eChapters

Concepts

The concepts of development communication has now been adopted by almost all the countries of the third world. It is all about to inform, motivate and influence all sectors and levels of peoples of a developing country to use unfamiliar ideas, skills and instruments, thus adding the long neglected social component without which the process of development remain dormant. Thus importance of communication as a tool to motivate and persuade people for eliciting positive response to various developmental ideas grow manifold.

The evolution of the term ‘ development’ has had a fascinating history about itself. In its broadest sense ‘ development’ tends to be umbrella under which several phenomena - varying from human and spiritual development to economic and community development, as well as technological development have become related. Defining ‘development’ is not an easy talk. It has been interpreted in various ways by sociologists, economists and development planners. They defend the term according to their own frame of reference. Modernization, social change and enhancing quality of life are often used in one way of the other in explaining the term. In all cases development suggest some amount of improvement, self-reliance, uplift and progress as also awareness and self-awareness to some extent.

The eminent communication scholar, Everett M. Rogers, has development this process of thinking about development in this book communication and development critical perspectives (1976), as under “Development as a widely participatory process of social change in a society, intended to bring about both social and material advancement (including greater equality freedom and other valued qualities) for the majority of the people through their gaining greater control over their environment.

The new paradigm of development does not envisage the role of communication as that of magic multiplier of development, however, it is certainly envisaged to play a facilitate role in the process of development.

Models Definitions

In social science research a model is a tentative description of what a social process, say the communication process or a system might be like. It is a tool of explanation and analyses, very often in a diagrammatic form, to show how the various elements of a situation being studied relate to each other.

The term model can also refer to a particular process or object, which is used as a point of reference, when an attempt to explain the unknown is being made. It basically comprises involving an analogy to throw up the similarities between the phenomena to be explained and one, which is well known, i.e., the model.

The simplest definition of a model is that it is an analogue. A model is a relatively well-developed analogy. Given two objects or processes which are dissimilar in many respects, one is an analogue of the other to the extent that the physical or logical structure of one re-presents the physical or logical structure of the other.

The advantage of models in communication research is that it allows the researcher to account for different variables in different communication situations. Models only represent systems or processes. Since they are not real, they are just symbolic ways of looking at systems to help us to think about them more lucidly. Again since models do now show every part of a system, they are usually incomplete in that sense. Even those that are shown are represented only in enough detail to help us look at the processes or features in which we are interested. Models give us an idea of complicated objects or events in a general way. They enable us to see how a particular communication event fits into the general pattern. They provide a classification for an old problems, and familiar events. They help us by providing a structure of references for purposes of study. Theories are not models and the most fundamental difference between a theory and a model is that the former is an explanation whereas the latter is a representation.

Mass Communication

The term ‘mass communication’ was coined at the end of the 1930s. The term ‘mass’ denotes great volume, range or extent (such as of people or production), while ‘communication’ refers to the giving and taking of meaning, the transmis- sion and reception of messages.

The term ‘mass’ was first formally defined by Herbert Bhumer (1939) as a new type of social formation in modern society, by contrasting it other formations, es- pecially the group, crowd and public.

Gerbner’s (1967) definition of mass communication is hard to beat. He defined it as social interaction through messages.

Mass communications comprise the institutions and techniques by which special- ized groups employ technological device (press, radio, films etc.) to disseminate symbolic content of large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed audience.

The word communication comes from the Latin communis meaning common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish commonality with someone through a message. Communication then is a conscious attempt to establish commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like with others. In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages.

According to Thayer (1968) there are four types of communication. They are:

Intrapersonal Communication

This refers to communicating with one’s self. It refers to organizing and converting sensory data into meaningful messages having some relevance or utility for an individual’s past, present or future behaviour. Because the psychological system of a human being is constantly engaged in making sense of its environment in the service of that orgnaism’s adaptive and goal seeking needs, the question is not whether communication is going to occur, but what communication and with what consequences. Communication is a continuous process and is determined by an individual’s take-into-account abilities and take - into - account susceptibilities. However, these take - into - account abilities are a function of the capacity of an individual’s conceptual system to ascribe meaning or significance to certain patterns and sequences of the events going on in his internal and external environment.

Intrapersonal communication is a co-function of the individual and of what is going on in his environment that has immediate relevance for him. All that we perceive and comprehend, must be perceived and comprehend through ourselves.

Organizational communication can be defined as the process of the flow (Transmission and Reception) of goal oriented messages between sources, in a pattern and through a medium or media. And organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context, or the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in communicating / organizing.

An additional elements in organizational communication (not present in interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus here are 6 elements in organizational communication.

1. The transmitting source

2. The receiving source

3. Source (the target)

4. The transmitted message

5. The goal of the message

6. The medium or media and the flow pattern (which is called network). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people sending and receiving the message.

Introduction

In today’s world, the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) have become more common and part and part of human life. It plays many roles for a country’s overall growth and economic development. Among all developing countries, the presence of ICT is greatly felt in India. People here use ICT devices mainly to access and share data information available around the world from any part of the country and at any time with just one click. In the last fifteen years, India’s economic growth has been remarkable in trade and commerce, communication technologies, education, transportation, agriculture and administration mainly due to development of advanced software and service based applications. India stands as a role model for many other countries in framing ICT based policies and implementing independent strategies for global contracts (Carmel 2003; Heeks and Nicholson 2004). Since, its significance is highly realised by the Government, bureaucrats and policy makers’ efforts are now being carried out to utilize ICT tools for improving the lives of the Indian rural maases and people below poverty line.

Introduction

India is well-known around the world for its rapid economic growth rates over the last fifteen years or so, fuelled in part by the spectacular growth in its export- oriented software and ICT-based services sector. Many other countries look to India as a model for global outsourcing and try to imitate elements of this in their own strategies (Carmel 2003; Heeks and Nicholson 2004). Success at a particular period of time does not, of course, guarantee its continuation and commentators have expressed concerns such as rising wage rates and skills shortages of ICT professionals (CACM 2007), and increasing competition from countries such as China (Negroponte 2003). It is likely, however, that India will remain a major player in the ICT industry for years to come and thus its global image as an ICT success story will continue. Viewed from a broader development perspective, things are not so simple. The new wealth that has arisen in India from the ICT boom benefits the relatively wealthy and educated in the first instance (Kambhampati 2002). Will this trickle down to the poor and uneducated? Statistics paint a mixed picture of the current situation. On the one hand, India is now the world’s fourth largest economy in purchasing power parity terms, and has enjoyed high growth rates for over a decade rising to an average of over 8% per annum in the period 2004-7 (World Bank 2007).

On the other hand, India was ranked as 128th out of 177 countries on the human development index 2005 (UNDP 2005) which is a composite index based on life expectancy, literacy and education levels, and economic standard of living. Shocking statistics include the percentage of malnourished children under 5 being 46%, the adult female literacy rate as only 48%, and the percentage of the rural population using adequate sanitary services as 18% (World Bank 2007, UNICEF 2004). A major development issue, therefore, is whether India can seriously address the needs of all of its people, including the vast numbers of poor and uneducated in the rural areas and the urban slums. A related sub-question is whether, and to what extent, can ICTs be used to provide development benefits to all Indian citizens. There are increasing attempts to use technology in this way through projects such as e-government services and telecentres in poor areas.

