eBook Chapters

Silage is the material produced by controlled fermentation of forages or crop residues with high moisture content. The objective of silage making is to preserve the harvested forages by anaerobic fermentation in which soluble carbohydrates are converted into acids. Due to acid produced, pH of a well-ensiled product becomes so low that all life processes come to a halt and the material remain preserved so long as it remains in airtight storage. Soluble carbohydrate present in forage is converted to lactic acid which drops the pH to a level sufficient to inhibit any further biological activity in the ensiled forage mass (McDonald, 1991). Fresh forage crops, such as maize, grasses, legumes, wheat and Lucerne, can be preserved by ensiling. It is essential to have a good microbial fermentation process to produce high quality silage. Good silage is achieved by discouraging the activity of plant enzymes and undesirable micro-organisms and encouraging the dominance of lactic acid bacteria. A good fermentation process is not only dependent on the type and quality of the forage crop, but also on the harvesting and ensiling technique. Silage-making is a managemental tool that allows producers to match feed resources (forages, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts, etc.) with feed demand for a dairy herd.

Origin of fruit culture can be traced back to 8000-5000 years ago and the horticultural practices like irrigation, vegetative propagation, selection etc. developed about 5000-3000 years back. The sophisticated fruit culture might have originated before 3000-2000 years. Basically all the cultivated fruits are the gift of diversity and not results of systematic breeding. Most of them have spread to different parts of the world through various media from the primary centres of origin.

Centres of origin of major fruit crops are as follows:

Mediterranean basin : datepalm, fig, grape, olive, pomegranate

East Asia : banana, citrus, mango, peach, kiwi fruit, persimmon

Central Asia: pome fruits, apricot

Europe : plum, raspberry

North and South America: avocado, black berry, papaya, pineapple, strawberry

The history of gardening dates back to the history of human civilization. In order to meet various utility purposes, primitive people used to grow plants initially. Some of them had beautiful flowers and drew attention. Gradually, the importance of growing flowers / ornamental plants for worshiping Gods and Goddesses came into existence. The need for growing plants for aesthetic purpose came much later. Development of formal gardens also initially confined to temples and, thereafter, attached to the residential places. Concept of developing parks and gardens for beautification purpose exclusively for public use came much later during 17^th century. With the influence of different regimes as prevailed in India time to time, the gardening styles and plants also changed a lot for fulfilling new taste and need of the people.

Gardens have played a very important role in development of nations of the world. In fact, humanity started its cultural development from a garden rememberd as ‘Garden of the Paradise’. Gardens always occupied a prime place in our social and cultural life. Every race has its own idea of gardening and the characters of the nation is expressed in its gardens and parks.

The status of gardening during ancient time has been presented in Ramayana, written by Valmiki. Ayodhya city was described as having wide streets, large houses, richly decorated temples and gardens. These gardens were planted with fruit trees and flowering plants and had lakes full of lotus (Nelumbo sp.) and different kinds of birds. During exile, Lord Rama and Sita are believed to have observed a number of trees and were fascinated by beautiful flowers; one of them was Sita Ashok (Saraca asoca).

Mahabharata, written by Saint Vyasa also contains description about gardens. During the Mahabharata era, pleasure gardens were planted with flowering plants. The famous tree of this era was Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), which is associated with Lord Krishna.

The systematic gardening in India is as old as civilization of Indus of Harappa, which existed between 2400 B.C. and 1750 B.C. At that time, people were living in well-planned roads cut across one another almost at right angles. There are many evidences which prove that trees and ornamental plants were associated with the Harappan civilization. India has a long history of close association of people with flowering plants. It begins with the arrival of Aryans to India in 1600 B.C. They were literate people and brought with them the four Vedas viz., Rig veda, Atharva veda, Yazur veda and Sam veda and the Puranas. They appreciated the beauty of flowering plants, lakes, mountains, forests, etc. and named their children after flowers like Kamal, Champa, Bela, Chameli, Rukmani, etc. The followers of Hindu religion worship their Gods and Goddesses with flowers early in the morning.

The life of Lord Buddha was associated with a number of trees from birth to his Nirvana. He was born in 563 B.C. under the tree of Ashoka (Saraca asoca) at Lumbini. Further, Buddha attained his enlightenment under a Pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree, spread his new teachings under shady banyan and mango trees and breathed his last in a Sal (Shorea robusta) grove.

When Lord Buddha visited Vaishali, Amrapali presented a park known as Amravana which was dominated by flowering trees. Buddhists were planting trees and flowering plants on a large scale for making surrounding peaceful and place ideal for meditation.

The homoeopathic system of medicine is one of the finest systems of cure available in the world. It achieves in totality the ideal laid down by its founder, Dr. Samuel Hahnemann:

"The highest ideal of cure is rapid, gentle and permanent restoration of the health, or removal and annihilation oftlie disease in its whole extent, in the shortest, most reliable, and most harmless way, on easily compreltensible principles".

In homoeopathy, not a single drug is used without knowing its effect on healthy human beings. Hence there is no shooting in the dark. The system operates, by and large, without laboratory tests and other expensive means of diagnosis, which are being used when not needed and that too, unfortunately on patients who can hardly afford the expenses.

Cost wise, there is no medical system in tlie world, which is as inexpensive as homoeopathy. No patient who requires a speedy cure without side effects can ignore homoeopathy; no doctor who has nothing but the good of his patient at heart can overlook the utility and effectiveness of homoeopathy and no Government which has to balance its budget can afford not to use homoeopathy in hospitals and other institutions run for the health and care of the sick and thus it is the most cost effective treatment

The discovery of homoeopathic system of medicine makes a fascinating story.

