eChapters

Importance of Food Storage

Food storage is both a traditional domestic skill and is important industrially. Food is stored by almost every human society and by many animals. Storing of food has several main purposes:

•Storage of harvested and processed plant and animal food products for distribution to consumers

•Enabling a better balanced diet throughout the year

•Reducing kitchen waste by preserving unused or uneaten food for later use

•Preserving pantry food, such as spices or dry ingredients like rice and flour, for eventual use in cooking

•Preparedness for catastrophes, emergencies and periods of food scarcity or famine

•Religious reasons (Example: LDS Church leaders instruct church members to store food)

•Protection from animals or theft

Introduction

    1.    Food Science is the application of the physical, biological and behavioral science to the processing and marketing of foods (Margaret, 1968).

    2.    Technology can be defined as the science dealing with knowledge of doing things efficiently and effectively.

    3.    Food science helps us understand the theory example: what methods can best be used to store and preserve food to maintain quality and prevent spoilage.

    4.    Food technology demonstrates how the food is stored, preserved, processed and transported and has been responsible for development of new techniques for processing and preservation of food on a commercial scale and for packaging it in such a way that it can be sold conveniently.

    5.    Food science deals with the study of facts of the physical, chemical and biological sciences as they influence the processing and preservation of food.

    6.    Food technology deals with engineering and other scientific and technical problems involved in transforming edible raw materials and other ingredients into safe, nutritious and appetizing food products (Desrosier, 1977).

    7.    Food science is concerned with basic scientific facts about food, where as food technology concerned with the processing of raw materials into foods that meet human needs and wants.

    8.    Indian agriculture has undergone a sea change during the past half a century. Starting with the campaign for “grow more foods” in the forties, India reached self sufficiency during the eighties.

The proximate system of analysis consists of the analytical determinations of water (moisture), ash, crude fat (ether extract), crude protein and crude fibre. Nitrogen-free extract (NFE), more or less representing sugars and starches, is calculated by difference rather than measured by analysis.

Water

1. Water constitutes about 70 percent of an adult’s body weight and water (moisture) is the predominant constituent in many foods.
2. All foods contain varying amounts of water in the range of 20 to 90%.
3. The hypothalamus is a brain center that controls activities such as maintenance of water balance, regulation of body temperature, and control of appetite.
4. Moisture content of some foods

Food is defined as any substance, whether processed, semi processed or raw, that is intended for human consumption as well as the inedible parts associated with food that are not intended to be consumed by humans. Food waste is defined as any food and inedible parts of food, removed from the food supply chain that can be recovered or disposed, whereas, food loss is defined as food that unintentionally undergoes deterioration in quality or quantity as a result of food spills, spoils, bruising, wilting or other damages alike owing to infrastructure limitations at the production, storage, processing and distribution stages of food lifecycle. Global food waste management is an issue of concern that requires attention from various stakeholders having diverse expertise. According to statistics, about one third of the food produced for human consumption is either lost or wasted. Globally, the cost of food waste accounts for USD 2.6 trillion, of that USD 1trillion is incurred from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water scarcity, biodiversity loss, increased conflicts and loss of livelihood owing to issues like soil erosion, nutrient loss, reduced yields, wind erosion and pesticide exposure.

SYNOPSIS

There have been conflicting practices, recommendations regarding a healthy diet in human beings. Unscientific food habits are limitation to good health and active life. Because of various social, cultural, religious and economic factors human beings in the same climatic conditions and living situations, have been practicing different food habits leading to many health problems. What to eat, how much to eat and when to eat are not clear with the masses. This paper attempts to throw light on these aspects.

Introduction

Food adulteration compromises quality of foods and causes human health hazards is a menace mankind had been facing since ages. Spice adulteration scandals in the year 2004, Horse gate scandal in Europe during 2013 are famous examples of food fraud. Various forms of food adulteration and cheating such as substitution of cheaper food components in place of original product, addition of non-permitted substances, and false claims by misbranding or mislabeling are prevalent from time immemorial (Spink et al 2019).