Introduction

Interactive media is the integration of digital media including combinations of electronic text, graphics, moving images, and sound, into a structured digital computerised environment that allows people to interact with the data for appropriate purposes. The digital environment can include the Internet, telecoms and interactive digital television. No wonder it is difficult for new entrants to understand. The important concepts to hold on to are ‘interactive’ and ‘media’ across a range of ‘delivery channels’ or ‘platforms’. There are many terms used to denote the interactive nature of digital applications—multimedia, new media and interactive design are common examples. Because the interactive sector has quickly evolved through phases, the terms have often been coined to reflect a phase that then gets surpassed. A quick historical overview will give the background that causes confusion for those joining the dynamic sector.

The word Multimedia used to have a specialist connotation for the audio-visual industry. Uses of multiple or mixed media in such analogue systems as slide shows or overhead projectors were known as ‘multimedia’. But this specialist use was superseded by the arrival of digital technology. Integrated digital media was termed interactive multimedia and usually shortened to plain multimedia for convenience. The need to differentiate between analogue (linear) and digital (interactive) uses of media spawned other terms like New Media and Digital Media. The term ‘New media’ carries its own problems as the media associated with the original term are replaced with newer instances of the ‘new’. Obsolescence is endemic in the interactive arena. However, the term remains in use although Digital Media and Interactive Media are more stable terms and are being used increasingly. The term Interactive Media highlights the interactive connotation that is a key characteristic of the difference between the older style media and the new. ‘Social media’ has evolved to describe the more recent success of digital social sites such as Facebook and MySpace, and would include the phenomenon of mobile texting, especially twitter.

Introduction

e-Literacy as defined by the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO) refers to the awareness, skills, understanding and reflective approaches necessary for an individual to operate comfortably in information-rich and IT enabled environments. Most definitions of e-literacy or digital literacy covers three abilities

• The ability to use digital technology, communication tools or networks to locate, evaluate, use and create information

• The ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers

• The ability to perform tasks effectively in a digital environment

To promote e-literacy, every state in India has initiated a project in their own names. For example, in Kerala the e-literacy is promoted in the name of Project Akshaya. Initially, this project was started with a noble intention of making at least one member in each of 64 lakh families e-literate. The pilot project started in Malappuram, and was inaugurated by His Excellency Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, former President of India on 18th November 2002. 100% eLiteracy was achieved in eight districts in Phase 1 and the project has been roaring success. Nowhere has such a feat been attempted or accomplished. The vision and scope of the project is beyond comparison. The operations of Akshaya as unfolded so far consist of three distinct phases. The first phase is that of enabling the masses by imparting basic skill in computer operations and making them familiar with internet. This phase is the period of eLiteracy training. In the initial phase, the Akshaya ecentre imparts basic training that not only familiarizes people with the basics and the scope of IT, but also ensures hands-on-skill in operating a computer, using the Internet etc to at least one person in the 64 lakh families in the state that makes it the largest rural eliteracy training project worldwide. Malappuram is declared as the first eliterate district in India. Malappuram and Kannur districts were already declared 100% eliterate. Kollam, Kozhikode, Thrissur and Kasaragod districts achieved eliteracy above 90%. So far around 33 lakhs beneficiaries were trained.

Introduction

Knowledge and Knowledge management are concepts, which are debated extensively by managers, analyst and academicians. When we refer to knowledge, most of us mainly tend to think of codified and documented knowledge like patents, databases, manuals, white papers etc. knowledge is intuitive, contextual, linked to experience, past memories and difficult to codify, document and communicate. Unfortunately, there is no universal definition of Knowledge Management (KM), just as there’s no agreement as to what constitutes knowledge in the first place. In broadest context KM is the process through which organizations generate value from their intellectual and knowledge-based assets. It is the practice of harnessing and exploiting intellectual capital to gain competitive advantage and customer commitment through efficiency, innovation and faster and more effective decision-making. Most often, generating value from such assets involves sharing them among employees, departments and even with other companies in an effort to devise best practices.

Today, knowledge is still considered power - an enormous power in fact - but the understanding has changed considerably, particularly from the perspective of organizations. The new paradigm is that within the organization knowledge must be shared in order for it to grow. It has been shown that the organization that shares knowledge among its management and staff grows stronger and becomes more competitive. This is the core of knowledge management - the sharing of knowledge. Knowledge management (KM) is all about managing organization’s knowledge effectively by sharing and having a systematic activity for creation of knowledge and exploiting it for the market and benefit of the organization. KM techniques and processes provide such a structured approach to explicate a significant part of this tactic knowledge document in knowledge repositories and also share in teams, through intensive dialogue and discussions. KM refers to the critical issues of organizational adaptation, survival and competence against discontinuous environmental change.

Introduction

E-Portal otherwise called as an electronic portal is a webpage that allows business application procedure developed by framework to be easily deployed via internet. Portals are usually created in standard Java format. It utilizes an Extensible Mark- up Language (XML) interface protocol in addition to Java Server Pages (JSP). Portals are given different names based on the field they are created. For example, if the portal is developed to improvise agriculture, then they are termed as agri-por- tals. Similarly, if a portal is developed for academic reasons they are called web portal. Examples of web portals are iGoogle, MSNBC, Netvibes, and Yahoo.

Portal concept has opened new possibilities to address some of the issues concern- ing the personal management of academic information and knowledge through internet. Some of the main issues are the lack of integration, personalisation and customisation of existing academic information sources and systems. A Web por- tal can be defined as a Web site that aggregates an array of content and provides a variety of services including search engines, directories, news, e-mail and chat rooms. Portals have evolved to provide a customised gateway to Web information. A high level of personalisation and customisation is possible (Melzer 1999; Boye 1999). It was felt that the portal concept could be further developed to function as a sophisticated Web interface that can support the task performance (teaching and research) of academics.

Introduction

Audiotex is a voice response application that allows users to enter and retrieve information over telephone. Example Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS). Audiotex is a generic name for interactive voice response equipment and service. Audiotex connected with a telephone is like a data processor connected to a data terminal. They are passive service which provides through appropriate access by standardised procedure for the user of Audiotex service to communicate with database via telecom network (i.e.) a subscriber can retrieve the information at any time by interacting with the audio service equipment by using the existing telephone line.

Audiotex is essentially a content provider. It enables the subscribers to record their message in a computer memory area called a “Mail Box”. The recorded message can be retrieved by the recipient by dialling a telephone number. Audiotex service is a telecommunication system which enables a caller, by dialling a designated telephone numbering beginning with ‘1800’ to receive a recorded announcement or to interact with a programme whereby he/she may communicate by means of a dual tone multi frequency telephone key pad, a touch tone telephone or other similar device with a value added network connected to the public switched telephone system for purposes of sending or receiving information. However, there are differing views across the world on what constitutes “Audiotex service”. European Telecommunications Standards Institute in its ETSI technical report 131 (June 1994) on “Terminal Equipment(TE); An investigation into the need for standardization in the area of stored voice services” has commented that “ It can be seen that there are many differing views as to what constitutes an Audiotex service and, in formal usage (e.g. in lectures or articles on the subject), a distinction is always drawn between voice messaging and the other services (information, consultation, transaction, etc.). It is thus misleading to use the word Audiotex without a previous definition. Therefore, in many countries the term “stored voice service” is used to describe Audiotex and each separate application and service is distinguished by a more precise definition.

