eBook Chapters

To reduce the dependence on hazardous pesticides in modern agriculture, one of the most promising ways is to use insect-resistant cultivars. When available, planting resistant cultivars is one of our most effective, economically viable and environmentally sound tactics. The underlying concept of using host resistance to our advantage comes from the knowledge that most plants and animals are resistant to most potential insect attackers. Certain physiological, morphological, and/or behavioural characteristics inherited by organisms form a core of defense against species that would otherwise attack them (Pedigo, 2002).

To reduce the dependence on hazardous pesticides in modern agriculture, one of the most promising ways is to use insect-resistant cultivars. When available, planting resistant cultivars is one of our most effective, economically viable and environmentally sound tactics. The underlying concept of using host resistance to our advantage comes from the knowledge that most plants and animals are resistant to most potential insect attackers.

Plant diseases caused by microbial pathogens have been managed by using different methods which need to be applied every year or season, when the susceptible cultivars are grown. These methods are grouped as nongenetic methods, since no change in the host genome can be expected, when physical, chemical, cultural or biological control methods are employed. On the hand, if a change in the host genome is accomplished by either conventional breeding techniques or by biotechnological procedures, the progeny may show higher level of resistance to the target pathogen (s). The genotype or cultivar thus generated will show resistance during subsequent seasons till a new race of pathogen capable of overcoming the effects of resistance gene(s) is produced. Disease management through host resistance is considered as the most preferable option because of several advantages. Crop production is less expensive ; there is no need to apply any procedure for every crop season ; and chances of environmental pollution are absent, when a crop cultivar resistant to the disease (s) is grown. In addition, the build up of pathogen population is progressively reduced. Management of diseases by cultivating resistant varieties may be more effective and economical, if the benefits accumulating over a period of time and enlarging area with lapse of time are taken into consideration.

INTRODUCTION

Plant pathogens can spread rapidly over great distances, vectored by water, wind, insects, and humans. Across large regions and many crop species, it is estimated that diseases typically reduce plant yields by 10% every year in more developed nations or agricultural systems, but yield loss to diseases often exceeds 20% in less developed settings, an estimated 15% of global crop production.

Disease control is reasonably successful for most crops. Disease control is achieved by use of plants that have been bred for good resistance to many diseases, and by plant cultivation approaches such as crop rotation, pathogen- free seed, appropriate planting date and plant density, control of field moisture and pesticide use. However, the most attractive form of control is provided by disease resistance, for as long as it remains effective, it provides protection at no cost to the farmers or the community. So plant resistance is a highly useful strategy that can be applied in the control of diseases. It does not require any special action from growers and constitute cheap and practical input in the integrated disease management system. The use of resistant varieties cannot only ensure protection against diseases but also save the time, energy and money spent on other measures of control. In addition to these advantages, resistant varieties, if evolved, can be the only practical method of control of such diseases as viruses, phytoplasmas wilts, and rusts etc. in which chemical control is very expensive and impractical. In crops of low cash value, chemical and other methods of control are often too expensive to be applied. In such crops development of varieties resistant to important diseases can be an acceptable recommendation for the farmer.

Definition

Those characters that enable a plant to avoid tolerate or recover from attacks of pathogens under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same species.

1. Host-Pathogen Recognition

· Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) Plants have receptors that can recognize conserved molecules on pathogens, called PAMPs (e.g., bacterial flagellin). This triggers a basal defense response called PAMP Triggered Immunity (PTI).

· Effector Proteins Pathogens secrete effector proteins into plant cells to suppress PTI and facilitate infection. Plants have evolved resistance (R) proteins that can recognize specific effector proteins, leading to a stronger defense response called Effector-Triggered Immunity (ETI).

2. Genesis of Interaction

· Entry Pathogens enter plants through natural openings (stomata, hydathodes) or wounds. Some can directly penetrate plant tissues using specialized structures or enzymes.

· Colonization Once inside, pathogens multiply and spread within plant tissues, often utilizing enzymes to break down cell walls and obtain nutrients.

· Manipulation of Host Pathogens manipulate host physiology through effector proteins, suppressing defense, and altering hormone signaling, and redirecting resources to support their growth.

Host -Pathogen Interaction

Most often, plants become diseased when attacked by living (biotic) or affected by non-living (abiotic) pathogens.

In the first case, at least two components viz., host and pathogen must come into contact and interact for plant disease to occur.

Then, for disease to develop, a third factor, a favorable range of environmental conditions, must also occur.