Introduction
In the intricate tapestry of life, the relationship between foodstuffs and animal nutrition forms a fundamental thread, weaving its way through the intricate patterns of ecological balance, agricultural practices, and the sustenance of diverse life forms. The intersection of these two realms is not only pivotal for the flourishing of animals but also crucial for the well-being of ecosystems, human societies, and the planet at large. This intricate connection delves into the nuanced interplay between dietary components, physiological mechanisms, and the broader implications for the health of animals, both domestic and wild.
It is imperative to recognize that foodstuffs are not mere sustenance; they are the building blocks of life, the fuel for growth, and the source of energy that sustains the diverse array of creatures inhabiting our planet. From the microscopic organisms in the soil to the majestic mammals roaming vast landscapes, the quest for nourishment is a universal constant, intricately tied to the delicate balance of ecosystems.
At the heart of this relationship lies the fascinating science of animal nutrition—a field that scrutinizes the complex interactions between dietary elements and an organism’s physiological functions. From the intricacies of nutrient absorption to the role of different foodstuffs in promoting health, animal nutrition serves as a compass guiding us through the intricate pathways of biology, agriculture, and environmental conservation. The journey into understanding animal nutrition commences with a closer look at the varied foodstuffs that contribute to the dietary landscape. Foodstuffs, in this context, encompass a vast array of substances ranging from grains and forage to proteins and fats, each playing a distinctive role in the nutritional well-being of animals. The composition and quality of these foodstuffs are crucial determinants of an animal’s growth, reproduction, and overall
health. Unraveling the nutritional value of these components requires delving into the realms of biochemistry, physiology, and the intricate dance between macronutrients and micronutrients.
Macroscopic entities such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids stand as the pillars of animal nutrition. Carbohydrates, in the form of sugars, starches, and fibers, serve as the primary source of energy, fueling the metabolic processes that sustain life. Proteins, comprising amino acids, are the essential building blocks for growth, development, and the maintenance of bodily functions. Meanwhile, lipids, including fats and oils, play
multifaceted roles, serving as energy reserves, structural components, and facilitators of nutrient absorption.

Synonyms : Aphthous fever; Contagious aptha;  Panzootic aptha; Vesicular aptha.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an acute, highly communicable viral disease affecting cloven hoofed animals, both domesticated and wild. It is the most contagious disease known in the animal kingdom. It is characterized by vesicular eruptions in the epithelium of the buccal cavity, tongue, nares, muzzle, feet, teats and udder.

A footnote is a notation at the bottom of the page in a printed document. Footnotes are usually presented in smaller print than the dominant text, and they are used for a variety of purposes. The “foot” in “footnote” refers to the fact that the notation is located in the “footer” or “bottom” of the document. A similar concept is the endnote, a note which is provided at the end of a document, rather than at the bottom of a specific page. When a text has footnotes, they are indicated with various symbols or superscript numbers. The asterisk symbol, *, is a common symbol for footnotes, but a variety of symbols including daggers, †, may be used. In a text with a lot of footnotes, numbers are usually used to indicate footnotes, so that the reader can keep track of what is going on. Endnotes are typically indicated with numbers, to make it easier for people to look them up.

Different style manuals have different rules about using footnotes, and it is important to follow style guidelines when submitting material for publication. Because footnoting can get very complicated, most style guidelines devote at least a few pages to the footnote. Some people avoid using footnotes at all, while others relish footnotes, because footnotes provide a great degree of freedom when they are used well.

Forage crops are plant species used to feed domestic animals (such as cattle, sheep, goat, pig, and poultry). Both cultivated and wild plants can serve as forage. The domestic animals feed on forages either by grazing or stall feeding (cut fodder eaten in stalls).

Grazing, that is pasturing of animals, is cheaper and allows production of both livestock and dairy produce at a lower cost because no expense is involved in growing, cutting, transporting or feeding. In North and South America, Australia, New Zealand, and in many other temperate countries pastures are widespread and popular because sufficient land is available. While land is cheap and plentiful, labour is scarce and expensive; hence management of natural, and in recent years sown pastures has received much attention.