Introduction

The Kisan Call Centre is an ICT initiative launched by the Department of Agri- culture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture on January 21, 2004 to instantly respond to farmer’s queries in their local language. Farmers from any part of the country can contact KCC simply like common public do to contact the customer care of their preferred network for queries. If it is a BSNL connection KCC can be contacted by just dialling 1551 toll free number. If it is other network, then farmers can dial “1800-180-1551” and get their query solved. In Tamil Nadu, until 2014, it was Cartel India Limited which acted as Level-III centre for Kisan Call Centre in Tamil Nadu. From May 2014 onwards, the administration of Kisan Call Centre was taken over by Indian Farmer Fertilizer Company (IFFCO) and working since then in the name of IFFCO Kisan.

In today’s condition, the policy makers feel it as a real challenge to bridge the com- munication gap that prevails between two farmers, between two villages, between two regions and perhaps between two countries. The only way to bridge this gap is through some ICT initiatives. Recent studies have shown impressive growth of telecommunication network for effective information utilization and delivery of knowledge and information in the country. In Kenya, the helpline service was start- ed on a pilot basis by GSMA Foundation, Inc., which was funded by Rockefeller Foundation. The technology was named Kenya Farmer’s Helpline. It was mainly started to bring a change in the economic, social and environmental development in the country. The helpline received very good support from the local farmers and till 2010, the helpline solved queries of over 30,000 farmers. During the same period, India solved queried of over one lakh farmers. Now, the number would be much more than what we expect.

Introduction

The past decade has witnessed a revolution in the use of ICT in Developing countries. Many people and offices as well as rural farmers own ICT facilities such as personal computers and mobile phones. The largest increases in the use of ICT has been in mobile telephony where subscriptions in developing countries increased from about 30 percent of the world total in 2000 to more than 50 percent in 2004 and to almost 70 percent in 2007 (Cieslikowsk, Halewood, Kimura, & Zhen-Wei Qiang, 2009). While internet use has not increased as rapidly as mobile communication, it increased tenfold in developing countries in the same period (Cieslikowsk et al., 2009). Other ICT facilities such as telecast, radio FM and information centres have also increased in number remarkably during the same period. A study by Farrell & Isaacs, (2009) on ICT in 53 African countries revealed the wide use of ICT in the region with countries such as Algeria, Egypt, South Africa and Botswana leading in ICT use. In East Africa, Rwanda is probably the most advanced country in terms of ICT use with 65% of its population being covered by mobile telephony. The country has also a high level of internet use and access to television and radio broadcasts. In Kenya, Uganda and Burundi the use of ICT is also well advanced, especially for mobile phone subscribers, TV and radio listeners (Farrell & Isaacs, (2009). This high use of ICT is likely to stimulate economic development in developing countries, including the agricultural sector where a high proportion of the African population derives their livelihoods. Before 1990, ICT use in Tanzania was mainly limited to radio and landline telephones. New ICT started in the mid-1990s, and by 2001 it was estimated that Tanzania’s ICT industry had generated USD 300-350 million per year. There are now a number of ICT development initiatives in the country funded by the government, donor countries and the private sector. Such initiatives range from telecentres and mobile phones in rural Tanzania to e-Government initiatives being implemented in the major cities and towns of Tanzania.

Introduction

Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals and for TV and radio broadcasting. They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region (area) on the earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the preferred size of the footprint, complexity of the traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground stations. A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired area. When the area is focused, then the emissions don’t go outside that designated area and thus minimizing the interference to the other systems. This leads more efficient spectrum usage. Satellite’s antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to best cover the designated geographical area (which is generally irregular in shape). Satellites should be designed by keeping in mind its usability for short and long term effects throughout its life time. The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit it is subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.

Introduction

What is Remote Sensing?

Remote sensing means sensing the objects that are far away from the reach of our senses. It is a tool to identify the characteristics of an object without having any direct contact over it.

In other words, it can be defined as, science of acquiring information about earth’s surface viz., land cover, oceans & coastal, agriculture, forestry, geographical mapping etc, through sensing, energy emission and processing, analysing and recording reflected images.

How does it Work?

Remote sensing process involves interaction between radiation emitted from the object and the target of focus. This can be explained by the use of imaging system that follows seven elements. However, it should be noted at this point that remote sensing not only uses imaging system but also uses non-imaging sensors and sens- ing of emitted energy.

The emphasis on greater participation of the beneficiaries in the development pro- cess on general and in message development process on general and in message development on particular has led to a reorientation on the study and operation- alization of the role of communication in development activities. There is a shift from the concept of development communication (DC) with its emphasis on top- down, big-media centered government to people communication to development support communication (DSC) focused on co-equal, little-media centered govern- ment with people communication.

A concomitant development is the emergence of a development professionals : the development support communicator, who mediates between the technical experts and their beneficiaries. This person is required to help the beneficiaries interact with the technical personnel, administrators, etc. as co-equal partners. Thus, the new horizontal axes provided by development support communicator will counter- balance the vertical axes of development communication involving the technical change agents.

The psychological sets that can be barriers to communication can be characterized into several basic categories. These sets can occur in the sender or in the receiver in the communication process. The sender has the ability to recognize these barrier categories when they occur and to transform communication to overcome them. However, the receiver is a different story. If the receiver is interested in communication, he or she can recognize when these barriers arise and can consciously overcome them. On the other hand, when a receiver is passive in the communication process, he or she does not recognize the barriers and the sender can do little to overcome the blockage.

Fidelity

Fidelity is said to exist in a communication situation when there is no distortion of the message from the time it leaves the source until it is received. The most effective communication occurs when the message transmitted and the message received are identical i.e., when complete fidelity is there. Some communication theorists believe that complete fidelity can never be achieved that no message is ever received exactly as it was intended by the source. This seems likely, since the source and receiver always have different frames of reference. It is clear, however, that the fidelity of any communication can be vastly improved by several methods.

Definition

• If a communication source decodes the message that he encodes, if the mes- sage is put back to his system, we have a feedback.

Berlo (1960)

• Feedback is defined as the action reaction interdependence in communica- tion.

• The return to the input of a part of the output is the feedback.

• Feedback is the reaction on the part of the receiver to a sender’s communi- cation.

Feedback

Feedback’s influence on learning is indisputable and undeniable and feedback’s varying roles in instruction are heavily researched concepts (Mory, 1992). Understanding how feedback facilitates, and, in some cases, hinders transfer of knowledge is essential to creating effective instruction.

Researchers have focused on the many aspects and roles of feedback in hopes of developing some synthesis that will increase learner performance and improve instruction. Researchers such as Bangert - Drowns, Kulik, Kulik and Morgan (1991), Brinko (1993), Clariana, R.B. and Lee, D. (2001), Clariana, R.B., Wagner, D. and Rohrer-Murphy, L.C. (2000), Kulhavy (1976), Kulhavy and Stock (1989), Kulik and Kulik (1988) and Mory (1992) to name only a very few, have sought to discern the complex role feedback plays in learning. While many studies have been convincingly conducted trying to ascertain how feedback best works in certain circumstances, a consensus has yet to be reached in most, if not all, areas and as Clariana (2000) writes, “There are a number of unanswered questions and perhaps even more unquestioned answers”.

Email can be a wonderful tool for delivering feedback to students. Once a basic understanding of feedback’s role in learning has been established, one can begin to focus on how best to take advantage of the pedagogical functions of the com- munication medium. There is little doubt that email is changing how we commu- nicate and learn. For example, in an investigation of the effectiveness of email as a communication and instructional aid between instructors and students, Yu and Yu (2002) found “empirical evidence supporting the usefulness of e-mail as a prom- ising aid to promote student cognitive growth pertaining to computer knowledge and skills”.