The interaction of the three disease factors was often visualized as a triangle called the “Disease Triangle".

Each side of the triangle represents one of three components.

Abstract

Thermophiles mainly harbor in highly temperate environments such as hydrothermal vents, hot springs, fumaroles etc. The main importance of thermophiles is due to their thermostable proteins, enzymes and their adaptive mechanisms at higher temperature which are very useful for industrial applications. The main rationale behind this research was to isolate industrially important thermophilic bacteria from the Hot Springs of Sikkim which can be used as tools for genetic engineering and vector based research activities.

House Plants refer a group of ornamental plants, both foliage and fowering, used for decoration of house interiors besides verandahs, corridors, porch, stairs, window sills etc. These are of various categories namely trees (juvenile), shrubs, herbs, bulbous, rhizomatus and other shade loving plants. House plants are generally grown in pots and displayed for making interiors delightful and cosy. In addition, such arrangements enhance the architectural beauty of the buildings. These are easily shifted from one place to another as per display plan. Moreover, option of changing the whole lot with a new set provides opportunity to create a new look of the site.

Foliage type house plants with their exquisite leaves, colour, variegation and uniqueness add grandeur to the interiors. On the otherhand, flowering ones having a spectrum of flower colour, are added attraction for beautifying relatively lighted areas of house. House plants are also grown as bedded plants in the gardens where ground space is available.

Successful growing of house plants depends on right selection of species considering climatic conditions, proper placement and maintenance. The main purpose is to make interiors decorative and lively. In addition to the aesthetic effect, house plants make the interiors more humid and cool. Besides, they absorb pollutants and supply oxygen. In cities, space for outdoor gardening attached to the house has almost vanished due to non-availability of land and high cost. As a result, popularity of growing house plants has increased manifold. Display of house plants is also a regular practice in other places like offices, institutes, banks, hospitals, factories, hotels etc. as these create an ambient working atmosphere besides beautification.

House plants play an integral role in providing decorative value and aesthetic sense to the place. They are important component of interiorscaping and provides softscape. House plants are also considered as natural air filters as they provide freshness and many house plants are reported to absorb many house pollutants. The demand of house plants are generating many employment opportunities like plant rental services, interiorscaping etc. The house plants are preferred in homes, offices, hospitals, multiplexes etc.

Placement

These attractive house plants rightly deserve their place as interior decorations. “Shade loving” is an adjective often used to describe house plants, but this is a misnomer, Plants may be shade tolerant but they do not actually seek poor light. Diffused light through the glasses or windows’ can be effective you can supplement the suns’ rays with artificial light in the form of a “warm white” fluorescent tube. Then may be shifting them after frequent intervals in the open for a short duration in morning hours to supplement the sunlight during winter months and leaving them out overnight and bringing them after exposing them to early morning sunlight during hot months exposure for a desired time frame in the monsoon are some of the effective methods to make your house plants feel happier.

Insect and non-insect pests cause extensive damage to standing crops, stored grains and stored products resulting in huge economic loss. Besides these, several pests cause annoyance, as well as attack livestock such as, cattle, poultry and pet animals. Some others damage household articles such as, clothing, upholstery, carpets, paper, books, leather articles, wooden and bamboo furniture and all sorts of wooden structures. These obnoxious creatures besides consuming any kind of food materials, spoil them by contaminating and polluting them with their faecal matter and urine and impart a repulsive, bad odor and make them unfit for consumption by humans and livestock. The damages caused by them pave the way for easy access and infection by some of the saprophytic microorganisms, which hasten the deterioration process. A few of these microorganisms produce mycotoxins, which are poisonous and may even be fatal to the consumers.

Among the household pests, cockroaches, crickets, silver fish, ants, white ants, carpet and powder post beetles and clothes moths are quite important. These insects not only cause annoyance but different types of flies, mosquitoes, bugs, fleas and lice either suck and feed on the blood from humans, cattle, poultry etc. but are also responsible for disseminating several disease causing microorganisms.

Appliances which help or assist in doing household work as cooking, cleaning and food preservation are known as equipments. A equipment also referred to as a domestic appliance or an electric appliance or a household appliance.

Rabbits: Housed in mesh floor cages made of galvanized iron, aluminium or steel.

Cleaning should be done regularly (but not within the animal room). Clean feed, water should be given to animals to keep them free of diseases.