Origin of systematics is as old as Vedas (1500 BC), Ramayana (1900 BC), Mahabharat (1400 BC) and Upanisad (350 BC) in which mention had been made about various animals.

History of Insect Classification

Linnaeus (1758-1766) in the 12th edition of Systema Naturae, divided insects into 9 orders

1. Coleoptera (earwigs – Dermeptera).

2. Orthoptera.

3. Hemiptera.

4. Lepidoptera.

5. Neuroptera (ant lion, Sialis, termites and dragon flies).

6. Hymenoptera

7. Diptera.

8. Thysanoptera.

9. Aptera (wingless insects, spiders, scorpions, terrestrial crustacians and Myriapods).

Introduction

The history of Integrated Pest Control goes back much farther than the mere coining of the term in the early fifties and the subsequent elaboration and clarification of the concept. The origins are deeply rooted in the evolution of pest control practices as developed by Entomologists and Plant Pathologists in the Nineteenth Century.

Human history is a series of attempts to gain increasing control over the environment. At first this control was minimal to the degree that poor shelter and unstable food supplies imposed severe population constraints. The gradual gain in man’s capacity to control his environment parallels the gradual rise of civilization. But as man aggregated into villages near rivers and planted crops near by, he encountered increasingly severe attacks by pests on the crops. For thousands of years, man could do nothing about these pests but appeal to the power of magic and a variety of gods. For the most part, early humans had to live with and tolerate the ravages of plant diseases and insects, but gradually they learned how to improve their conditions through “trial and error” experiences. These improvements included the beginnings of pest control or pest management, the most preferred term today.

Microorganisms (or microbes) are organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. The science of microbiology is the study of microorganisms, their properties, classification, growth requirements, method of reproduction and distribution in nature. These organisms range in size from tiny viruses to larger bacteria, protozoa, algae, fungi and some of the microscopic worms (helminthes). They are present everywhere in our environment, in our homes, on our bodies, on the things we touch and on the food we eat. They are important for human survival on Earth, playing an essential role in many processes that maintain life. In nature, microorganisms carry out a number of important functions.

1.They are responsible for the decomposition of organic matter.

2.Recycling of nutrients that help to maintain the balance of chemicals in the soil.

3.Special nitrogen-fixing bacteria live symbiotically with certain plants, absorbing nitrogen from the air and converting it into compounds which can be used by the plant for growth.

4.Some algae are capable of photosynthesis, using energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide in air into carbohydrate.

5.Marine microorganisms form the basis of the food chain in lakes, rivers and oceans.

6.Certain microorganisms are used in the manufacture of food.

7.Pharmaceuticals and drugs.

8.Industrial processes.

9.A valuable tool for scientific research.

10.Use in laboratory experiments to understanding metabolic pathways and in the discovery of the genetic code.

Obviously human have had to deal with microbes even before the recorded history. The first record of human using microorganisms comes from ancient tablets from mid east.

Babylonians were using yeast to make beer over 8000 years ago and acetic acid bacteria to make vinegar over 6000 years ago. About 5000 years ago, Persia (Now Iran) region recorded the wine making.

The Romans had God for specific microorganisms. The roman God of mold and mildew were “Robigus” and “Robigo” which mean crop rust. (Rust is one of the plant disease caused by fungus). God Robigus was very much feared because of crop lost. About 2000 years ago, Romans proposed that diseases were caused by tiny animals. But, fundamentalist religions had a strong hold over the progress. The real microbiology history starts from 1600s, when people began to make crude lenses and microscopes.

The following are the scientists and their role in the development of microbiology:

A. Write the full form of the following:

i.         AAFCO: Association of American Feed Control Officials.

ii.        AAS: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

iii.       HPLC: High Performance/Pressure Liquid Chromatography

iv.       GLC: Gas Liquid Chromatography

v.        AFRC: Agriculture & Food Research Council.

vi.       AICRP: All India Coordinated Research Project.

vii.      AOAC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists

viii.     ARC: Agricultural Research Council (United Kingdom)

ix.      BIS: Bureau of Indian Standard

x.      CIRC: Central Institute for Research on Cattle, Meerut

xi.     CIRG: Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom.

xii.    CLFMA: Compounded Livestock Feed Manufacturers Association (of India)

xiii.   COP 22: 22nd Conference of Parties.

WORLD HISTORY

Work on ornamental crops was first initiated in Krelage Nursery founded by Ernst Heinrich Krelage for bulbs, lilium and dahlias in 1811. During 1895, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute was established for ornamental crops. The first yellow corn Golden Bnatam was listed in Burpee’s Catalogue in 1902. In 1909 Primadonna F1 hybrid variety of begonia was released by the Benary Seed Company in Germany and in the same year Atlee established seed farms at Floradale in California, Erfurt in Germany Anglia in UK and Kashmir valley in India for annual garden flowers. Luther Burbank did excellent breeding works on ornamental trees, flowers and fruits in 1926.

WORLD HISTORY

Work on ornamental crops was first initiated in Krelage Nursery founded by Ernst Heinrich Krelage for bulbs, lilium and dahlias in 1811. During 1895, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute was established for ornamental crops. The first yellow corn Golden Bnatam was listed in Burpee’s Catalogue in 1902. In 1909 Primadonna F₁ hybrid variety of begonia was released by the Benary Seed Company in Germany and in the same year Atlee established seed farms at Floradale in California, Erfurt in Germany Anglia in UK and Kashmir valley in India for annual garden flowers. Luther Burbank did excellent breeding works on ornamental trees, flowers and fruits in 1926.

