainfall range of 250-450 mm with 3-4 spells, temperature range of 25-40°C, RH values of 50-65%, longer days with 8-9 hr sunshine, particularly at maturity. Guar is ideally suited to light to medium textured soils, with no water logging conditions. The crop tolerates less inputs and restricted after care, matching with the arid farmers’ livelihood conditions. It is grown for grain, vegetable, fodder, cattle feed and green manure purposes, mainly in rainfed habitats of Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat and to some extent in Punjab and Madhya Pradesh. This crop has recently been introduced in non-traditional regions of Annantpur, Kadappa and Chittoor dry region of Andhra Pradesh. Only duringcurrent summer season of 2012, guar has been successfully cultivated with 4-5 irrigations in parts of Chattirgarh and Vidarbha and in non traditional summer seasons of Rajasthan. The cultivation in non-traditional regions and seasons have increased possibility of two crops in rainy and summer seasons. Even though, guar is cultivated on marginal lands, with marginal inputs in these regions, yet it has occupied the status of international, export oriented cash crop. The same has been due to presence of natural polysaccharide galactomannan gum content in seed endosperm. The gum content has wide industrial uses. Almost 80-85% guar gum produced in India is exported and rest is used for inland commercial demands. Of late, increasing demands of guar gum for USA alone to the tune of 5.0 lakh tonnes annually has led to sky rocketing prices resulting in economic benefit of Rs. 1.0 lakh to 1.5 lakh/ha in 90-100 days only. Hence, guar is rated as a source for providing livelihood security to arid farmers in practical reference. Relevant information on guar have been provided in this chapter.

Among the pulses, rajmash is one of the high potential pulse crops with a yielding potential of 18 to 20 q per ha. Rajmash or French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a short duration non–traditional grain legume and one of the precious and highly relished pulse crops of North India. Rajmash is known by various names viz., French bean, rajma, haricot bean, field bean, kidney bean, snap bean, pole bean etc. It is an important winter vegetable grown both for tender pods and dry seeds, which form a rich source of crude protein (21.25%), fat (1.7%) and carbohydrates (70%). Besides, it contains 0.16 mg iron, 1.76 mg calcium and 3.43 mg zinc per 100 g of edible part (Jasvinder Kaur and Mehta, 1994). The fresh pods and green leaves are used as vegetable. The antimetabolites of dry beans needs removal by cooking and soaking in water.

The Arid Legume includes clusterbean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.); moth bean (Vigna aconotifolia (Jacq) Marechal; cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) and horse gram (Macrotylom uniflorum (L.) Verdc). In India, these are grown extensively as rainfed crops in Rajasthan, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Haryana, M.P. and to a limited extent in other states covering a total area of 51-80 lakh hectares (Table1). Most of the production comes from harsh environments where both biotic and abiotic constraints prevail limiting the production.

Arid Legumes as a group of pulses are extremely important in the common vegetarian diet of the people in the area of its cultivation. They also offer a new dimension as they have become foreign exchange earners through export opportunities. For example, clusterbean (guar) contains 30-35 per cent guar gum and India is a world leader in the export of this commodity and earns more than Rs.1100 crores annually (Mathur and Henry, 2009). Similarly, moth bean is gaining great industrial importance because of Bikaneri Bhujia industry which is heavily based on this crop (Singh and Henry, 1985). Cowpea is very important in Dahi bada industry and making curry preparation while horsegram is a minor pulse and is utilized by the poorest of the poor in its growing areas as well used for kidney stone treatment (Henry et.al., 2006; Vishwanatha et. al., 2006). Clusterbean and moth bean together account for 3.5 million hectare areas in the great Indian Thar Desert and play a very important role in the economy of the desert farmers. Similarly, cowpea and horse gram are grown mostly in marginal and sub-marginal lands under rainfed situations with no inputs applied by the farmers. These two pulses are grown in various areas in the country and easily adapted to various conditions.