Guinea pig: In case of guinea pig, environmental factors play a very important role → Temperature, relative humidity, lighting and ventilation.

Temp → 18-21°C for all laboratory animals

Relative Humidity → 45-55%

Lighting → 12-16 hours for normal physiological activity.

Ventilation → Min 12-15 changes of air for animal room. This can be provided with the help of exhaust fan.

For guinea pig, temperature should not go beyond 30°C, because they cannot dissipate heat from body and they suffer from heat stress and heat frustration because they have loose fold of skin. Highly susceptible for respiratory infection, so adequate ventilation should be given.

They can be housed on wire mesh, floor, and cages. Also directly on floor provided with bedding material → paddy/ ragi straw. In some animal facilities they give saw dust as bedding material. For Guinea Pig saw dust should be given as bedding material as they get adhered to vulva that causes irritation and also it blocks the vulva. There will be reduction in fecundity of the animal →worst

The success of a rabbitry depends heavily on the equipment and hutches used. Climate, location, and budget all play a role in determining the type of equipment needed. Before constructing the hutches, careful planning is necessary to minimize labor and ensure optimum working conditions. A clean and efficient layout should also be considered in order to provide an ideal environment for raising rabbits. With a wide range of hutch designs available, it is important to choose one that best suits the specific needs and purpose of the rabbitry.

The house should provide adequate protection from direct sunlight and rain. Pigs are extremely sensitive to heat and cold. In rural locations, simple low-cost dwellings built with locally accessible materials are preferred. It is also possible to construct adaptable pens that may be used for all types of pigs. Adequate pig housing is critical for disease prevention, parasite control, and labour savings.

The vital points about the pig house are as follows:

• Build the shed on a dry and adequately raised site.
• Avoid locations that are flooded, swampy, or have a lot of rain.
• The shed’s side walls should be 4-5 feet tall, with the remaining height supported by GI pipes or wooden poles.
• Plastering the walls will make them damp proof.

The aim of any good zoo should be to recreate the habitat from which the animal came as accurately as possible, with enough space to move around and enough stimulation so that they can behave naturally. Monkey cages should have plenty of branches for them to swing from and bird cages should have enough room so that they can fly. Some zoos hide the lionís or tigerís food so that they have to use their senses to explore and find it.

Duck farming in India is characterized by nomadic, extensive, seasonal, and is still held in the hands of small and marginal farmers. Traditionally Assam, West Bengal and Kerala are the major consumer states for duck egg and meat and one of the reasons is that duck egg and meat highly suits and impart taste for their fish based culinary preparations.

Different housing system for Duck rearing

In general, ducks do not require elaborate houses. The house should be well ventilated, dry, and rat proof. In semi-intensive system of rearing, the house should have easy access to outside run as the ducks prefer to come out during the day time, winter and rainy time. 

By minimizing the harsh climate effects like heat, cold and rain, it is crucial to offer the proper circumstances for raising dairy cows in the tropics. Stress can be reduced through the design of the farm and the dwelling. Controlling the environment lowers the risk of stress and disease, improves management, and increases milk production.

HOUSING OF LABORATORY ANIMALS

Objectives

The important criteria to be kept in mind for the construction of animal house are:

• Got to satisfy the requirements of animal care takers and animal technician whose place of work it is.
• Got to satisfy animals which are house in animal house.
• Research workers who conduct research on animal in the laboratory should be satisfied.

Materials required- Small animal house, Animal colonies, type of cages and equipments.

The success of rabbit farming depends upon the location and design of the rabbit house. Rabbit is a burrowing animal and has sharp reflexes. It is easily disturbed by any new and sudden noise. The farm should be located in a peaceful environment away from the hustle and bustle of human population.  A good housing facility with adequate arrangement of ventilation is the most important factor in rabbit house.

HOUSING

Dogs are kept in cages and they are tied with a chain in one corner of the house or left free in the house → but hair falling will be seen throughout → allergy.

House in wire mesh all round and wooden flooring → gives warmth to animal. Roof can be made of asbestos sheet.

Cage → 2 ft LX 3 ft BX4 ft H. This should be kept in a cool place.

With cement covering all round with mesh door asbestos roofing.

Dog is always chained. This should be long enough and strong enough to withstand pulling of animal. Along with this collar is provided with strong buckles.

Docile animals can be left free in the house → Pomerian, Dash hound, Dobberman should be chained.

Petting too much leads to transmission of diseases → parasite and allergy.