Until about fifty years ago, the natural grasslands in the Western countries met the minimum needs of the farmers and grassland management was operated at a level comparable to subsistence agriculture of many developing countries. In other words, emphasis was laid on exploitation of natural productivity of the grassland, using a low level of management based on minimum use of inputs like chemical fertilizers. However, it was soon realized that productivity of native grasslands will have to be greatly improved if the high demands for meat and milk were to be adequately met.

In India, however, out of a total cultivable area of about 131.11 million ha less than 2 per cent is utilized for forage crops because feeding the large human population takes the first preference for land use to produce grain and cash crops. It is, therefore, necessary to intensify efforts, particularly in over-populated countries, for a more efficient production of high yielding forage crops to get maximum return out of minimum land.

Forage harvesting is more complex as compared to grain crops. Forage crop is of great bulk and mass, containing 70-80% water when first harvested. For storage it must be dried, either naturally or artificially, to a safe moisture content of about 20 to 25%. Due to low product value it limits the economic feasibility of mechanization of harvesting operation. The mowers are used to cut the crop and windrow in the field, which is manually collected for further chopping. The forage harvester consists of a combination of plant-cutting unit and a chopping unit and is called field forage harvester. The field forage harvester performs the functions of both row binder and silage cutter, as it severs the standing stalks from the ground and chops them into silage in one continuous operation in the field. It can be grouped into two according to the mechanism used to cut the crop viz. field choppers and flail harvesters.

Introduction

Foraminifera or forams for short are the most abundant, diverse and widely distributed Protists in marine realm. They are found in all marine environments, from the inter-tidal to the deepest ocean trenches, and from the tropics to the poles (Todo et al., 2005). In some places, foraminifera are so abundant that the sediment on the bottom is mostly made up of their shells. For example, tourists from all over the world get attracted to the pink sands of Bermuda. These sands get their colour from the shells of Homotrema rubrum which has pink to red-colored shells. Living representatives of foraminifera provide ecological data and their mineralized tests are a geochemical record of palaeoclimatic conditions.

SCAPULA

OX: It is a flat, triangular bone situated on the antero-lateral part of the thorax. It is directed obliquely downward and forward. It has two surfaces, three borders and three angles.

The lateral surface is traversed by the scapular spine which divides it into the supraspinous and the infraspinous fossae. The spine is rough and tuberous in the middle and is prolonged downwards to form the acromion process (Fig.2.1). The medial surface presents subscapular fossa and its upper part presents anteriorly a triangular rough area and posteriorly a rough line (Fig.2.2).

Hydrometeorology forecasting is limited to forecasting of occurrence of rainfall to a greater extent. Although several countries all over the world have developed and established hydrometorological forecasting with focus on occurrence of floods and droughts, still there is very limited success. Floods are associated with occurrence of continuous heavy rainfall due to movement of low-pressure systems like cyclones and depression overflow into rivers, reservoirs and breaching of bunds. In countries like India, the floods occur on the average in 70 lakh hectors of area and the economic loss due to floods and expenditure on relief operations mounting year after year besides loss of life. Foods occur at all of a sudden leaving little time for planning mitigation or rescue operation. Flood forecasting in based on impact assessment of heavy rainfall assessments to identify the exact area that is likely to be affected. It requires more intensive research. Forecasting of droughts is still an area of serious concern. There is need to strengthen regional capabilities to develop forecasting techniques for occurrence of flood and droughts through proper analysis of historical data in conjunction with meteorological forecasts and remote sensing data. Though flood alerts are issued, the identification of exact area and the extent to which flood impacts are not very clear most of the times heavy rainfall warnings are not just sufficient until and unless the vulnerable areas can be clearly specified. The medium range forecasting will be extremely useful for issuing flood alerts.
14.1. Forecasting Droughts
Long range forecasting of seasonal rainfall can indicate the possibility of receiving excess or deficit rainfall over larger regions. In India, there is considerable progress in development of long range forecast of Southwest monsoon rainfall. This forecast also indicating the regions which may get surplus or deficit rainfall and for indifferent parts of a given region as well. However, there is serious dearth of local expertise to further analyse and interpret the long-range forecast for a given area on the basis of local climate data. The advantages of reliable long-range forecast are still unexpected. Almost one fifth of the area in India gets affected by draught most of the years. The drought affects are more severe in arid and semi arid regions. Prediction of occurrence of drought and its intensity, period of occurrence and the areas to be affected by drought is very important. During recent years, there is considerable increase in the occurrence of droughts due to climate change which is attributed mainly to atmospheric pollution. The physics of the pollution is consistent and not the policies support in handling hydrometerological disasters. There are instances where in flood and droughts occurred in the same