Crop production broadly depends on the fertility of the soil where a crop is raised. There are several factors like the kind and quality of seed, climate, water supply, and plant protection measures etc. that affect the crop production. Among these factors, the fertility status of the soil largely determines the ultimate yield even if all these factors are optimum for crop production. A clear distinction should be made between soil fertility and soil productivity. Soil fertility deals with the inherent capacity of soil to provide nutrients in adequate amounts and in proper balance, for the growth of specified plants when other growth factors such as light, water and temperature, and the physical condition of the soil are favourable. Soil productivity is concerned with the capability of soil to produce a specified plant or plant parts or a sequence of plants under well defined and specified systems of management inputs and environmental conditions, viz. climatic conditions. It does not mean that a fertile soil is always productive. A fertile soil, under a bad management system, may be unproductive for a crop. In this book, plant nutrient elements and their available forms, functions and deficiency symptoms are briefly described for the better understanding of soil testing and fertilizer recommendation.

Soil testing is a useful tool that can help to ensure the efficient use of applied plant nutrients. Soil tests provide a means for assessing the fertility status of a soil, but soil tests do not provide a direct measure of the actual quantity of plant available nutrients in the soil. Instead, soil tests measure the quantity of a nutrient element that is extractable from a soil by a particular chemical extracting solution. The measured quantity of extractable nutrient in a soil is then used to predict the crop yield response to application of the nutrient as fertilizer, manure, or other amendment. As soil test levels increase for a particular nutrient, the expected crop yield response to additions of that nutrient decreases. A soil-testing programme has four phases as follows:

1.Collection of soil samples,

2.Chemical analysis of soil samples,

3.Calibration and interpretation of the results of chemical analysis, and

4.Nutrient/Fertilizer Recommendation.

3.1 Important Soil Physical Properties

3.1.1 Analysis of Soil Texture

Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay on weight basis. Soil texture was recognized from very early times by experienced farmers from the feel of moist soil placed between the thumb and forefinger. The size groups arbitrarily classified by the International Society of Soil Science (ISSS) into clay (< 0.002 mm), silt (0.002 0.02 mm), fine sand (0.02-0.2 mm), and coarse sand (0.2 2.0 mm). Each soil textural name specifies the weight percent of each fraction falls within certain defined limits. The determination of the percentage of the soil separate present in a sample is called particle-size analysis.

Each type of particle present makes its contribution to the nature of the soil as a whole. Sandy soils are usually quite permeable to air, water, and roots, but they have two important limitations. One is their relatively low water-holding capacity; the second is that they are poor storehouses for plant nutrients. These limitations of sandy soils can, of course, be overcome if both fertilizer and irrigation water are available, but the costs are large.

Clay not only have a large surface area per gram, it also has electrically charged particles. These charges give clay the capacity to attract plant nutrient ions to its surface in forms available to plants, but sand lacks this capacity. Clay holds much more water than sands because they have a large surface area to be coated with water. One important problem with clay soils is their stickiness. When wet, they stick to ploughs, boots, or whatever they contact. Loam and silt loam soils are highly desirable for most uses. They have enough clay to store adequate amount of water and plant nutrients for optimum plant growth but not so much clay as to cause poor aeration or to make working with them difficult.

4.1 Sampling and Preparation for Analysis

The determination of nutritional need of crops is an important aspect of nutrient management of any plant analysis programme. The need of fruit plants for mineral nutrients differ from those of annual crop species in a number of ways, many of which are related to the perennial nature of tree crops. In perennial tree crops, there is a need to supply nutrients both for ultimate fruit production, the fruits and the vegetative organs, which persist from year to year. The need for leaf analysis in perennial horticultural crops and forest trees has proved its superiority over soil diagnostic methods. This is essentially because of their deeper root system and the fact that nutrients supplied in one year may have its effect on both the nutrition and crop production in following years. However, it is largely being used not as an alternative method to soil testing, but as a supplement to soil testing. Results of foliar analysis are usually interpreted using the critical nutrient level (CNL) approach. Accurate interpretation of foliar analysis using the CNL approach is possible only when sampling is restricted to the same growth stage at which standard reference values have been established (Beaufils, 1971, 1973). The general purposes of plant analyses are:

5.1 Sampling

There are different sources of water such as rain, streams, canals, lakes, tanks, ponds, large reservoirs, shallow and deep wells, shallow and deep tube wells, as well as sewage effluents and sea water. The composition of the different sources of water vary with the season, rate of flow, the extent of effluents from the industrial units and sewage effluents from the municipal area during rainy season, the river tank and pond water becomes salty and muddy due to soil erosion. The depth of ground water also varies with the seasons. The sources of water available to the farmer for irrigation of crops are generally few such as canal, shallow and deep wells, pumping sets, tube wells and runoff water collected in excavations along roads, natural drains and adjoining areas under impeded drainage. The composition of water also varies with the season. Whatever may be sources of water, the water sample is taken along with the soil sample to soil testing laboratory for its analysis by way of assessing the suitability of water for irrigation.