Tao and Boulware (2002) suggest that email communication benefits teachers by “identif[ing] instructional focus and tak[ing] advantage of instructional moments to fit the developmental needs of their students in authentic situations”. They also find that email motivates learners, encourages authentic communication and cre- ates new learning opportunities.

Introduction

Global fisheries produced roughly 171 million tons of fish, with an estimated sale value of US$ 362 billion, generating over US$143 billion in exports in 2016. Around 60 million people across the world are employed in fisheries and aquaculture, with the majority in the small scale capture fisheries sector of developing countries (FAO, 2018). India has an annual harvestable potential of 4.414 mt. and with 9.9 lakh active fishers, the sector provides livelihood to nearly 4.0 million people including the post-harvest sector (Sathiananthan, 2017). The estimated value of marine fish at landing centre level was Rs. 48,381 crores and at retail level was Rs. 73,289 crores during 2016 (CMFRI, 2017). Seafood exports from the country reached 1.38 million tons valued at $7.1 billion in 2017-18 (MPEDA, 2018). The fishing fleet of the country includes 1, 94,190 fishing units consisting of 72,559 (37.31%) mechanized, 71,313 (36.67%) motorized and 50,618 (26.03%) artisanal craft (CMFRI, 2010). The mechanised sector contributed 82% of catch followed by motorised (17%) and non-mechanised (1%) sectors in 2016 (CMFRI, 2017).

The development of marine fisheries sector in India occurred in three phases. In the first phase (up to 1965-66) fishing was mainly done by using non-mechanized indigenous craft and gear. The second phase (up to 1985-86) witnessed increased mechanization, improved gear materials and introduction of motorized country craft. In the last phase (after 1986) there was intensification of mechanization, motorization of the country craft and multi-day voyage fishing (Sathianandan, 2013).

The craft and gear technologies in marine fisheries sector vary based on the types of fish caught and nature of fishing ground. The economics of different production technologies in the mechanised, motorised and non-mechanised categories were analysed based on the size of boats and capacities of engines and gear. The economic indicators developed in different coastal states helps for micro level investment decisions as well as for developing macroeconomic policies for the fisheries sector.

Introduction

A recent study investigated the feasibility of sustaining current and increased per capita fish consumption rates in 2050, based on extensive data with respect to the changes in global and regional climate, marine ecosystem and fisheries production estimates, human population estimates, fishmeal and oil price estimations and projections of the technological advancement in aquaculture technology. The study concludes that meeting current and larger consumption rates is feasible only if fish resources are managed sustainably and fisheries management are effective (1). Aquaculture Farm Managers facing uncertainty has to make decisions every day. Some decisions have vital consequences for farm business, while others are not as crucial. These decisions mainly relates to seed, feed, fertilisers and regular water intake as management tools of farm. The choices made today may have an immediate impact on the aquaculture business or may take much longer to have an effect. These decisions may involve any facet of the farm business, including production, personnel or financing. The bottom line is that irrespective of the size or scope of any single decision, nearly all decisions may have important implications for the immediate and future success of the farm business. Because many decisions have such important impacts, farm managers need to analyze alternatives in a methodical fashion. Some alternatives can easily be analyzed, and a decision can be made quickly. In other cases, farm managers must take more time to recognize and evaluate all potential effects of that decision. To do this, farm managers need a framework for analyzing the relevant trade-offs. Agricultural economists are usually members of multidisciplinary teams, engaged in solving problems of fisheries. The economist applies economic concepts and tools to estimate economic profitability of a technology. This input can be made during any phase of the research process, technology development, testing and evaluation on farm. This paper will focus on partial budgeting as a tool that can be used by non-economists. This paper discusses on the concept of partial budgeting, a useful and easily implementable framework for such analysis.

Introduction

Many a times research programs appear potentially promising before implementation yet fail to generate expected impacts or benefits. Impact Assessment (IA) has become an integral part of any research study. It, not only justifies the investment made, but also helps in prioritizing projects. The ultimate objective is to make an impact from the output of the projects carried out. Researchers and extension functionaries involved in the upliftment of farmers/fishers through various research projects, training activities and interventions are bound to justify their resource utilization through unbiased and objective based impact assessments.

What is Impact Assessment?

Impact assessment (IA) is a structured process for considering the implications, for people and their environment, of proposed actions while there is still an opportunity to modify or abandon the proposals. It is applied at all levels of decision-making, from policies to specific projects. Impact Assessment is simply defined as the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. The difference between input, output, outcomes and how they encompass the monitoring and evaluation programmes of any organisation later transforming into the study of impacts has been shown in Figure 3.1.

Introduction

Tripura is a small state blessed with rich flora and fauna. The small scale aquaculture with other agricultural enterprises and allied economic activities are common practice followed by majority of the farmers in rural areas. The small scale aquaculture is not only common in rural areas but is also practiced in the backyard ponds in urban which have multiple uses. The homestead fish production is common in Tripura because fish is highly preferred food item in the diet of about 95% people of Tripura. But due to the subsistence level of aquaculture practices in the state, productivity and production of fish is quite insufficient to meet out market demand for fish. Though the state Government and other stakeholders of fish production systems are making relentless effort to enhance the production to the level of 74 MT to meet the current market demand, the average fish productivity in the state is comparatively lower as compared to many states of the country. The lower productivity is an important issue and one of the major impediments in enhancing fish production in the state. The experts and research finding have identified several factors such as short culture period, acidic nature of soil and water, more iron content, poor quality of seed, improper feeding, lack of technical knowhow etc are the main reasons behind the lower productivity. Still, there are many other issues uncovered and unaddressed which may be the lower growth of fishes and consequent lower fish productivity. For instance, factors like pond size and number of species in the culture system at farmers’ level may also have impact on the farm productivity. It is necessary to adopt region-specific models for furthering freshwater aquaculture in view of the available aquatic biodiversity as well as the consumer preferences and economics of operations in different parts of the country (Ayappan et al, 2009). This is particularly important considering polyculture is the major form of aquaculture in the state. Datta 2015, has opined that due to consumer’s preference, high market value as well as conservation-revitalization of various cultivable species, importance of diversification in culture of various species has been found of immense importance in the present aquaculture scenario. Among the species, endemic minor carps, catfishes in monoculture, perches, murrels live species are important. In this study, an attempt has been made to analyse level of species diversification at the farm level and their socio-economic and scientific significance at farm level.

Introduction

It is already established that mathematical modeling aims to describe the different aspects of the real world, their interaction, and their dynamics through mathematics. It constitutes the third pillar of science and engineering, achieving the fulfillment of the two more traditional disciplines, which are theoretical analysis and experimentation. Nowadays, mathematical modeling has a key role also in aquaculture. The problem is the complex modeling other than counting. Modeling and reasoning with data of different kinds can get extremely complex. Data streams are common source of Big Data. Now the task is to collect, prepare, represent, model, reason, visualize and additional issues like usage, quality, context, streaming, scalability. A few publications are available on modeling of fisheries and aquaculture in Indian context with live examples of modeling (Roy, et al. 1998, 2002, Roy et al., 2002, Ghosh et al., 2017, Roy, et al., 2006, Roy et al., 2008, 2012). A book on exclusively with various types of model applicable in fisheries and aquaculture has been published (Roy et al., 2009). In all these earlier publications conventional statistical and econometrics techniques are applied. But today there is sea change in this field with the advancement of technologies like artificial intelligence, machine learning, and big data analytics. There are attempts to apply these cutting edge technologies aiming sustainable productivity through efficient management of resources. In the following sections an attempt has been made to present an overview of the advances in analytics along with a briefing on what was developed in the past, and what is available today. Before proceeding to the analytics, I am presenting the scenario of basic characteristics of data along with different types of data generated today with automation of aquaculture industry.