An efficient management of animals will be incomplete without a well planned and adequate housing of animals. Improper planning of animal housing leads to additional labor charges. The housing should have proper sanitation, durability, arrangements for the production of clean milk under convenient and economic conditions.

a) General Housing Requirements

Dairy animals will be more efficient in the production of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme heat, and particularly from direct sunshine. This can be achieved through provision of shade in tropical and subtropical climates. If dairy animals are confined, the area should be free of mud and manure in order to reduce hoof infection to a minimum. Concrete floors or pavements are ideal where the area per animal is limited. However, where ample space is available, an earth yard, properly sloped for good drainage is adequate.

According to Futter (2001) it is very important the way we cook our food. If the cooking is inadequate it causes food poisoning. While cooking there can be cross contamination starting from raw foods. It includes hands or utensils which can cause food poisoning. Most foods, especially meat, poultry, fish and eggs should be cooked thoroughly to kill most types of food poisoning bacteria. Generally the food should be cooked to a temperature of 75 °C or hotter. When food is cooked, it should be eaten promptly, kept hotter than 60 °C or cooled, covered and stored in the fridge or freezer. Some people are more at risk from food poisoning than others. In order to buy safe food in the market like buying pre-cut produce as a half a watermelon or cut veggies from a salad bar, it is important to choose items that are refrigerated or surrounded by ice. They must be kept in separate bags. FDA (2019) has studied the contamination in lettuce. Shopping at a farmer’s market is a great way to get locally-grown, fresh fruit, vegetables, and other foods. However, safety of these produce needs to be checked. Many markets have their own food safety rules and vendors must comply with them along with the government regulations. Fruits and vegetables must be washed thoroughly under running water just before eating, cutting or cooking. Fruits and vegetables must never be washed with soap or detergent or using commercial produce washes. Even if it has to be peeled before eating, it is still important to wash it first. Any bacteria present on the outside of items like melons can be transferred to the inside when it is cut or peeled. They should be refrigerated within two hours after preparation. The juice or cider must be treated (pasteurized) to kill harmful bacteria. Pregnant women, children, older adults and people with weak immune systems should drink only pasteurized or treated juice. Raw milk can harbor dangerous microorganisms like Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria. World India (2017) has looked into the food regulations. These can pose serious health risks. Pregnant women, older adults and people with weakened immune systems are at higher risk for illness caused by Listeria. One source for these bacteria is soft cheese made from unpasteurized milk. It is vital to check the label to make sure that it is made from pasteurized or treated milk. Make sure that eggs are properly chilled at the market. FDA requires that untreated shell eggs must be stored and displayed at 45°F. While buying eggs it needs to be ensured that the eggs are clean and the shells are not cracked. Meat should be properly chilled even in the market and kept in closed coolers with adequate amounts of ice to maintain cool temperatures. If it is brought in an insulated bag or cooler during transit it is very beneficial to keep the quality. It should be always kept separately from your other purchases, so that the juices from raw meat (which may contain harmful bacteria) do not come in contact with produce and other foods. Essays (2018) have written a very comprehensive overview of food safety.

ABSTRACT

In India agroforestry practices are ancient but the story of organized agroforestry research began in 1979 at Imphal. Considerable efforts have been expended towards promoting and implementing agroforestry practices in the country by establishing centers for agroforestry research in almost all agro-climatic zones. Though almost 30 years has passed since systematic research started however, adoption of agroforestry is still in patches. This is because of myths attached with integrating trees with crops, market condition, rules regarding timber movements, allelopathy, long duration and so on. This paper examines the various arguments for and against agroforestry practices in India and presents the opportunity and challenges in adopting agroforestry as a sustainable land use practice.

INTRODUCTION

In India the green revolution led to increase in production through enhanced productivity. Unfortunately the population growth is increasing at a rapid rate and there is an urgent need to accelerate agricultural growth to address issues on food security, nutrition adequacy, rural income generation, employment and poverty. Despite higher production, the per capita availability of food over time has not increased significantly. About 70 to 80 per cent of our people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Contribution of agriculture to GDP is declining; this affects the rural poor most. The urban – rural divide and regional disparities are on the increase. To achieve a desirable rate of 7 per cent growth in the economy, agriculture must register a growth not less then 4 per cent. Now it is around 2 per cent and is declining (Singh, 2002). These continuous improvements in productivity are essentials but these must be capable of being maintained in perpetuity. In other words, an evergreen revolution rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, social and gender equity, energy conservation, employment generation and social auditing, is essential in major farming systems of India. Land, water and vegetation care constitute the foundation for building up such an evergreen revolution movement.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is generally a policy to assess its impact on society and estimate its societal responsibilities. The CSR plan of any organization ensures that it complies with government norms, their investments in respect of growth, development of weaker sections and the environment. CSR’s primary requisite should be sustainable, involving interventions that an organization can justify without negatively affecting its profit goals.