David developed the first successful hybrid in Nasturtium (1934) and Red and Gold hybrids of marigold (1937). In 1940, Burpee was successful in chromosome doubling and transformation of wild flowers and developed “Bright Scarlet” and “Super Tetra Series” in antirrhinum and “Jumbo Scarlet” in zinnia. He produced new strains of marigold, zinnia, nasturtium and snapdragon. William Houston in 1940 initiated the Ageratum breeding. Morden Research station was set up in Western Canada in 1945 for ornamental crop breeding. In 1968, Dr. Gustav A.L., Mehlquist was recognized as an international authority on breeding of ornamental plants. George J. Ball breeder of peas, asters and calendulas was a pioneer for the supply of dwarf impatiens and orange impatiens ‘Super Elfin’ in 1968. Israeli breeders during 1990 gave more attention towards the development of carnation, lily and anemone varieties. Longwood Gardens in 2008 got success in breeding of stock. The first record of chrysanthemum hybridization, germination and selection of superior seedlings occurred in 1827 by M. Bernet.

It will be unjust not to describe history of Parasitology (31) and a little bit about Parasitology (chapter 8) so that our students may know the earlier works done in this field and how research has advanced by diligent observations of the eminent scientists when they were not having such sophisticated facilities.

As helminth is visible with naked eyes, it was this parasite which man encountered first in its journey of life sciences or natural sciences,as was known in ancient times. Some of these were known even before the era of biblical Palestine and ancient Egyptian civilization. Hippocrates (460-357BC), ‘Father of Medicine’ knew about pinworms (Oxyuris equi) of horses. In his “History of Animalium”, Aristotle (384-322 BC)(32) has mentioned three kinds of helminthes-flatworms, cylindrical worms (Ascaris lumbricoides) and thinworms (Enterobius vermicularis). The treatises of India had the information on large roundworms of intestine (Ascaris), pinworms, leeches, bed bugs and mosquitoes.

The history of plant breeding is divided into 4 periods- knowledge of plant breeding before 1900, application of genetic principles (1900-1940), plant breeding research after 1940 and the recent developments in plant breeding. Emphasis is given on the land marks in genetic improvement of vegetable crops.

The major land marks  in genetics and breeding of crop plants are listed below.

In light of the high population of nematodes, N.A. Cobb (1915) who is considered to be the father of American Nematology, provided a dramatic description of the abundance of nematodes. He stated, “if all the matter in the universe except the nematodes were swept away, our world still would be dimly recognisable. We would find its mountain tops, valleys, rivers, lakes and oceans represented by a film of nematodes.” The Papyrus Ebers suggested a knowledge of the human intestinal parasite, Ascaris lumbricoides and the tissue parasite, Dracunculus medinensis. In early Egyptian writings also these two human parasites have been described. In 1956, Borellus recorded his observations “Vinegar eels” the microbivorous or free living nematode occurring in most vinegar at that time. The statement “sowed cockle, reaped no corn” in Shakespeare’s “Love’s Labour’s Lost”, act 4, scene 3, as suggested by Thorne (1961) possibly the first record of plant parasitic nematodes in 1549. The nematode that Thorne suspected to be in that reference actually was described by Needham in 1743. Subsequently, discovery of microscope and developments in various disciplines of science led to the discovery of plant parasitic nematodes and the disease caused by them. Some of the important milestones on the history of plant nematology are listed below in chronological order.

In light of the high population of nematodes, N.A. Cobb (1915) who is considered to be the father of American Nematology, provided a dramatic description of the abundance of nematodes. He stated, “if all the matter in the universe except the nematodes were swept away, our world still would be dimly recognisable.

Plant diseases are mentioned in some of the oldest books available (Homer, C – 1000 B.C. mentioned about the therapeutic properties of sulphur and in Old testament – 750 B.C.) and were feared as much as human diseases and war.

History in general reveals chronological account of important events, contribution of persons who significantly influenced the thinking of their era and the interpretations of the observed facts or phenomenon over the period of time. The progress in plant pathology leading to the major land mark in mycology, plant bacteriology, plant virology and plant disease control has been described in chronological order for easy and better understanding of the student in following sub-headings.

History in general reveals chronological account of important events, contribution of persons who significantly influenced the thinking of their era and the interpretations of the observed facts or phenomenon over the period of time. The progress in plant pathology leading to the major land mark in mycology, plant bacteriology and plant virology will be discussed in chronological order for easy and better understanding.

Abstract

The knowledge of programming language(s) is necessary to solve biocomputational problems and also understand the data pattern. Computer programming is used to develop software to extract information from data which is very crucial while practicing bioinformatics. Programming language is a man-made, computer-understandable, artificial language, that is designed to instruct a machine, particularly a computer to get the desired output. This chapter briefly narrates the concept of algorithms, programming languages, and the historical perspective of the same.

Rabbits belong to the mammalian order Lagomorpha, which includes rabbits, hares, and Pikas. Fossil records indicate that Lagomorpha originated in Asia over 40 million years ago during the Eocene period. The continental drift during this period likely contributed to the diverse distribution of rabbit and hare species worldwide, excluding Australia. There are over 60 recognized breeds of domestic rabbits in Europe and America, all descended from the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), the only widely domesticated rabbit species. This species is distinct from native rabbits like North American jackrabbits and cottontail rabbits, as well as all hare species.