Introduction

Value chain analysis has gained considerable popularity in recent years. Although many definitions are applied, value chains essentially represent enterprises in which different producers and marketing companies work within their respective businesses to pursue one or more end markets. Value chain participants sometimes cooperate to improve the overall competitiveness of the final product, but may also be completely unaware of the linkages between their operation and other upstream or downstream participants. Value chains therefore, encompass all of the factors of production including land, labor, capital, technology, and inputs as well as all economic activities including input supply, production, transformation, handling, transport, marketing, and distribution necessary to create, sell, and deliver a product to a certain destination.

Introduction

Aquaculture has been recognised as an important livelihood creating employment opportunities in the remote rural villages and urban areas. Further, it makes crucial contribution to global economic security and growth and generates income both directly and indirectly through support services. Over the past six decades, the prospects of ornamental fish have been emerging as a lucrative commercial aqua-venture. The global ornamental fish trade is the fastest growing sector and a multimillion dollar business which provides avenues for overseas earnings. The developing countries play a crucial role in production of ornamental fishes as more that 60% of the production comes from the households of the developing countries (FAO, 2006). The estimated worth of international ornamental fish trade at retail price is US$ 8 billion and the entire sector including aquarium tanks, accessories, medicines, feeds, plants, etc is worth of US$ 20 billion. India’s share in global export market is negligible as it is mainly dominated by the wild caught species mainly from the northeastern states of India and Western Ghats and estimated at Rs. 5.5. crores in 2009-10 (MPEDA, 2011).

Introduction

Ornamental fish is often used as a generic term to describe aquatic animals kept in the aquarium hobby, including fishes, invertebrates such as corals, crustaceans (e.g., crabs, hermit crabs, shrimps), molluses (e.g., snails, clams, scallops), and also live rock. Live rock is a general term for any type of rock encrusted with, and containing within its orifices, a wide variety of marine organisms including algae and colorful sessile invertebrates. Live rock serves as the principal biological and chemical filter in many marine-type tanks, and the encrusted organisms usually provide much of the background coloration in the tank. Ornamental fish culture is fast emerging as a major branch of aquaculture globally. Aquarium keeping is the second largest hobby in the world next to photography and the ornamental fish and aquatic plant industry is fast gaining importance due to its tremendous economic opportunities and prospects. Ornamental fish keeping is a popular hobby in developed countries and is gaining popularity in many developing countries. The growing interest in aquarium fishes has resulted in steady increase in aquarium fish trade, globally. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2006), export earnings from ornamental fish trade is US $ 251 million and more than 60% of the production comes from households of developing countries. The wholesale value of the global ornamental fish trade is estimated to be US $ 14 Billion. More than 2500 species of ornamental fishes are traded and some of 30-35 species of fresh water dominate the market. The trade with an annual growth rate of 8 percent offers a lot of scope for development. India’s share in global ornamental fish trade is negligible and at present the ornamental fish export from India is dominated by the wild caught species. The top exporting country is Singapore, followed by Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Indonesia and India. The largest importer of ornamental fish is USA. Europe and Japan, China and South Africa are the emerging markets of ornamental fish trade. The aesthetic, attractive colour and appearance of the fish appeal to children and aged alike. As the day passed, ornamental fish keeping become an interesting activity for many, in the process, generating income for the unemployed youth and farmers. The concept of entrepreneurship development, through ornamental fish farming is gaining popularity day-by-day.

Introduction

Access to adequate food, which is one of the fore-most basic needs of life, should be birthright of every single human being on this earth but in our country one fourth population is still underfed. The food insecurity situation is more rampant in the North-eastern region of the country. The proportion of population below poverty line (BPL) was reported at 31.4 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, 34.0 per cent in Assam, 37.9 per cent in Manipur, 16.10 per cent in Meghalaya, 15.4 per cent in Mizoram, 8.8 per cent in Nagaland and 40.0 per cent in Tripura, in the year 2015 (RBI, 2015). At national lavel it was reported to be 37.20 per cent. By comparing BPL population in NE Region states and national level poverty it was found that several states of this region like Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya were far better as in these states BPL percentage were very less than the national average, whereas in the states like Tripura, Manipur, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh BPL percentages were close to National level (37.20%). It has now been well established fact that the availability of food grains may not be the real problem of food security; it is prevailing poverty that comes in the way of achieving household’s food security. Hence, household food security is a function not only availability of food but also of the purchasing power of household. Any effort to achieve sustainable development demands concerted efforts to reduce poverty, including finding the solutions to hunger and malnutrition. In this study, an attempt has been made to analyze the status of food deprivation among fish farmers of West Tripura district of Tripura and to examine consumption expenditure behavior fish farming families of the study area.

Introduction

The better quality of life for the Indians who in majority depend on agricultural would be impossible by keeping the rich tradition of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) aside (Das, et al., 2002). According to Farrington and Martin (1988), ITK is based on knowledge, beliefs and customs which are internally consistent and logical to those holding them but at odds with the objectively deduced findings of formal science”. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) is the knowledge that the indigenous and local community accumulates over generations of living in local environment. It encompasses all forms of knowledge, experience, technologies, know-how, skills, beliefs and practices. These are also termed as “indigenous knowledge”, “people’s knowledge” “traditional knowledge” or “local knowledge” and are limited within a community. It is unique to a given culture, location or society.

Fishermen all over the world use some kind of traditional knowledge. ITK provides valuable insight into sustainable aquaculture, because it passes through considerable adaptation, up gradation and modification over a period of time and carried on from one generation to another as a family technology. Naturally, ITK fits well to a particular environment rather than modern technological knowledge. This knowledge has been developed outside the formal education system and refers to the large body of knowledge and skills which includes variety of fish culture practices, when and where to catch, how to process fish with a cost effective methods, and how to maintain their environment in a state of equilibrium. ITK is collective in nature and is often considered the property of the entire community, and does not belong to any single individual within the community.

Introduction

The Food Security is one of the most important dimensions of livelihood security of household (Rahman and Akter, 2010), because all efforts of the family members are directed towards fulfilling the family need including food. Food security defined as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life”. Food security includes at a minimum: (1) the ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and (2) an assured ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways (Anderson, 1990). It is also an indicator of sustainability of any vocation be it fish, crop, livestock production or combination of it. In case of Tripura very little study has been made in this aspect. Therefore, in this paper it is attempted to assess the status of food security of fish farmers of Tripura, using Index of Food Consumption (IFC) and Clustering Technique.

Data and Methodology

This study was undertaken in Tripura state and study area comprises 6 Rural Development Blocks viz. Bishalgarh, Melagarh and Mohanpur of West Tripura district; Hrishyamuk, Rajanagar and Matabari of South Tripura District. From these blocks a sample of 105 fish farmers was selected using stratified sampling method for gathering the primary data. The pretested, semi structured survey schedule was administered to collect the data during 2010.