For drawing maximum benefit the samples taken be representative of the water in bulk and it should be collected in a clean vessel. One to three litres capacity plastic bottles duly washed with a detergent are satisfactory. However, before filling with water samples the bottles must be rinsed with water samples three times. The information such as farmers name, owner of pumping sets, date and month of sampling depth of ground water, crops and soils being irrigated, any specific agricultural or human problems encountered to be briefly recorded along with the name of village, block, tehsil and district. The water sample should be properly labeled and submitted to soil testing laboratory for its analysis.

India is recovering from the euphoria of the Green Revolution and battling the residual effects of the extensively used chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the country’s soils. The decade from 1980 to 1990 alone saw the area under pesticides in India, increased a whopping 20-fold, from six million hectares to 125 million hectares. After a high annual consumption of nearly 75000 MT reached in the early ’90s, interventions in the form of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices have only now started to show a declining trend in the use of pesticides in India. Interestingly, India’s consumption of pesticides per hectare is low (0.288 kg/ha) when compared with world averages—0.5 kg/ha against Korea’s 6.60 kg/ha and Japan’s 12.0 kg/ha. According to the pesticides industry statistics, India spends US $3/ha on pesticides compared with US $24/ha spent by Philippines, US $255/ha spent by South Korea and US $633/ha by Japan. Yet, despite a comparatively low use of pesticides in India, the contamination of food products in the country is alarming. About 20 per cent of Indian food products contain pesticide residues above tolerance level compared to only 2 per cent globally. No detectable residues are found in only 49 per cent Indian food products compared to 80 per cent globally. A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest. Though often misunderstood to refer only to insecticides, the term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides and various other substances used to control pests.

Pesticides and their metabolites have received particular attention in the last few years in environmental trace organic analysis because they are regularly detected in food products, surface/ground waters and soil strata throughout the world as consequence of their widespread use for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes. So it is the need of the hour to study the levels of pesticides residues in plants, water and soil and their fate in environment after its degradation.

It would be necessary to work out tolerance limits of pesticides residues in/on crops, soil and water and the efforts, therefore, are directed towards various residue analytical methods like TLC, GLC and HPLC etc. which are suitable for the purpose.

Soil testing kit is developed to determine the available nutrient status of soil by rapid test methods. With this system of soil testing, a farmer can test his own soil as often and, in as many places as he feels necessary, and after gauging the need of his soil, he can apply the fertilizers as required. The present mode of soil testing in laboratories usually takes few days and sometime weeks and the farmers may have to travel long distances to submit the soil sample.

To set up a soil-testing laboratory the minimum requirements are as follows:

8.1 Laboratory floor area

Minimum four rooms are needed. They are as follows:

1. Office room, floor size: 18’x 12’

This room is used for registration of the soil samples received, recording recommendations along with soil test results in laboratory book and in report sheet, their dispatch, accounts etc.

The analytical work in a soil-testing laboratory mainly involves standard chemical methods, suitably modified to permit handling of a large number of soil samples with the required degree of accuracy and speed. Many of the analytical operations are carried out more conveniently with help of common as well as sophisticated instruments.

The various instrumental measurements followed in soil and water-testing work in the laboratory can be broadly divided into two groups:

1) Determination of pH and electrical conductivity

2) Colorimetric, spectrophotometric

The role of plant nutrients in crop production is well established. Estimation of nutrients contents and forms in materials, which are involved in nutrient supply and dynamics is a crucial step in scientific nutrient management and crop production. There are 16 essential plant nutrients. These are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), sulphur (S), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl). These nutrients have to be available to the crops in quantities as required for a yield target. Any limiting or deficient nutrient (s) will limit crop growth.

Introduction

In chemical laboratories, the use of acids, alkalis and some hazardous and explosive chemicals is unavoidable. In addition, some chemical reactions during the analysis process may release toxic gases and, if not handled well, may cause an explosion. Inflammable gases are also used as a fuel/heating source. Thus, work safety in a chemical laboratory calls for special care both in terms of the design and construction of the laboratory building, and in the handling and use of chemicals.