Nowhere in the plant kingdom do ecology, evolution, and human affairs come together as intricately as phenomena involving secondary metabolites. The importance of these compounds is apparent in some of the earliest annals of human history. For example, Papaver somniferum, the original source of morphine and codeine, was known to the Sumerians in 4000 B.C. as hul gil (joy-plant). These two alkaloids, so important in human affairs for many years, probably evolved within the genus Papaver originally as protective compounds against herbivores. As a testament to the importance of secondary metabolites,

P. somniferum was one the first plants to be cultivated for a reason other than its caloric or nutritive value. Sadly, its importance has only increased over the time. Organic chemists of the nineteenth century were among the first to recognize and study the diversity of plant secondary metabolites and to analyze them both in terms of structure and function. The German organic chemists developed techniques to acetylate morphine and produce what they claimed at the time to be a non addictive version of the drug. However, acetylation product of morphine trade name Heroin, was vastly more addictive. The economies of several developing nations in Asia still depend on the acetylation of this plant secondary metabolite, and tens of thousands of lives each year are destroyed by its commercial importance. In another striking example of profitable secondary metabolites, acetylation techniques to salicylic acid, derived originally from the bark of willows, Salix, to create aspirin. The modern appreciation of these secondary metabolites from ecological and evolutionary perspectives had its spread outside of the plant-insect ecology community. The overwhelming array of chemicals found in plants was more than simply by-products of primary metabolism that served as waste products for these organisms that lacked excretory systems.

Ecologists and evolutionary biologists soon took up the cudgels, and the past 60 years have seen the development, testing, refinement, and, in some cases, rejection of models that describe the ecology and evolution of these “secondary” substances. With the functional roles of these compounds broadly acknowledged, several challenges presented themselves to scientists interested in their ecological and evolutionary dynamics. Most obviously, the details of the processes underlying the interactions between each of these compounds and their target pest or pathogen became one of the most vibrant topics in ecological and physiological research.

History and development of seed Industry in India can be discussed under two heads

1. Pre-independence development.
2. Post-independence development.

The paper deals with the historical perspective of the tsunamis, much widely discussed Kumari Kandam and Lemuria continent and the palaeo-time series changes on the past continents and oceans, disastrous tsunamis since 16^th century and archeological evidences indicating shore line changes along Tamil Nadu coast.

Keywords: Ancient tsunamis in history, Kumari Kandam and Lemuria, Past shore line changes.

INTRODUCTION

A tsunami is a natural phenomenon consisting of a series of waves generated when water in a lake or the sea is rapidly displaced on a massive scale. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and large meteorite impacts all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The effects of a tsunami can range from unnoticeable phenomenon to large scale devastation.

The term “tsunami” is derived from the Japanese language meaning harbour (“tsu”) and wave (“nami”). The term was coined by fishermen who returned to port to find the area surrounding the harbour devastated, although they had not been aware of any wave on the high seas. A tsunami is not a sub-surface event in the deep ocean; it simply has a much smaller amplitude (wave heights) offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometers long), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a passing “hump” in the ocean.

Tsunamis were historically referred to as tidal waves because when they approach land they take on the characteristics of a violent onrushing tide rather than the sort of cresting waves that are formed by wind action upon the ocean (with which people are more familiar). However, since they are not actually related to tides the term is considered misleading and its usage is discouraged by oceanographers.

Aromatic plants synthesise and preserve a variety of biochemical products, many of which are extractable and useful as chemical feed stocks or as raw materials for various scientific investigations. Many secondary metabolites of plants are commercially important and find use in a number of perfumery, flavouring and pharmaceutical compounds. The characteristic property of the plant is due to a variety of complex chemical compounds and hence aromatic plants are generally referred to as ‘natural bio-chemical factories’ or ‘chemical goldmines’.  Not all these natural chemicals can be synthesised in laboratory. Aromatic plants possess odorous volatile substances, which occur as essential oil, green exudate, balsam and oleoresin in one or more parts, namely, root, wood, stem, foliage, flower and fruit.  The term essential oil is concomitant to fragrance or perfumes because these fragrances are oily in nature and they represent the essence or active constituents of plants. They are called volatile or ethereal oils as they evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary temperatures.

Dogs, Cats and birds are pet animals.

Chromosome number of dogs-78

Good Angora breed yield wool of 2-2 ½ “ an average. On record, 8” of wool is also obtained.

Among angiosperms, there are about 18 families which have more than 30 genera which produce tubers. Most genera have many species which are tuberizing, most of which are unknown to man even now. The history, origin and distribution of only a few species which are economically important root and tuber crops and which are commonly used by men for edible as well as medicinal purpose are elucidated in this chapter.

1. Sweet Potato

Exact centre of origin of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and the routes and times for its dispersal to some of its present locations, are still in dispute and are likely to remain so until further archaeological or ethnobotanical evidence is available (O’Brien, 1972).

Bakery Industry

Baked goods have been around for thousands of years. The art of baking was developed early during the Roman Empire. It was a highly famous art as Roman citizens loved baked goods and demanded for them frequently for important occasions such as feasts and weddings etc. Due to the fame and desire that the art of baking received, around 300 BC, baking was introduced as an occupation and respectable profession for Romans. The bakers began to prepare bread at home in an oven, using mills to grind grain into the flour for their breads. The oncoming demand for baked goods vigorously continued and the first bakers’ guild was established in 168 BC in Rome. This drastic appeal for baked goods promoted baking all throughout Europe and expanded into the eastern parts of Asia. Bakers started baking breads and goods at home and selling them out on the streets.