Introduction

Fishing technology is the discipline dealing with the natural sciences and technology for optimizing fish catch and fishing operations, leading to a productive and sustainable capture fishery. The fishes are one of the main exploitable resources of the aquatic ecosystems that provide a cheap source of protein which helps solving the problem of nutritional security particularly in NE region of the country. The rapid development of fishing technology in India during the recent years has paved the way for increased production availability of new synthetic materials, evolution of new designs of fishing craft and gear and avoidance of ignorant harmful fishing techniques etc. It is essential that any developmental activity adopted, should also be base rooted in the objective of uplifting the economy of the fishing communities. This implies that the improvisation of the existing tools and techniques and introduction of new ones to enhance fishing efficiency need a careful study of the traditional technologies.

Further, selection of fishing methods and gear are influenced by various factors such as physiography of the water body, nature of fish stock, characteristics of the material from which gear are fabricated and standard of living. Therefore, variation in application of fishing devices can be observed in different type of water bodies, which have characteristic of their own due to unique nature of the water resources of the region. The success of these fishing techniques depends on various factors like selection of site, time, efficiency of materials used and availability of fish, etc. For successful fishing some attractant as a lure is popularly employed.

The North Eastern Region of the Country is very rich in the indigenous knowledge and techniques of fishing. The fishing gear and craft vary from one state to other states in terms of technical specification, materials and method of fishing. The type and size of water bodies also determine design fishing gear and craft to be used for fishing. The present day fishing methods and fishing devices which are in use in the region are the result of continuous efforts and knowledge inherited through generations of fishing community. Hence, fishing methods and fishing devices in the region was developed by the community according to their need, availability of the material, type of water bodies and target species. In this presentation, an assessment, compilation and documentation of these indigenous fishing technologies of the Tripura which is important for academicians, researchers and other stake holders, is made.

Introduction

Fisheries play an important role in our national economy by providing a quality source of protein thus ensuring nutritional security of our people, foreign exchange and employment for about 14 million people. The ocean is continuously subjected to enormous stress through utilization of the marine resources and preservation of biodiversity is often ignored. Precautionary use of living aquatic resources in harmony with the environment leads to responsible fisheries and moreover it’s our responsibility to make fishery wealth as perennial as possible and adoption of responsible method of fishing can take us to a prosperous future. Though various fishing techniques are in practice, line fishing using baited hooks or artificial jigs is an effective method to capture predatory fishes. The catch obtained by line fishing is generally of high quality and commercial value with minimal environmental impact. The supply of fish is highly seasonal, leading to price fluctuations across regions and seasons, even within a day and being exploited by middlemen resulting in reduced welfare of fishermen. The existence of traditionally been highly unorganized and unregulated marketing system is the prime reason for its inefficiency. Various attempts have been made to overcome this problem by fishermen group as well as government agencies in India. But, these kinds of efforts have largely been confined to a few small locations and were highly scattered. Unlike poultry or dairy industry, innovations in fish marketing have not been on a macro level (Ganesh, et al., 2008). Against this background, the study has attempted to have a better understanding the innovative fish marketing practices being adopted by people institutions called “Sangams” in Kombuthurai fishing village and to draw lessons for upscaling and to promote such successful institutions in a similar socio-politico-economic scenario in other parts of the country as well for efficient fish marketing system.

Introduction

Production of consumer preferred varieties of fish and fish products have been facing several constraints. Identification of potential constraints is important for growth and development of fisheries sector. The constraints of production and marketing have been examined by a number of researchers in different time and place. In this chapter, it is tried to explain an overview of the different constraints of production and marketing of fish and value added fish.

Constraints of production of freshwater fish

Constraints of aquaculture production in developing countries have been identified by Lee (1997) and categorized them as:

1. natural and environmental (inequitable allocation of land resources, insufficient quantity and degraded quality of water, highly seasonal variation in temperature and natural disaster);
2. socioeconomic (insufficiency of infrastructure for production and marketing, variation of prices of inputs, ageing and poor training of aqua-farmers); and
3. Institutional constraints (inefficiency of extension services, lack of a better organization of producers, shortage of rural finance).

Introduction

Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms, has been the agro industrial activity with the highest growth rate worldwide in the last four decades. From 1970 to 2008 the production of aquaculture organisms grew at a rate of 8.3% per year, compared to less than 2% of fisheries, and 2.9% of livestock (Luchini et al. 2008). In India, aquaculture feed market was valued at USD 1.20 billion in 2017 and is expected to register a CAGR of 10.4% during the forecast period (2018-2023). Indian feed mills have the capacity to produce 2.88 million metric ton. Andhra Pradesh is the largest feed consuming state in India (Anon. 2017). The growth in production has been faster for fed species than for non fed species indicating that adoption of feed based aquaculture as the major driver of aquaculture production growth (FAO, 2016). However, the demand for aquaculture feed in the country will touch to 7 million tons by 2017-18. Hence, there is wide gap in demand and supply of feed. The feed cost is a major production cost in aquaculture in India yet feeding of fish is still mostly guesswork, each fish producer following different guidelines (feed charts) or adopting different practices. Feeding too much leads to feed wastage, a pure economic loss, and greater waste output. Feeding too little results in less growth and this also represents an economic loss. In intensive and semi intensive aquaculture, natural foods are not sufficient to meet our overall nutritional requirement of the fishes for their survival and faster growth. Hence, the good quality supplementary diet which contains all required nutrients in recommended quantity were recommended by many aquaculture scientists for the better production. It is further opined by the researchers that it is economical to prepare supplementary feeds by using locally available ingredients. The dietary carbohydrates are usually quantitatively the largest constituent of diet (40-55% W/W) particularly in feeds for carps, the most dominant group of fishes with respect to not only world aquaculture but also Indian Aquaculture. The rice bran, corn, and wheat are the conventional carbohydrate sources in India. In North East Region of the country none of these items are produced locally in sufficient quantity (Kumar et al. 2018). Due to less of local production of these ingredients, cost of feed which generally constitute about 40-50% of total cost of production, increase tremendously in NEH region due high transportation cost. Hence, for development of ideal feed for carp based aquaculture in North East Region, optimization of feed cost is very important to make the fish production cost effective and more profitable.

Introduction

The word cooperation is of Latin origin and it means to work together (Filley, 1929).Cooperatives are founded on the values of self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity and solidarity. Based on the founding principles of co-operatives, members believe in the ethical values of honesty, openness, social responsibility and caring for others (Canadian Business Service Centre, 2004). A fishery co-operative society can be defined as “An autonomous association of people united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically controlled fishery enterprise or fishery activities.”

Attitude implies that the individual is no longer neutral toward the referent psychological objects. The person would be positively inclined or negatively disposed in some degree towards the referents (Campbell, 1963; Allport, 1966; Newcomb, 1966; Zanden, 1977; Burr, 2000). The response in this connection is a lasting one, as long as the attitude in question is operative. Attitude refers to a psychological individual’s stands about objects, issues, persons, groups, or Institutions. The definition of attitude proposed by Triandis (1971) suggests that attitude has three components: (a) a cognitive component (the idea), (b) an affective component (the emotions), and (c) a behavioural component (the action).

Introduction

This chapter outlines recently developed and traditional statistical techniques, which are increasingly being applied in social science research. The social sciences cover diverse phenomena arising in society, the economy and the environment, some of which are too complex to allow concrete statements; some cannot be defined by direct observations or measurements; some are culture-or region specific, while others are generic and common. Statistics, being a scientific method as distinct from a ‘science’ related to any one type of phenomena is used to make inductive inferences regarding various phenomena. The chapter addresses both qualitative and quantitative research a combination of which is essential in social science research and offers valuable updates for advanced level for researchers. In this chapter, I will attempt to addresses the gaps between the research and data analysis faced the professionals and researchers working under different environment with multitude of problems particularly in the social science sector. It provides students with theoretical perspectives and methodological tools to explore the social and cultural systems that influence policy interventions.