For chemical operations, it is also necessary to provide special chambers. The air temperature of the laboratory and work rooms should be maintained constant at 20–25°C. Humidity should be kept at about 50 percent. Temperature and humidity often affect soil and fertilizer samples. Temperature also affects some chemical operations. Hence, maintaining the temperature and humidity as specified is critical.

Introduction

Soil is the main source of nutrients for the plants. Soil also provides support for plant growth in various ways. Knowledge about soil health and its maintenance is critical to sustaining crop productivity. The health of soils can be assessed by the quality and stand of the crops grown on them. However, this is a general assessment made by the farmers. A scientific assessment is possible through detailed physical, chemical and biological analysis of the soils. Essential plant nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S are called macronutrients, while Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, Mn, B and Cl are called micronutrients. It is necessary to assess the capacity of a soil to supply nutrients in order to supply the remaining amounts of needed plant nutrients (total crop requirement - soil supply). Thus, soil testing laboratories are considered nerve centres for nutrient management in crop production systems and plantation forestry.

Soils may have large amounts of nutrient reserves in them. All or a part of these reserves may not be of any use to crops because they may not be in plant-available form. For the purpose of estimation or analysis of plant-available soil nutrients, such methods are to be used that have been tested/verified for the correlation of nutrients extracted and their plant availability. This book describes internationally accepted and widely used methods. Apart from nutrients, soil pH estimation is also critical in the assessment of soil health. Generally, plants prefer soils that are close to either side of neutrality. However, there are acid- loving plants and also plants that can withstand high soil alkalinity. Hence, good yields and economic returns from farming are possible in acid and alkali soils. With proper amendments, still higher yields can be obtained in acid and alkali soils. Soil pH also has a considerable influence on the activity of soil micro-flora and on the availability of soil nutrients to crops. It is also important to estimate physical properties such as soil texture, structure, bulk density, soil colour, water content and soil temperature.

Introduction and Scope

Plant and soil testing enable scientific assessment of the needs of the plant for nutrient elements and of the capacity of the soil to supply them. The nutrient elements enter the plant in ionic form from the soil solution. Ion transport to the root surface may take place through ion diffusion and bulk transport (mass flow). Mass flow is the sweeping along of ions as water moves to the root. It is particularly important for ions that are not absorbed on soil colloids such as nitrates and sulphates. Because of mass flow, a plant deficient in N can extract all the nitrates from the soil. Potassium, phosphate and the micronutrient cations are absorbed on soil colloids with various degrees of affinity and are greatly retarded in movement with the soil water. Diffusion (movement along a concentration gradient) is the main mode of transport from the solid phase to the root surface for these non-mobile ions. There is also a possibility that some of them are absorbed by a direct exchange of an ion, usually hydrogen, between the root surface and ions absorbed on soil colloids. Most ions are sorbed by the root against a concentration gradient and, thus, the process involves the use of metabolic energy. The fact that nutrient uptake is an active process explains some of its peculiarities. Plants not only accumulate nutrients against a concentration gradient, they are also able to select from the nutrients at the root surface according to their requirements (preferential uptake).

Introduction

Irrigation water always contains some soluble salts irrespective of its source. The suitability of waters for a specific purpose depends on the types and amounts of dissolved salts. Some of the dissolved salts or other constituents may be useful for crops. However, the quality or suitability of waters for irrigation purposes is assessed in terms of the presence of undesirable constituents, and only in limited situations is irrigation water assessed as a source of plant nutrients. Some of the dissolved ions, such as NO₃, are useful for crops.

Sometimes, effluents and domestic sewage water is utilized for irrigating field crops. For using these water safely in the farming system, assessment of undesirable pollutants and organic and microbial constituents with regard to their suitability is fore-most important. Determination of organic constituents is generally carried out under two categories viz., (i) organic substances that quantify an aggregate amount of organic C and (ii) individual or specific organic substances, such as benzene, DDT, methane, phenol and endosulphan. Important determinations are the chemical oxygen demand (COD), which gives the total organic substances, and the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which gives the amount of total biodegradable organic substances in the water sample.