Introduction

There are forty different edible oilseeds which can be used for edible and non-edible purposes. Out of which nine oilseeds are extensively used for edible and non edible purposes. The oilseeds such as groundnut (peanut), sunflower, sesame, soybean, rapeseed-mustard, niger and safflower are generally used for edible purposes and castor and linseed are used for non-edible purposes. Plants are the main source for 71 percent of edible oil. Some oil crops such as groundnut (peanut) and sesame can be used directly as food and edible oil, but others are mainly processed to obtain oil, and oil cake or meal (Hetje, 1989). The oil crops are grown all over the world (Girish Kumar, 2012). Area under cultivation of edible oilseeds in 2020 was 27.14 million hectares. The total production was 33.22 million tonnes with the productivity i.e. yield per hectare of 1025 kilogram per hectare in India (Ministry of Statistics). India is the world’s largest importer of edible oil (Santosha, et. al., 2017) and the import of edible oil in 2020 was 93.37 million tonnes.

Disease Forecasting

Definition

Forecasting involves all the activities in ascertaining and notifying the grower of community that conditions are sufficiently favourable for certain diseases, that application of control measures will result in economic gain or on the other hand, and just as important that the amount expected is unlikely to be enough to justify the expenditure of time, energy and money for control. The above statement made explicit distinction between positive forecast and negative forecast and both have value for growers as well as society in general.

Positive forecast: Employs need based chemical sprays, provides adequate protection to crop and reduces damage to environment.

Negative forecast: Avoids unnecessary chemical sprays, no risk to the crop health and no disruption of environment.

1. Term biotechnology was coined by_____________. (Karl Ereky)
2. Applied use of molecular biology and recombinant DNA technology is _______. (Biotechnology)
3. Bacteria are present everywhere except in_____________. (Distil water)
4. The branch of science dealing with the study of microbes is known as _______. (Microbiology)
5. The unique properties of each amino acid are determined by its particular_____________. (R-groups)
6. Optical isomerism arises from the presence of a/ an_____________ atom. (Asymmetric carbon)
7. In the breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid,_____________ enzyme catalyses the successive steps. (Eleven)
8. _____________ plants are used to accumulate pollutants from soil thus clears soil from pollutants. (Phytoremediation)
9. _____________ contains only one type of nucleic acid. (Virus)

7.1 Introduction

The rapid population and industrial growth experienced beginning in the middle part of this century has led to spiraling increases in the demand for forest wood. Historical data reveal that there was a 159.6% increase in overall wood production between 1970 and 1993. Wood is defined simply as wood in the rough, and includes trees felled for any purpose. The majority of total wood production has been for use as fuel wood and charcoal, much of which is harvested by villagers, and to some degree urban squatters.

Since 1970, there has been a 160% increase in fuel wood and charcoal production. The largest portion (104%) occurred between 1970 and 1980, which may be attributed to the introduction of fuel wood species earlier, during the Second Five Year Plan period. Looking at the decades to come, the demand for fuel wood is likely to continue growing in pace with future increases in population, which is growing at the rate of 24 % per decade. It is estimated that by the year 2010, demand for fuel wood and charcoal will exceed 33 million cubic meters (FAO, 1993). Since there is expected to be little further change in the area under potential productive forests, there will be an increasing probability of a shortage of wood production in India (Planning Commission, 1992).