The Social Science: Social science is the field of study concerned with society and human behaviors. Social science covers a broad range of disciplines like demography and social statistics, methods and computing; education, social anthropology, and linguistics apart from anthropology, archaeology, criminology, economics, education, history, linguistics, communication studies, political science and international relations, sociology, geography, law, and psychology. Further, it covers development studies, human geography and environmental planning; law, economic and social history; politics and international relations; psychology and sociology; and social policy and social work. Social science is, in its broadest sense, the study of society and the manner in which people behave and influence the world around us. Social science tells us about the world beyond our immediate experience, and can help explain how our own society works from the causes of unemployment or what helps economic growth or what makes people happy. It provides vital information for governments and policymakers, local authorities, non-governmental organisations and others. Economics seeks to understand how individuals interact within the social structure, to address key questions about the production and exchange of goods and services. Management studies explores a wide range of aspects relating to management of fisheries activities, such as strategic and operational management, organizational psychology, employment relations, marketing, accounting, finance and logistics.

Introduction

Aquaculture, also known as aqua-farming, embodies the procedure of the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivation of freshwater and saltwater fish-populations under controlled conditions (Wikipedia, 2019). Aquaculture industry has undergone a lot of change in the last two decades. The application of the sophisticated technologies in the aquaculture industry has greatly altered the face of the industry in special relation to the Western and developed countries. New tools related to the measurement of the different environmental parameters needed to be controlled in different layers of the production process like Hatchery, Nursery and Grow-out have come up. Lots of data generated from the above stages relate to include the parameters, like, cost of production, health condition of produced fish, etc., which ultimately leads to the generation of the appropriate pricing of produce. With the advent of globalization, all aquaculture product companies need to look for exporting their respective products along with meeting the full satisfaction related to the demand from the domestic markets with an ultimate objective to increasing the profit. Export of the fisheries products in the western countries needs proper certification on the quality of the products duly by the appropriate authorities. The certification authorities need to check the detailed production process related to the fisheries- products in order to be sure about the quality imbibed in the same. The development of integrated software maintaining the details of the production process makes the task easy for both the production company and the certification authority, thus satisfying the needs of the end-customers in the western markets. Useful ERP software needs to maintain all relevant information on the production process commencing from the very early stage of the production till the act of selling the products in the market.

Introduction

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), fish and fishery products accounts for 17% of the global human consumption of animal protein. Per capita food fish supply has grown to 18.4kg per person, an 8% rise since 2006. Approximately 54% of the seafood protein supply for human consumption comes from wild catch; unfortunately about 30% of the world’s wild-capture fisheries are overexploited and many fisheries are in bad shape and getting worse. Solving this problem will require innovative monitoring and management tools, but we can provide tremendous benefits if we act now to reverse our course. Taking a serious, in-depth look at fisheries could help feed the world’s growing population, and conserve marine species. Humanity is reaching farther and deeper into the oceans and, until recently, there were only anecdotes and guesses about the complete effects of our actions. Recent reports show that some fisheries are being managed sustainably and good progress is being made in reducing exploitation rates and restoring overexploited fish stocks and marine ecosystems.

Sustainable fisheries management is an integrated process that seeks to attain an optimal state that balances ecological, economic, social and cultural objectives for fisheries. It involves information gathering, analysis, planning, consultation, decision-making, allocation of resources and formulation and implementation, with enforcement as necessary, which govern fisheries activities to ensure the above mentioned fisheries objectives. A thorough knowledge on the fish resource assessment is of utmost importance for a fishery manager to effectively make decisions and implement it. In this chapter, an attempt is made to briefly explain the basic concepts of fish resource under management, its assessment and techniques to be applied.

Origin of fruit culture can be traced back to 8000-5000 years ago and the horticultural practices like irrigation, vegetative propagation, selection etc. developed about 5000-3000 years back. The sophisticated fruit culture might have originated before 3000-2000 years. Basically all the cultivated fruits are the gift of diversity and not results of systematic breeding. Most of them have spread to different parts of the world through various media from the primary centres of origin.

Centres of origin of major fruit crops are as follows:

Mediterranean basin : datepalm, fig, grape, olive, pomegranate

East Asia : banana, citrus, mango, peach, kiwi fruit, persimmon

Central Asia: pome fruits, apricot

Europe : plum, raspberry

North and South America: avocado, black berry, papaya, pineapple, strawberry

The concept of origin of cultivated plants was first developed by A de Candolle and the geographic centres of variability were developed by Vavilov. He identified Asia as a major centre with “Indian centre” of North East region as primary or secondary centre of origin for many crop plants. Plant genetic resources are of great importance as they form the basic raw materials to meet the current and future needs of crop improvement programmes. A wider genetic base, thus, assumes priority in plant breeding research aimed at developing new varieties for increased crop production (Paroda, 1991). This diversity comprises of native landraces, local selections, elite cultivars and wild relatives of crop plants. The collection and conservation of this diversity in a systematic manner is the primary responsibility of all plant genetic resources institutes/centres. The mention of use and cultivation of fruits can be seen in epics like ‘Ramayana’. Plant genetic resources are thus our heritage, which need conservation for posterity. During the long period of domestication, utilization and cultivation, a wide array of fruit crop variability got generated by natural means and through both conscious and unconscious selection. Huge wealth of variability also got generated/adapted and diversified by crop introductions in the exotic environment or through migration of human population.

Fruit crops, majority of them are generally perennial in nature and owing to the outcrossing during their evolutionary stages, they are highly heterozygous. Genetic improvement is extremely difficult due to the complex genetic nature. The germplasm collection, conservation and evaluation take long time and area. Although the concept of core collection is very much valid, there is always a question mark when it comes to highly heterozygous crops as to whether the sample is good enough to represent the population. Due to the propagation by seeds, the large variability present needs to be evaluated for various characteristics. The genetical studies carried out in many of these crops are not conclusive and the progeny performance cannot be predicted. The biometrical methods to estimate the parameters viz., combining ability, heritability using the methodologies such as diallel have proven to be futile excercises to a very great extent. Parental selection, which is so vital for a successful breeding programme is very difficult as mainly selection has to be based upon the phenotype. Breeding for particular traits like biotic or abiotic stress has been difficult as resistance is not found within the spp and interspecific / intergeneric hybridization is difficult because of incompatibility barriers for eg the ‘PRSV’ breeding programme in papaya. In highly heterozygous crop like mango, there exists strong genotype x environmental interaction, which alters the performance of improved varieties.

Apomixis was defined by Winkler as replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization. This definition notably does not mention meiosis. Thus “normal asexual reproduction” of plants, such as propagation from cuttings or leaves, has never been considered apomixis, but replacement of the seed by a plantlet, or replacement of the flower by bulbils are types of apomixis. Apomixis deviates from sexual reproduction in several aspects: modification or complete omission of meiosis, formation of unreduced megaspores, parthenogenetic development of embryo, and autonomous, or pseudogamous, endosperm development (Ramulu et al., 1998). Apomixis produces embryos or seed progeny that are exact genetic replicas of the mother plant. The main advantage of apomixis over sexual reproduction is the possibility to select individual plants with superior characteristics and to propagate them clonally through seeds. Apomictically produced offsprings are genetically identical to the parent plant. In flowering plants, the term “apomixis” is commonly used in a restricted sense to mean agamospermy, i.e. asexual reproduction through seeds.