This trend became common and soon, baked products were getting sold in streets of Rome, Germany, London and many more. This resulted in a system of delivering the goods to households, as the demand for baked breads and goods significantly increased. This provoked the bakers to establish a place where people could purchase baked goods for themselves. Therefore, in Paris, the first open-air bakery of baked goods was developed and since then, bakeries became a common place to purchase delicious goods and get together around the world. By the colonial era, bakeries were commonly viewed as places to gather and socialize.^[2] World War II directly affected bread industries in the UK. Baking schools closed during this time so when the war did eventually end there was an absence of skilled bakers. This resulted in new methods being developed to satisfy the world’s desire for bread. Methods like: adding chemicals to dough, premixes and specialized machinery. Unfortunately these old methods of baking were almost completely eradicated when these new methods were introduced and became industrialized. The old methods were seen as unnecessary and financially unsound, during this period there were not many traditional bakeries left.

Bakery is a traditional activity and occupies an important place in food processing industry. The bakery manufacturers in India can be differentiated into the three broad segments of bread, biscuits and cake. About 1.3 million tonnes of the bakery products industry in India is in the organized sector out of 3 millions tonnes, while the balance comprises of unorganized, small-scale local manufacturers. Though, there are sufficient automatic and semi-automatic bread as well as biscuit manufacturing units in India but there are still number of people prefer fresh bread and other products from the local bakery. After entry of Pizza and Burgers’ MNCs in the country, people are changing their tastes also. Today, they are not restricted to bread, cake and biscuits but to other bakery products also. The consumers are increasingly going for newer options with respect to bakery products. With the ventures of few Companies like Britannia, Biskfarm, and Morish etc. competition has increased. Also, the Indian market is witnessing the proliferation of bakery cafe chains in the form of Baristacafe, coffee day, Café Coffee & Monginis etc.

Armed with better technology, know-how and novel ideas, these foreign companies have made rapid inroads into the lucrative market within a very short span of time. Though the demand for bakery products in India has always been on the rise, there is clearly a lack of awareness and the will to break new ground, which has helped global players to gain brownie points while exploring the market in India. The unorganized sector accounts for about half of the total biscuit production estimated at 1.5 million tonnes. It also accounts for 85 per cent of the total bread production and around 90 per cent of the other bakery products estimated at 0.6 million tonnes. The last includes pastries, cakes, buns, rusks and others.

History

Pineapple was discovered a little later in time than expected. It had been a staple of the American diet for years before Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, discovered it on November 4, 1493. (www.library.ucf.edu; www. levins.com). That’s when the Guadeloupe Island natives served him and his colleagues this delectable fruit, pineapple. The varieties cultivated at the time were all seedless, and many typical wild cultivars were missing (Collins, 1948), demonstrating the area’s early vegetation. He brought the fruit to Europe. The European travellers were so fascinated by this fruit that they frequently mentioned it in their accounts (Morrison, 1963; Collins, 1960).

It was known as ‘nanas’ or ‘ananas’ by the people of South America (‘ananas’ meant ‘excellent fruit’ in Guarani). People in the area literally cultivated it according to a strict protocol, and they were especially keen to select superior varieties in order to increase fruit yield and quality. They gained a thorough understanding of crop agronomy and production. They also put into practise some of the processing standards that are still in use today around the world (holidayandtraveleurope.blogspot.in). Pineapple wine was made, fibre was extracted, and pharmacological needs such as emmenagogue, abortifacient, antiamoebic, vermifuge, stomach disorders, and poisoning arrow heads were met (Leal and Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge, 1996). In 1980, Antoni and Leal proposed that the pineapple originated in an area further north, between 10° N and S latitudes and 55–75° W longitude, which included parts of north western and eastern Brazil, Columbia, Guyana, and Venezuela. During colonisation, Spanish and Portuguese navigators were instrumental in the distribution and spread of pineapple to all corners of the globe (www.daf.qld.gov.au 2015).

Cashew has a long history as a useful tree but only in the current century, it became an important tropical horticultural crop. Small-scale local exploitation of cashew for its nuts and cashew apples is the pattern for more than 300 years in Asia and Africa. It was not until early years of 20^th century that international trade in cashew kernels began with first exports from India. Although with slow beginning, cashew became an important commercial crop in the last couple of years. In India, use of cashew apples and nuts was started by local people, and accounts from Africa are similar; making cashew wine/liquor possessing a common practice in both Asia and Africa (Johnson, 1973).

Cashew, an evergreen tree, produces both nuts and apples, has become a crop of importance owing to the highly valued kernel and wide adaptability to varying agro-climatic conditions. India is one of the largest producer, exporter and consumer of cashew in the world. Today, cashew has become a crop of high economy and has moved from a crop of waste lands to commercial crop, even in organized sector (Singh, 1998).

The early history of laparoscopy is unknown to many surgeons, but Hippocrates (460-375 BC) in Greece was first to describe endoscopy). He made reference to a rectal speculum. Hippocrates also advised injecting a large quantity of air into the intestines through the anus in the case of intestinal obstruction. He also advocated the insertion of suppository that was 10 digits long. These descriptions suggest that Hippocrates was well aware of ileus with intestinal obstruction and thought of several possible etiologies, including faecal impaction, intussusception, and sigmoid volvulus. Moreover, Hippocrates treated these life-threatening conditions with minimally invasive approaches.