Introduction

The main objective in analysing fertilizers is to assess their quality. The analysis examines both their physical and chemical composition. The quality of fertilizers is stated by the manufacturers and, in most countries, it is statutorily notified. Hence, analysis is carried out to determine whether the stated quality meets the statutorily notified standards or not. Together with the statutory notified composition of the fertilizers, the testing methods are specified. In situations where the testing methods are not notified, the prevalent standard methods are followed. Generally, the term fertilizer refers to mineral fertilizers, which are manufactured chemical products of standard composition, while the term manures refers to organic manures, compost, agro-industrial wastes, etc. The compositions of organic fertilizers, unlike mineral fertilizers, are quite variable and, thus, difficult to regulate precisely.

Fertilizer quality is notified in terms of physical and chemical characteristics. The physical parameters include moisture content and particle size. The chemical parameters refer to the amount and form of nutrients, and to various impurities that may be toxic to plants above a critical limit, e.g. biuret in urea. The efficiency of a fertilizer depends on its form of nutrient content. A phosphatic fertilizer may have water-soluble, citrate-soluble, water-insoluble or citrate-insoluble forms of phosphate. A nitrogenous fertilizer may contain ammoniacal, nitrate and amide forms of N in various proportions.

Introduction

In view of the accepted importance of analysis, the workload on soil, plant and water testing laboratories has increased considerably in recent years. Therefore, analytical methods have needed to be accelerated through the automation of instruments. Almost all instruments either contain inbuilt computers or can interface directly with micro processors, thereby simplifying instrument operation and providing versatility for the analyst. Most operations can be performed through keyboard commands. This type of instrument automation enables:

ABSTRACT

More than 80 per cent area of the Shivaliks is rainfed. Soil erosion greater than 80 t ha^-1yr^-1 is being recorded from denuded hills. Though, trees are nurtured on the farms but no definite pattern of trees on field bunds is followed, (neither from spacing point of view nor from species point of view). Further, these trees are not silviculturally managed to get best output from tree components as well as for posing less competition to the crops. Shivaliks has a wide range of climate, geology, soil, topography and socio-economic strata coupled with wide variety of vegetation. Such variations provide ample opportunities for developing site specific agroforestry systems.

ABSTRACT

Shivaliks are highly fragile ecosystem of Himalayas threatened by problems like soil erosion, loss of tree cover, decreased productivity of fuel, fodder and food, to name a few. These problems are further being complicated due to ever increasing anthropogenic pressure. Maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility is not only vital for food security and environmental sustainability in the Shivalik hills, but all over the globe. Agroforestry is frequently proposed as a solution to problems of land and water degradation as well as an answer to shortages of food, fodder and fuel in the Shivaliks, and the same holds true for Jammu Shivaliks. Substantial environmental benefits accrue from planting trees. Suitable tree crop combinations as well as their management practices need to be worked out. Growing of trees and grasses in agroforestry systems such as agrihorticulture, silvipastoral, agrisilvipastoral are specially suited for Shivalik hills keeping in view their role in soil and water conservation. Additional agroforestry component i.e, animals can further hasten the ameliorative effect of agroforestry. In all, combination of trees, crops and/or animals on the same unit of land holds great potential for contributing to sustainable land use system which can help in conserving soil and water besides providing innumerable socio-economic benefits.

ABSTRACT

The land available to grow food and trees is decreasing owing to population pressure in all the regions of the world. In the Shivaliks, the land available for crop and tree cultivation is further limited by steep slopes and inaccessibility of different land areas. The livelihood options in the Jammu Shivaliks are limited due to poor development of this area compared to adjoining plains. In such a situation, agroforestry is one of the options to increase the livelihood security of the people of this region as it results in concurrent and sustainable use of the limited land for production of food and tree-based products and improves the livelihoods of the rural people. Agroforestry improvement based on scientific inputs and its popularisation has the potential to improve the livelihoods of people of this region. This paper dwells on the role of agroforestry in livelihood security and constraints in realising the potential of agroforestry in Jammu Shivaliks.