1. _____________ is the main source of energy for the earth. (Sun)
2. The major cause of ‘Minamata’ disease in Japan was due to pollution by_____________. (Mercury)
3. _____________ method in water analysis is used for the quantitative estimation of dissolved oxygen. (Modified Winkler’s method)
4. Systematic scientific study of fresh water ecosystem is called as_____________. (Limnology)
5. The Earth Summit held in 1992, was organised at_____________. (Rio de Janeiro)
6. The altitude of troposphere in atmosphere is about_____________ kilometre. (Upto 11 km)
7. Bhopal gas tragedy took place in the year_____________. (1984)
8. The unit of noise pollution is measured in_____________. (Decibel)
9. Most important mitigation strategy for reducing global warming and climate change is _____________. (Carbon sequestration)

1. An imaginary line joining the points of equal elevation on the surface of the earth represents_____________. (Contour lines)
2. The vertical distance between consecutive contours lines is called_____________. (Contour interval)
3. When measured with a compass, the line of sight that run midway between due North and due West has a bearing of_____________. (N 45 degree W)
4. A survey of a large area which consider the earth’s curvature is called a _____________ survey. (Geodetic)
5. The distinctive feature of topographic maps is the_____________ of the land. (Shape or Contour)
6. The colour used to depict fence lines and important roads on a topographic map is _____________ and_____________. (Red and black)
7. A surveyor’s chain is divided into links and each link is_____________ long. (0.66 feet)
8. A body of water on a topographic map is presented by_____________ colour. (Blue)
9. On a topographic map a ploughed field would be sown as_____________ colour. (White)

1. The Indian Institute of Forest management is located at_____________(Bhopal)
2. First forest policy in independent India was enacted in_____________(1952)
3. A plan of operations for the management of the forest is known as_____________. (Working plan)
4. _____________ are the yields harvested as a matter thinning operation. (Intermediate yields)
5. Indian Wildlife Protection Act was enacted in the year_____________.(1972)
6. The present National Forest Policy envisages having_____________percent of forest and tree cover. (33%)
7. Forest conservation act was enacted in the year_____________. (1980)
8. Indian forest act was enacted in the year_____________. (1927)
9. Density of tree in a forest stand is normally expressed as__________________________. (Basal area of the stand in square feet.)

Mensuration is derived from Latin word mensura which means measure. It means measurement of length, mass, time, etc. It is an art and science of locating, measuring and calculating the length of lines, areas of planes, and volumes of solids.

Forest mensuration is one of the most fundamental disciplines within forest and related sciences. It concentrates on trees and forests or potentially forested locations and deals with the measurement of trees and stands and the analysis of the resultant information. Forest mensuration also includes measuring or calculating growth and change in trees and forests. Forest mensuration thus may be defined as the art and science of providing the quantitative information about trees and forest stands necessary for forest management, planning and research. Chaturvedi and Khanna (1986) defined forest mensuration as a branch of forestry which deals with the determination of dimensions (diameter, height, volume, etc.), form, age and increment of single trees, stands or whole woods, either standing or after felling. According to the Society of American Foresters, forest mensuration is the determination of dimensions, form, weight, growth, and age of trees individually or collectively, and of the dimensions of their products (Helms, 1998). It is a tool that provides facts about the forest crops or individual trees to sellers, buyers, planners, managers and researchers.