? Dioscorides- Classified Toxicants on the basis of their origin into Plant, Animal, and Mineral Sources.

? Ibn Hazer- Differentiated between a drug or a poison on the basis of matter of dose.

? Dementhes – died by swallowing an unknown poison in his pen.

? Socrates- was poisoned by a cup of Hemlock (Greek State Poison) obtained from Conium maculatum having active principle coniine causes paralysis, coma followed by death.

? Cleopatra- Egyptian lady use strychinine poisoning and she died of Egyptian Asp.

? Lady Toffana- Arsenic containing perfumes known as Aqua Toffana.

Hog-plum also known as wild mango (Spondias pinnata), is native to tropical Asia. A small, aromatic deciduous tree, up to 27m height and 2.5m in girth, with a clear bole of 16m, is found wild or cultivated almost throughout India, ascending up to an altitude of 1500m in the Himalayas; also found in the Andamans. Bark thick, aromatic, smooth, grey; leaves imparipinnate, 20-60cm long, leaflets 5-11, 22-28cm long, ovate-oblong, elliptic or elliptic-oblong, more or less oblique with mango-like smell; flowers whitish or greenish white, polygamous, in large, terminal panicles; fruits in terminal clusters of 10-15, drupes yellow-green or rich olive-green, mottled with yellow and black, smooth, ovoid, 4-7cm long; seeds 1-3, one being perfect, oblong-elliptic. Fruit is extremely sour, even when completely ripe.

6.1 Kinetics of Rumen Digestion

The rate and extent of digestion of dry matter or organic matter in the rumen is regarded as the important parameter to predict voluntary feed intake (Khazaal et al., 1993; Blummel,1994). Voluntary feed intake is responsible for more than 50 per cent of the variations in animal response to the diet (Van Soest, 1994) and with low quality unsupplemented roughages, this can be as much as 93% (Blumme1,1994). Therefore, any parameter of feed evaluation that would indicate the voluntary feed intake would be a useful parameter to judge the quality of feedstuff. The rate of digestion of any feed component can be measured by determining extent of digestion at intervals of time. Therefore, the techniques for determining extent of digestion, such as the rumen in vitro techniques (Tilley and Terry, 1963; Goering and Van Soest, 1970) or the in situ Dacron bag technique have been adopted to derive rate of degradation of dry matter of any particular component of the feedstuff. However, unlike in determining the extent of digestion, wherein the incubation is turned off at one particular time (normally 48 hours), measurement of rate of digestion, requires termination of incubation at several points between the start of incubation and until at least 90% of the potentially digestible dry matter is digested (72 or 96 hours). This generates a large number of samples for analysis.

In gas production technique, since gas produced from digestion of substrate is accumulated in the incubations, measurement of gas at different times of incubation would reflect the extent of digestion at different times of incubation. Therefore, unlike with other in vitro / in situ techniques wherein, digestion is determined from the gravimetric disappearance of feed at different times of incubation, gas production technique offers the possibility of using cumulative gas production at different times of incubation to measure the rate of digestion. Thus, a single incubation of feedstuffs is adequate to measure the rate of gas production.

Abstract: Hollyhocks are seed propagated garden annuals with numerous hybrid phenotypes, series (single and bicoloured Halo series), Spotlight, Carter’s Double, Double Triumph, Giant Double Powder Puff, Halo Bush (tricoloured), Halo Mixed (eight colours) and cultivars are available in the world market. Unusual plant height, delayed flowering compared to other winter annuals handicap its popularity. While little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop, breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Gene pool of hollyhock exhibits great diversity. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf stature (2 feet height), compact growth, double and large flowered inflorescence, precocious flowering and resistance to leaf rust disease.

Abstract

Overall geological histories of the Quaternary deltas of all over the world have been studied considerably, to understand the evolution, eustatic – isostatic changes, land – ocean interactive phenomenon, resources, environment etc. But tectonic signatures of these deltas have been less studied, though these have significance in understanding the natural resources, environment and evaluation of natural disasters. In this context, as the state of Tamil Nadu is a low easterly gradient plain, all the easterly flowing rivers have developed well evolved geomorphic features related to youthful, mature and old stages. Such old stages of the rivers are marked by the spectacular development of deltas. These deltas of Tamil Nadu have been studied in detail for understanding the tectonics with the help of visibly seen tectonic and geomorphic features in satellite based remote sensing and ground based data sets. The study has revealed that the upper age limit / ages of these deltas are probably of Middle to Late Holocene and the various tectonic and geomorphic anomalies observed in these deltas obviously indicate the tectonic processes/ phenomena that prevailed during Middle Holocene - till date. The Proto Cauvery delta of Chennai region is witnessing ongoing NE–SW sinistral, NW–SE dextral and E–W vertical tectonic activities. The streams in Ponnaiyar delta are showing persistent southerly migration due to the probable ongoing land subsidence along NE–SW faults in the southern part of the delta. The Cauvery river which has originally developed a broad bird-foot shaped – arcuate delta, has undergone a phase of anticlockwise rotational migration and stabilized in the northern rim of the delta as Coleroon river during 2300–750 Y.B.P. due to the ongoing tectonic emergence in the south of the delta almost since the last 6000 years or so. The Vellar river, in deltaic regime, shows northerly migration due to E–W grabening in the northern part of the delta. Vaigai and Manimuttar rivers are again migrating northerly in their deltaic regions due to the probable land arching to the south of their present day flow. Thus, the paper discusses the post deltaic / Middle -Late Holocene geological processes of Tamil Nadu deltas which are predominated by tectonic activities.