Mutations are sudden and heritable changes in the genetic material. They can result in deletion, inversion and translocation of certain portions in the chromosomes, which can result in the changed expression of a trait due to the interaction of alleles within or without the locus, sometimes the effects revert back or can be heritable.

Most of the fruit crops are highly heterozygous. However, heterozygosity is one of the advantages when it comes to mutation. In highly heterozygous crops wherein there is a need for improvement in a single trait, mutations have been of great use. One of main limitations is use of vegetative material, which due to the unlikelyhood of uniform penetration and distribution of mutagenic agent can result in chimera. Although hybridization and selection have made a fair dent in the improvement of fruit crops, mutation is one of the methods that can be relied upon to develop pre-breeding lines and to bring about change in the quantitavie traits. Another very important fact is that there are crops like grapes wherein a lot of spontaneous mutants have become established varieties viz., Sonaka and Saritha to quote a few. Some of the existing varieites wherein one or two traits need to be improved, mutation would greatly help in this in comparatively short time. In some of the crops like sapota, wherein the conventional breeding would take long time, mutation can be resorted to both for inducing variability in the germplasm as well as for trait improvement. It is also to be noted here that mutation breeding can be a good supplement for conventional breeding, more so with the emergence of tissue culture propagation, which often throws up spontaneous mutants. Mutation as a methodology can also be tried in some fruit crop spp where there is no disease resistance source within. It can also be adopted in cases where there is a need to break linkages.

Introduction

Pollination is an essential ecosystem service for the maintenance and conservation of biodiversity on the earth. Many food crops, barring cereals, are entomophilous in nature and rely on insects for pollination. The pollinators in turn are benefited by obtaining floral resources such as nectar, pollen or both. This mutualism has evolved over centuries and been helping both natural terrestrial ecosystems as well as man-made agro-ecosystems. Pollinators such as bees, birds and bats contribute to 35 per cent of the world’s crop production, increasing outputs of 87 of the leading food crops worldwide (FAO, 2009). The total economic value of crop pollination worldwide has been estimated at €156 billion annually (Gallai et al., 2009). The area covered by pollinator-dependent crops has increased by more than 300 per cent during the past 50 years (Aizen and Harder 2009). Pollinators are found in diverse groups of the animal kingdom, including birds, bats, reptiles, insects, etc. Among them, insects particularly honey bees, dominate in providing pollination services to several plants. There are about 19,000 described species of bees in the world (Linsley, 1958) and, with the exception of one species, Apis mellifera L., the domestic honey bee, all of them are grouped under the general term ‘wild bees’. India is endowed with the greatest biodiversity as far as honey bee species are concerned and is home to five species viz., A. cerana, A. florea, A. dorsata, A. andreniformis and A. laboriosa besides hosting A. melllifera, an introduced one. In addition, several other pollinators including stingless bees, carpenter bees, bumble bees, megachilids, halictids, sphecids, andrenids, syrphids, etc. occur in several agro-ecosystems (Thakur, 2012). Studies on crop pollination by insects are becoming increasingly critical because of a perceived global decline in pollinator stocks, with great economical and conservation consequences (Ghazoul, 2005a, 2005b; Steff an-Dewenter et al., 2005). In the recent years, there has been a concern about declines in both wild and domesticated pollinators, especially honey bees (Reddy et al., 2012a). A large proportion of horticultural crops is potentially vulnerable to declines in honey bee and other pollinator insects (Table 1). One of the essential requirements to adequately evaluate the importance of animal pollination for food production and the impact of pollinator losses is to determine the pollination needs of different cultivated plants. However, detailed studies of crop pollination requirements are incomplete in many crops (Klein et al., 2007).

Introduction

Fresh and processed products derived from fruit crops provide vital contributions to human nutrition, health, and well-being, and collectively their production constitutes the economic backbone of many rural communities worldwide. Rapid development and distribution of new cultivars with improved characteristics which meet the industry, market (both domestic and export), and consumer preferences is the need of the day. Conventional methods of perennial fruit crop improvement have almost exclusively relied on traditional breeding techniques. These techniques are expensive, time consuming and space requiring, especially for tree species due to the need of a large population of seedlings from which only a few promising ones are selected. The juvenile period of tree crops may last three to five years before onset of fruits so that 20 years or more are common before the successful introduction of a gene of interest (Baird et al., 1996). Therefore in this context, molecular tools recently made available for breeders have become tools of choice because they permit to reduce cost by fastening the selection process of woody fruit plants. Further, traits of importance like fruit quality, resistance to diseases, high yield etc. are polygenic in nature for which classical breeding is generally not suitable for detection and selection of traits. A quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis with help of markers and linkage maps may be more appropriate for detection of such traits of interest. Also, molecular markers are being used for maintenance of core collections, for the assessment of genetic diversity between genotypes and fingerprinting.

Quantitative genetics is often considered to be the bedrock of crop breeding research. Understanding and analyzing complex nature of genetic data based on its quantitative traits is of much importance in any perennial crop improvement research. Genetics and statistics are the two sides of a same coin to unravel complex problems in the study of inheritance and heredity of quantitative traits. Application of statistical methods in genetics probably dates back to 1880’s when Galton (1886), in his historic study about inheritance of mid-parent’s heights on their children, adopted the theory of regression. In the early 1990’s, Fisher (1918), in his study on correlation in Mendelian inheritance, utilized the analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique. The distribution of quantitative traits in a population follows the normal distribution (also known as Gaussian distribution or bell curve), the central concept of statistical theory. Number of research experiments after these two historic studies essentially concentrated on analyzing vast genetic data of several quantitative traits and attributing the source of variability in traits to genetic variation. Furthermore, as emphasized by Narain, (2010) the classical genetic basis of continuous variation based on the infinitesimal model of Fisher and mostly using statistical methods has since undergone major modifications. Largely due to rapid advances in computational tools for data analysis, complex techniques, which better explain the reality in the vast data generated by the researchers, are being employed. Accordingly, an attempt is made not necessarily be exhaustive, to discuss about traditional data analysis techniques leading to modern aspects with special reference to perennial fruit crops.

Rootstocks play a very important role in propagation of plants, It may modify form or stature and adopt a variety to a soil in an incompatible climatic condition and also build up the resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and meanwhile increase the production and productivity.

Vagaries of climate and mismanagement of soil have resulted in abiotic stresses, which in turn have lowered yield and quality production of fruits. In the course of its phylogenetic development, several fruit crops have developed various physiological and morphological mechanisms enabling plants to survive under adverse conditions. In case of fruit crops, one of the most important methods is to use rootstocks to overcome such stress conditions. However, over the years in fruit crops, the rootstocks that are present do not cater to the present day needs of pest and disease tolerance. Hence, there is an urgent need to widen the genetic base of rootstocks in different fruit crops by breeding and selecting rootstocks with desirable characteristics. It is acknowledged that the timing and intensity of the response of rootstocks to soil and atmospheric conditions are synergistically beneficial in evolving new cultivars.

Number of attempts has been made in rootstock improvement programmes all over the world. One of the methods that are being followed in perennial crops like mango is the development of large progeny population through half sib families. In this case, the female parent is common and open pollinated progeny population of varieties, in which improvement is sought, is used. Rootstocks were first used in European vineyards in the late 1800’s to combat devastating Phylloxera outbreak. Rootstock can be used to improve vigor, production and help to sustain the health and survival of fruit crops