Forest mensuration provides quantitative information regarding forest resources that will allow making reasonable decisions on its density, use and management. Forest mensuration serves the following objects

1.      Callipers are used to measure_____________. (Diameter)

2.      Biltmore stick is used to measure_____________. (Diameter)

3.      Wedge prism with 5 BAF and tallied 50 numbers of trees/ acre then basal area per acre is_____________ __________. (250)

4.      A ring count is most accurate in aging tree by using increment borer on _____________ of the trunk. (Lower region)

5.      False ring is a/an_____________ ring for a given year. (Second)

6.      A formula to determine diameter quotient for each form class is called_____________. (Hojer’s formula)

7.      The instrument used to determine the age of a tree is_____________. (Pressler’s increment borer)

8.      _____________ ,_____________ and_____________ are the variables required for general volume table preparation. (Diameter, height and form)

9.      The sampling method used in non-random sampling are_____________ ,_____________ and _____________. (Selective, Systematic and Sequential)

10.  _____________ formula is used for determining increment per cent. (Schneider’s)

Forest microclimate is the climate within a forest in contrast to a nearby open area created by a clearing or pasture. A robust observation is that less sunlight reaches the ground in a forest than in open areas, but this depends on the size of the clearing, the height of trees surrounding the clearing, and the location in the clearing (relative to the edge) where measurements are obtained. Daytime temperature is generally lower in forest than in open areas, with greatest differences during the growing season; but this, too, is subject to edge effects and whether the canopy is sparse or dense. Wind near the ground is less than in exposed areas or above the canopy. Another point is that there are various microclimates within a forest canopy. The environment of the forest overstory differs from that of the understory, and this has important consequences for species conservation and protection from climate change. The forest microclimate has important implications for habitat and biodiversity conservation and may act to buffer forest understory organisms from the severity of climate change. Forest microclimates differ not only in contrast with open land, but also vertically with position in the canopy (Fig. 8.1).

1. The process of harvesting, conversion and disposal of standing forest produce is called _____________. (Forest utilization)

2. Palmarosa grass oil is known as_____________. (Geranium Oil)

3. Terminalia chebula fruit tans is commonly called as_____________. (Myrobalans)

4. The gum resin_____________ is obtained from Garcinia morella. (Gamboges)

5. Black dammer is_____________. (Canarium strictum)

6. Rock dammer is_____________. (Hopea odorata)

7. White dammer is_____________. (Vetaria indica)

8. True dammer is_____________. (Agathis loranthifolius)

9. The Indian copal tree is_____________. (Vetaria indica)

10. The Indian gum arabica or babul gum is obtained from_____________ species. (Acacia nilotica)

1. Life history of Indian termite was first published by_____________. (J.G. Koeing)
2. Plant disease written by_____________. (R.S. Singh)
3. J. W. Helfer seems to have the first to collect insects because these were pest of trees during the year_____________. (1810)
4. The largest insect order is_____________. (Coleoptera)
5. Project directorate of biological control is located at_____________. (Bangalore)
6. Main skeletal structure to which most of the muscle attached is_____________. (Thorax)
7. The outmost waxy layer of insect body is called_____________. (Cuticle)
8. Insect body consists of series of segment designated as_____________. (Sclerite)
9. _____________ is the author of the book entitled “The ecology of forest insect”. (CFC Beesom)

The process of replacing the existing mature forest with a new generation of the forest trees is called forest regeneration. It can also be defined as process by which new tree seedlings become established after forest trees have been harvested or have died from fire, insects, or diseases. Forest regeneration is one of the basic tasks of foresters. Regeneration plays such a prominent role in silviculture that most silvicultural systems are named for their method of regeneration.

Abstract

Forests are the second largest land use after agriculture in India covers around 24% of the geographical area. The key tree species like Teak, Sal, Shisham etc are commonly used for timber purposes however the species like Eucalypts, Acacias, Poplar, Melia and Leucaena are mainly used under agroforestry system in India. The most of the genetic material (seed/planting stock material) used in forestry sector in India is obtained from unspecified sources, from stands, natural or planted, which are neither classified nor managed specifically for seed or planting stock material production.