9.1 Introduction

Holocephalians are a group of highly specialised cartilaginous fishes that live in the sea. It is structurally similar to Elasmobranchii and Teleostomi. It exists in both extinct and living forms. Previously considered a class of Pisces, Nelson (1984) classified Holocephali as a sub-class.

9.2 Systematic Position

Phylum: Chordata

I. General information

A kitchen garden/ nutrition garden is a vegetable garden where the vegetable crops are grown in the backyard of a house or any available space in compound or rooftop of the house, to meet the daily requirement of the family. All the members of the family are collectively involved in a kitchen garden.

For a balanced diet, 300 g of vegetables are to be included in our daily food. But on an average, Indians take only 160 g per day. Hence to fill up the gap, vegetable cultivation not only in farmers’ holdings but also in the home gardens is encouraged.

INTRODUCTION
Agroforestry is a land use option that increase livelihood security and reduce vulnerability to climate and environmental change. Agro-forestry has many potential, such as to enhance the overall (biomass) productivity, soil fertility improvement, soil conservation, nutrient cycling, micro-climate improvement, carbon sequestration, bio drainage, bio- energy and biofuel etc. There are many agroforestry systems practiced in India from time immemorial, but the potential of home gardens and their socio-economic significance is very well documented.   Home gardens represent land use systems involving deliberate management of multipurpose trees and shrubs in intimate association with annual and perennial agricultural crops  and livestock within the compounds of individual houses (Fernandes and Nair 1986). Home gardens can also be called as Multitier system or Multitier cropping. Home gardens are highly productive, sustainable and very practicable. Food production is primary function of most home gardens on sustenance basis.

Introduction

Food and nutrition security is the basic requirement of human development. Among the ten global burden of diseases, six are connected with diet related factors. Food and nutrition security is also closely related to other factors like socio economic status, geography and demography. Asia, Latin America and Africa hosts world’s most of the undernourished population. Among these regions South Asia is considered as one of the hotspots of malnutrition, in which India is the major contributor. Fifty seven percent of population cannot afford healthy diet in South Asia.

Over the centuries of remarkable economic growth in India concomitant reduction in under nutrition has not been witnessed and this dilemma is called Indian enigma (Gillespie et al 2012; Sengupta 2019). In India among the different socio economic categories, undernutrition has highly been manifested among SC and STs (Gillespie et al 2012; NNMB 2009).The reasons of food and nutrition insecurity are directly linked to remoteness, dire poverty and dysfunctional food security programmes (Khera 2011; UNICEF 2014). Poor and landless among them are mostly falling prey to chronic food insecurity. Coupled with reduction in locally available dietary inputs, rising food expenditure also compel poor to cut back the quantity and resort to low priced calorie dense food (Smyth & Sweetman; 2010). Therefore, poor people’s diet assume to fraught with starch, which leads to nutritional imbalances and resulting in to various lifestyle diseases like diabetics among them. This situation necessitates the need of local, sustainable household food production through home nutrition gardens. Many studies testify the impact of household level food crop cultivation in addressing malnutrition. Kuhnlein & Raceveur 1996; Pimbert 2009; Vira et al 2015 argues inadequate diets are associated with the “delocalization of food supply” and disruption in existed food systems. Therefore, in general literatures on agriculture and nutrition elicits the positive correlation between cultivating food crops and nutrition security (Gillespie et al 2012; Hossain et al 2016; Viswanathan et al 2015). In this context, home nutrition garden programmeassumes greater significance in countering malnutrition among Paniyan community in Western Ghats region of Wayanad district of Kerala.

ABSTRACT

Homegardens are traditional agroforestry systems present throughout the northeast India especially in foothill region. The high diversity and the intensive care that is given to the homegarden in and around Arunachal Pradesh results in a unique combination of high levels of productivity, stability and sustainability of the system. The homegardens studied here were vertically distributed in four different layers viz, floor, middle, sub-canopy and canopy. Such stratification has given rise to the distribution of a variety of species based on light requirement in the system. Density and diversity index of tree species in the homegardens were highest in Harmutty in the foothills (468.5 plants ha^-1 and 1.17 respectively), whereas lower values were recorded in Ziro in the upper elevation (16 plants ha^-1, 0.651 respectively). Soil nutrients were greater in Harmutty, followed by Doimukh, Nirjuli and then Ziro. Maximum plant detrital (litter and fine roots) biomass and their subsequent decomposition in the homegardens of Harmutty (10185.67 kg ha^-1) might be the probable reason for the efficient nutrient cycling and generation of more available nutrients.

Many human illnesses are contacted from animals and plants; and are also due to imbalance in the environment. Mental, emotional and relational symptoms seen in humans are absent in animals. Nevertheless, careful observations on the behavior of the animal and its relation with others may play key role in homeopathic prescribing in animals. No doubt the use of homeopathy in animals is challenging. Homeopathic treatment of pet animals has many similarities with homeopathic treatment of babies and children such as non verbal communication, the socialization and the relationship with third parties (owners in case of pets and parents in case of children).There are many prescribing strategies in veterinary homeopathy.

Homeopathic Prescription

A basis for homeopathic prescription involves identifying all the aspects of the case (detailed questioning to get the history in respect to animal, its behavior, its nutrition and management, vaccination and deworming status, past and present illness etc.), objective investigations (instrumental and laboratory), coupled with an overview of the picture and dynamics of the patient (it is more philosophical and subjective).