ABSTRACT

Shivaliks, the most impor tant ecosystem of the foothills of the Himalayas, have been identified as one of the eight most degraded rainfed ecosystems of the country. They are characterized by undulating barren hill slopes, undulating agriculture fields and erratic rainfall pattern. Majority of the lands under cultivation and orchards in the hilly terrain of the state are thus subjected to runoff and soil loss of varying degrees. The soils of Shivalik hills in Solan district of Himachal Pradesh were found to be coarse in texture with abundance of gravels (upto 73.20%). According to the erodibility indices i.e erosion ratio (ER) and erosion index (EI), all the soils were found to be erodible; however, grasslands and forestlands recorded lowest values for these indices. Forest soils had higher water stable aggregates (WSA), mean weight diameter (MWD) and lower dispersion ratios than the cultivated and orchard soils. The dispersion ratio was comparatively higher under cultivated lands (17.37-22.54) followed by orchards (14.36-14.99) and lowest under forest soils (12.59-13.70). Areas having barren lands recorded very high soil loss (86.05 t ha^-1 yr^-1) followed by intensively cultivated areas (58.87 t ha^-1 yr^-1) and both of these have fallen in very high category of priority. A medium category of soil loss has been observed under degraded forests, agro-horticultural plantations and scrubs (14.77 – 18.27 t ha^-1 yr^-1). While low to very low soil loss was recorded under moderately dense, mixed and dense forests (3.46 – 9.59 t ha^-1 yr^-1). Weighted soil loss of 10.60, 17.12, 19.20 and 256.73 t ha^-1 yr^-1 was observed under 5-10, 10-15, 15-35 and >35 per cent slope classes. However, dense forests in all the slope classes registered annual soil loss within the tolerance limit (5 t ha^-1 yr^-1). Hence, maximum runoff, soil loss and available NPK losses were recorded from the barren lands and lands under cultivation followed by orchards and minimum under forests. Risk of soil erosion is higher on steeper slopes. Mixed forests in slope class of 15-35% have also reflected very high soil loss. However, dense forests in all the slope classes registered annual soil loss within the tolerance limit (5 t ha^-1 yr^-1). There is an urgent need to adopt suitable soil and water conservation measures to check runoff losses causing loss of soil and nutrients.

ABSTRACT

This article is an attempt to describe potential agroforestry systems for mid hills zone of Himalayas. The existing traditional land use systems with separate allocation to agriculture and forest are inadequate not only to fill gaps between demand and supply for food, fuel, fodder and timber but also to check land degradation and soil erosion. The adoption of common agroforestry systems, namely agrisilviculture, agrihorticulture, agrisilvihorticulture, agrihortisilviculture, silvimedicinal, silvipastoral and hortipastoral along with appropriate management practices shall be suitable and viable option for checking soil erosion, improving productivity and economic status of the farming community. The functional components of agroforestry systems, however, differ greatly in size, texture and nature depending on the necessity of rural population. The fuel, fodder, timber and fruit trees dominate in the hilly regions, whereas commercial species like poplar, eucalyptus, shisham, etc constitute the major functional component in lower Shivaliks. Farming communities successfully grow food crops like wheat, maize, soybean, pea, black gram; vegetable crops like tomato, cabbage, capsicum; tuber crops and medicinal crops with multipurpose woody perennials. The findings indicate that agricultural crops can be integrated with woody perennials without any adverse impact on growth, production or physiological status of food crops, except when growing immediately beneath tree canopies. Our experience is that planting timber, fuel-fodder or fruit tree species in combination with agricultural crops and medicinal and aromatic herb species pave the way for diversified products and better economic returns to the farmers. Multipurpose tree species outside the forest have played very important role in catering to the day to day requirements of the rural population, beside environmental conservation. Different farming systems consisting crops + trees have yielded encouraging results and have not only helped diversification but enhanced productivity of land per unit area. Intercropping medicinal and aromatic herb species, especially with fruit and commercial timber further makes agroforestry more profitable.

ABSTRACT

Bio-engineering is the use of vegetation, either alone or in conjunction with civil engineering structures, to reduce instability and erosion of slopes. Such structures are advocated in hilly area mainly because they provide one of the best ways to armour slopes against erosion. Bio-engineering, in the context of upland slope protection and erosion reduction, combines mechanical, biological, and ecological concepts to arrest and prevent shallow slope failures and erosion. This chapter presents the design consideration and construction practices for stabilization of slopes using bioengineering technologies along with a brief review on the salient features and characteristics of the bioengineering processes.

ABSTRACT

The paper presents the results of agroforestry trials that had been conducted in lower shivaliks for assessing soil and water conservation under different land uses. The experiments reveal that agroforestry is a profitable venture compared to monocroping in lower shivaliks, where agriculture is rainfed.