ABSTRACT

The present communication deals with the impact and contribution on livelihood sustainability based on forest resources and sacred places in nine fringe villages of Pangolakha Wild Life Sanctuary (PWLS), located in Sikkim Himalaya. Populations density in villages varies from 23 at Nayabusty and 274 at Padamchen. Populations were categorised under three age groups viz. minor (15-25 yrs), major (26-36 yrs) and elder (over 36 years). Approximate by 27.6% populations had minimal primary education. Agriculture is the main activity in Suvaneydara (86.7%), Agamlok (85.3%) and in Nayabustyy (82.3%). Villagers in Padamchen (12.5%) and in Nathang (12.5%) are either dependent on Government job (38.2%) or seasonal flow of tourist (25%). The educational qualification in these villages is classes 5 to 10 standards. 91.1% of people rely on forest resources. About 70% of the villagers depicts that forest cover of the region is improving. The availability of fodders (70%) and fuel woods (60%) are still in abundance. People depend on tirja (private), khashmal and goucharan areas for grazing and fuel wood collection. Forty nine economical economically by valued plant species belonging to 46 genera and 35 families were documented. Subtropical ecosystems had high number of plant species. Poaceae was the dominant family (17%). Tree life form is abundant (51%). Total 24 species are harvested for edible purpose, 24% are freely sold in the local haats (market) for their livelihood sustenance. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of nine villages with respect to forest resources indicated the village specific use pattern of plant resources. Indigenous inherent knowledge of local plants is decreasing in Lingtam. PWLS and its adjoining villages have important places with religious importance, heritage sites managed by the people. It was observed that exploitation of plant resources, lack of maintenance and fast changing concept of traditional ethics among youths, plant resources were degraded and in regenerating stage.

6.1 Introduction

The state of India’s forests is important in many ways, whether it be as a source of fuel and fodder for rural citizens, of industrial inputs for a growing economy, as a habitat for thousands of plant and animal species, a sink for carbon dioxide emissions, or as a protective cover for its soils.

The forest resources forms an ecological system consisting of tree dominated vegetative associations. Forests not only provide timber, fuel wood, pulpwood fodder and fiber grasses, and non wood forest produce and support industrial and commercial activities but also maintain the ecological balance and life support systems essential for food production, health, and all round human development. The innate complexity and inherent diversity of forest ecosystems make it difficult to establish clear cause-and effect relationship or to predict the outcomes of a given intervention accurately. Figure 6.1 shows that the percentage of land mass with forest covered and non forest area in India

Abstract

Knowledge of  seed biology is crucial for proper management of  seed sources as well as the handling of seeds. In broadest sense seed technology includes the development of superior crop plant varieties, their evaluation and release, seed production, seed processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed quality  control, seed marketing and distribution and research on various aspects. Vegetative propagation has also become popular for the propagation of some tree species, but seed propagation remains the principal mode of propagation in both the temperate and the tropical region. Forest plantations are a powerful tool in the continuing efforts of foresters to increase productivity per unit area apart from mitigating the climate change and global warming issues. Hence to improve the existing stock in terms of yield, quality, disease resistant and desired traits, seed technology can play a major role in providing quality genetic material.

Abstract
Better seed production technology is vital to furnish quality seed of improved varieties. Trees are generally propagated from seeds and the suitability and quality of the seeds have a big effect on the success of the plantations, afforestation and reforestation programmes raised from them. It must be stressed that good seed implies seed which is both of high viability and vigour and is genetically well suited to the site and to the purpose for which it is planted. The use of sound seed from stands of high inherent quality is widely recognized as the best means of ensuring fast-grown and healthy plantations capable of yielding high quality wood. Quantity, as well as quality, of seed production is important. Seed quality depends on factors like source, time and techniques of harvest, processing and storage practices. Unlike agriculture, the forestry seeds have great variation in size, shape, dormancy, viability, moisture content, etc.

Abstract

Seed is the most important input component for productive forestry. Large quantities of quality seed are needed every year to raise the nursery stock for propagating the desired plant species.  Commercially important species like Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Pinus roxburghii and Populus deltoides have become more important. Superior genetic qualities of seed have profound positive impact on growth rates and productivity of plantations and quality of the produce. To save and multiply the entire lot of valuable forest plants it is very essential to preserve and multiply those plants for which special type of nurseries are to be established. There is necessity to have special techniques and methods to meet the demand of seed and only hi-tech nurseries can satisfy this type of demand.