In recording symptoms (both present and past), special attention is to be paid to peculiar symptoms, mental state and generalities. Then appropriate remedy is selected through a process called “reportization”. After selecting an appropriate remedy, its correct potency is determined. Selection of the potency depends on the strength of vital force of the ailing individual, degree and extent of physical pathology and disease chronicity (Hahnemann,1994). Higher potency is selected if vital force is strong. For example higher potency are more suitable for young and growing animals. If tissue pathology is more, lower potency drug is advisable. The effect of higher potency drugs is for greater period of time. Effect of 1M potency may last for a month while that of 30C potency may last for a week. If pathology is not severe, 200C potency may be selected. In case pathology is significant, potency below 200C may be chosen. For weak and emaciated animals, potency 30C or below is advisable. Clear cut cases with strong mental symptoms are right candidates for high potency. Unclear case should be given low potency drug (Pitcairn, 1992). As soon as relief is observed, the drug administration should be stopped. Overmedication is the great error in homeopathic prescribing. In homeopathic prescribing, number of pillules taken in a single dose is less important. What matters is its potency and frequency.

Homeopathy

The word ‘Homeopathy’ is derived from two Greek words “Homeos” and “Pathos” meaning “similar” and “suffering” respectively (Mukherjee and Wahile,2006). This system of medicine is based on the principle of ‘Similars’ propounded by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann in late 17th century. The practice of Homeopathy came into being and gained wide spread popularity too early in the history of medicine at a time when it was impossible to provide any kind of explanation for its clinical efficacy. It is a complete and separate approach to health care using dynamized micro doses of herbs, minerals or animal products to stimulate the body’s innate healing mechanism. Homeopathy is claimed to be more ecological, compassionate and comprehensive owing to use of micro doses. Clinical anecdotal evidence exists to indicate that homeopathy is beneficial in veterinary practice also. The homeopathic remedies stimulate the body defense to heal itself. The practice of homeopathy began first and science in its efficacy is being discovered later as was in case of immunology. An increasing interest is being shown in Homeopathy as a complementary and alternative treatment for both human and animal diseases owing to ever increasing problem of emergence of resistance in micro-organisms to antibiotics, their residues in animal products, and side effects of modern drugs. But critics of homeopathy are not reconciling with the use of highly diluted homeopathic remedies and considering it as a controversial therapy. Researches with the help of modern technology are now illustrating science in homeopathy.

Even while the world is ageing, it is not prepared for it. There are 962 million people over 60 in the world as of 2017 with 310.0 million of them living in wealthy countries and 652.2 million in developing ones, according to data from the UN's Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA-UN 2017). According to projections, there would be 2.1 billion seniors worldwide by the year 2050 (rich countries: 421.4 million, developing countries: 1670.5 million). By 2030, 80% of the old people in the globe will live in developing countries (DESA-UN, 2015). Elderly individuals in rural developing countries confront challenges such as the lack of pension coverage, work difficulty and high medical costs. Their poor diets and deteriorating poverty raise their risk of chronic illnesses like diabetes, heart disease and cancer (Marshall et al., 2001). 

The homoeopathic materia medica consists of around 1000 drugs, the characteristics of which have been verified or proved. Homoeopathy is unique in that it uses no drug, which has not been proved. The proving has been done by administering pure medicines to healthy human beings and recording in minute detail the effects, mostly adverse, produced by such administration. The tests were conducted on men and women who were mostly medical people and students who were not sick. The drugs were administered in doses consisting of crude drugs or homoeopathic potencies. These volunteers were then asked to describe the effects of the drugs in their own words. These descriptions were noted down by the doctors conducting the experiments and were carefully recorded. Hundreds of thousands of such symptoms were recorded while proving the homoeopathic drugs and the materia medica forms a record of the best proving along with other data collected as a result of laboratory tests and experiments.

In paragraph 25 of the 'Organon of medicine', Dr.Samuel Hahnemann the founder of the system laid down the basis of homoeopathy in the following words: "Now, however, in all careful trials, pure experience, the sole and infallible oracle qi healing art, teaches us that medicine which, in its action on the healthy human body, has demonstrated its power of producing the greatest number of symptoms similar to those observable in the case of disease under treatment, does also, in doses of suitable potency and attenuation, rapidly, radically and permanently remove the totality of the symptoms of this morbid state, that is to say the whole disease present, and change it into health; and that all medicines cure, without exception, those diseases whose symptoms most nearly resemble their own, and leave none of them uncured."

Dr. Samuel Hahnemann laid down the fundamentals of the then new doctrine of homoeopathy in organon of medicine. As observed by him in the 'Introduction⁷ to this work, till then no one had ever taught this homoeopathic mode of cure, no one had carried it out in practice.

Dr. Hahnemann was of the view that the art of the medical practice "should. Rapidly and mildly, effect an unalloyed and permanent cure, and restore to health by means of the smallest doses of a few simple medicines carefully selected according to their proved effect, by the only therapeutic law comfortable to nature, that is Similia Similibus Curentur".

Homoeopathy is based on the following principles:

"The physicians high and only mission is to restore the sick to health, to cure, as it is termed"

The highest ideal of cure is rapid, gentle and permanent restoration of health or removal and annihilation of the disease in its whole extent in the shortest, most reliable and most harmless way on easily comprehensible principles.

Unprejudiced observer of a sick person takes note of nothing in every individuars disease except the changes in the health of the body and of the mind, which can be perceived externally by means of the senses. "All these perceptible signs represent the disease in its whole extent, that is, together they form the true and only conceivable portrait of the disease"