Introduction

The lower Shivalik is composed of an alternating sequence of well indurated, fine grained, purple and grayish-purple sandstones and purple and maroon clays in the lower part and grayish-purple, medium to fine grained standstones in the upper part. The formation attains a thickness of 1,300 m to 1,900 m in the Western Himalaya. The important places of lower Shivaliks are along Sambha-Udhampur Road, Jammu – Srinagar national highway, Nahan, Kalka, Nalagarh, Bilaspur, Sarkaghat regions of Himachal Pradesh. In Kumaon Himalaya, lower Shivaliks are in Kotdwar, Rathwadhab, Mohand, Haldwani and Tanakpur regions

ABSTRACT

Trees play a crucial role in maintaining and regenerating soil fertility through the action of their roots and litter. Trees can also improve soil structure, water holding capacity, crop rooting volume and biological activity in soil by providing biomass. Quick growing species, especially of nitrogen fixing trees when combined with herbaceous crops enhance fertility status of the soil through litter contribution and nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs, grown in agroforestry systems, are capable of fixing about 50-100 Kg N ha^-1yr^-1. Use of agroforestry is also a viable option for enhancing soil organic carbon density. Soil organic carbon sequestration potential in soils of tropical forest ecosystems varies from 100 to 500 Kg C ha^-1 yr^-1. Improving soil organic carbon pool through agroforestry improves soil quality, biomass productivity and mitigates global warming by reducing the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases. Nutrient cycling is another way in which trees draw a large portion of nutrients from deeper soil layer and return it to the soil through crown crash, stem flow and litter fall. In a nutshell, for improving the soil quality, ecological balance and sustainability of agro eco systems , agroforestry is one of the best viable alternative land use system.

ABSTRACT

Mining is an important activity for economic development. However, it is associated with land degradation, pollution of air and water, droughts, floods, land slides and land slips, silting of reservoirs, chocking of bridges and disruption of communications are some of the very serious environmental hazards. The need of the hour is to scientifically extract the mineral coupled with adopting mechanical and vegetative measures to rehabilitate the mine spoils. In the present paper effect of mining on natural resources has been detailed, also techniques adopted and standardized for rehabilitation Sahastradhara mined area of Dehra Dun valley over two decades have been clubbed.

ABSTRACT

Fodder availability is a serious concern during winter season in hilly areas as land for growing fodder crops is hardly available unlike plains. Bhimal as an agroforestry species is being cultivated in the Himalayas since long, however, genetic improvement of the species was hardly undertaken in the past barring a few reports on tree improvement of the species. Seeds were used to be usually collected from crooked trees which are easy to climb or swept from the forest floor. Since agroforestry systems have great promise to improve the productivity of both agricultural and tree crops, therefore, keeping that in view, seven provenances (I.C. Bhaintan , I.C. Chamba, I.C. Katkor, I.C. Malas, I.C. Nauni, I.C. Naur, I.C. Tachla) were collected from different regions of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh and evaluated for 10 years (1995-2004). Significant differences in the productivity potential of Bhimal provenances were noticed and the high yielding fodder provenances identified (I.C. Bhaintan , I.C. Chamba and I.C. Malas), yielding as high as 35 q ha^-1 thus fodder productivity could be increased to 25% by planting high yielding provenances. Likewise high yielding provenaces (HYPs) for fuelwood and fibre were identified which can increase the productivity potential of the agroforestry system. In 2005, more than 1200 saplings of HYPs were multiplied in a polyhouse and planted at different elevations in the Himalayas under prevailing agroforestry systems. Differential responses of HYPs in respect of growth and productivity at different locations have been monitored. The rooting behaviour of HYPs was also investigated and it was found that all the three provenances viz., I.C. Bhaintan, I.C. Chamba and I.C. Malas have high soil binding characteristics, thus revealing that apart from production, this tree species plays an important role in soil conservation. Further, high regression of soil binding on above ground biomass and specific root length was recorded among these provenaces. Looking at the performance of such provenances on the farmers’ fields, the demand of high yielding provenaces is increasing. Unlike Eucalyptus, Bhimal had the minimal effect on the performance of field crops and the overall system productivity of the Grewia optiva based agroforestry system was profitable along with insurance against aberrant monsoon conditions.