1. Forest soils are_____________ in nature. (Acidic)
2. The term soil originated from latin word ‘Solum’ which means_____________. (Floor)
3. Most commonly used sources of N fertilizer in forestry is_____________. (NH₄)₂SO₄
4. _____________ is considered as the father of pedology. (V. V. Dokuchaev)
5. _____________ is considered as father of soil testing. (Troug)
6. Land capability class was given by_____________ and_____________. (Klingebiel and Montgomery)
7. The law of the minimum was given by_____________ in 1862. (Liebig)
8. Law of restriction was proposed by_____________. (Liebig)
9. The soil structural classification followed in India is according to_____________. (USDA)

1. A measure of the items in a random sample is known as_____________. (Statistics)
2. Most commonly used measure of central tendency is_____________. (Arithmetic Mean)
3. Mean deviation is the_____________, when calculated about median. (Least)
4. Arithmetic mean of central tendency is applied for calculation of_____________ and _____________. (Regression and Correlation coefficient)
5. Arithmetic mean and variance are always equal in_____________ distribution. (Poisson)
6. Geometric mean of central tendency is appropriate for_____________. (Index number)
7. _____________ is the sum of all values/ number of values. (Arithmetic mean)
8. Middle most item of all values is_____________. (Median)
9. _____________ measure of central tendency requires data arrangement in ascending or descending order for its estimation. (Median)

The forest manager aims at producing maximum forest produce of desired quality from the unit forest area in a shortest possible period at a reasonable cost. There is a wide gap between production and requirement from forests. Increasing population and improved standard of living increases demand for forest products. Achieving this in a natural forest is more arduous job. Actual growing stocks in natural stand are poor in terms of vigour, size and quality. The regeneration from these poor stands will produce inferior quality trees. Hence management of forest is inevitable for its improvement.

Introduction

Tree improvement through the application of genetic principles is directed towards modifying the heredity of tree populations so that they are able to meet the needs of the forester and the wood based industry. The breeder of annual crop plants resorts to hybridisation, selection, testing of the improved strains, multiplication of improved seeds and finally their release for commercial planting in that logical sequence. But the tree breeder, whose career may be shorter than the life cycle of the tree species taken up for improvement, tends to carry out the above operations in a modified form and often some of the operations are carried out concurrently.

Many of our tree species are wild unselected populations. They are, therefore, expected to exhibit considerable natural variability for many characters and also to respond well to selection for further improvement. Further, altitudinal and latitudinal variation in many characters between populations are expected for those tree species which have a wide geographical distribution. So, the selection of desirable seed sources or provenances is an essential step that is basic to all tree improvement programmes. The right provenance is identified through well laid out provenance trials at a number of locations in the area where the improved selection is to be grown. Further improvement is then planned and executed for exploiting the naturally available intrapopulation variation. The variation normally measured is the phenotypic variation which is the result of interaction of the genotype of the individual with the environment. However, what is essential for selection to be effective is genetic variation for the character under consideration. Genetic variation is assessed by appropriate progeny trials. Since many of the economically valuable characters of tree species are polygenically controlled and exbibit continuous variation, measurements have to be in metric units. The use of biometrical techniques for assessing and analysing this variation, therefore, becomes an essential requirement.

1. Introduction

Lac and other non-timber forest products (NTFPs) provide vital sustenance, employment, and financial revenue to producers and collectors as well as serving a raw material for a range of businesses. They are also important for ecological balance and long-term growth. Weather and price fluctuations have a significant impact on the production of such natural items. Food, fodder, and medication are all ingested straight from these plants. The Indian subcontinent is a significant centre of animal and plant biodiversity. In tropical climates, a variety of forest products play an important role in social and economic life. Wood and Non-Wood Forest Pro