Climate change referred as, a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (IPCC, 2001). In other words, it is any long term conspicuous deviation from usual prevailing climate bringing variations in normal temperature, rainfall, atmospheric circulation with abnormal expression in extreme climate such as floods, droughts, extreme temperature etc.

Today, organic and local foods are preferred as they use less pesticides or fertilizers. However, these foods, like others, can be exposed to harmful bacteria during the growing and harvesting process. The farmers and distributors must use good sanitary practices to minimize food contamination. Consumers should cook food properly. The street food vendors are a traditional and indigenous fast food approaching in most countries of the South-East Asia Region. As these are economical they cater to millions of consumers. Among safe street foods there are many contributing factors that are associated with the safety of street food. WHO had conducted a survey in 1993 covering 100 street foods in 100 countries around the world. It revealed that the major health threat comes from raw and undercooked food, infected food handlers and inadequate hygiene practices in processing and storing such food. If the street food is cooked well and is served hot, then the chances of food poisoning is less. The water quality, hygienic conditions and the level of cleanliness especially in the summer season are the major factors for food poisoning. However improvements in physical infrastructure and hygienic conditions are growing as consumers are also demanding quality food. Michael et al., (2017) have looked into organic versus conventional foods.

Identify and Describe Program You Want to Evaluate

The first step in conducting a program evaluation is to clarify why we are doing it, what we want to achieve, and what we will focus on. This will help us to define the evaluation questions, criteria, indicators and methods that will guide our data collection and analysis.

What is Program Evaluation?

Once you have embarked upon the idea of doing (any) business, your concentration should be focused on doing things that should be relevant to maximizing returns and minimizing risks. Looking upon why businesses fail, one can find that it is usually because entrepreneurs are ill equipped to identify real business opportunities and take advantage of them, or they don’t anticipate and adapt critical changes or they fail to recognize or minimize real threats to business. Successful entrepreneurs are found to intensively pursue the path of planning by preparing business plans, for having foresight of critical incidents that would affect business and possible ways of action.

The post-independence history of our agriculture can be broadly grouped into four periods. Before describing them, I should mention that during the colonial era famines were frequent and Famine Commissions were abundant. The growth rate in food production from 1900 to 1947 was hardly 0.1 per cent. Most of the important institutional developments in agriculture emanated from the recommendations of Famine Commissions. The great Bengal Famine of 1942-43 provided the backdrop to India’s independence. It is to the credit of Independent India that famines of this kind have not been allowed to occur, although our population has grown from 350 million in 1947 to over a billion now.

Many thousands of people today are heavy smokers, not by choice, but because they have found no way of escape. They are caught in the grip of a habit developed during their teen-age years when so many young people think it is 'smart' to smoke.

The strange thing is that most of these people never wanted to smoke in the first place. There was only doing what they thought everyone else was doing at the time. Yet there is another odd thing. Smoking in not a normal habit. A person has to learn to smoke.

Smoking is by and large, an acquired habit. People start smoking because they think it is fashionable to do so or because their friends and companions are able to persuade them to start smoking. Some smokers feel that they look more attractive to the opposite sex when they are smoking. Others hold that a social gathering becomes more intimate if people are smoking. In reality all this is a product of smokers imagination. Because he wants to justify his habit, he invents enough reasons for it.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Researchers interested in taking up research have initial difficultes in picking up a problem worth for investigation. At time they waste considérable amount of time in just thinking about the pros and cons of problems suggested by some ones or identified by himself/herself. It is basically due to misunderstanding about "what is research". Usual notion about research is that it must resuit in something spectacular or it must come up with a new discovery or theory. It must be pointed out that a study which brings forward new facts, or which demolishes or establishes a hypothesis or a theory or principal already in vogue, or which puts a variety of information in to order or system, or which prepares ground for further research is as valid as one which ends with a new discovery. The best research problem for researcher is one which arises from the researcher's own curiosity. The only thing is that researcher must know the tools which can handle the problems he proposed to take up. Before choosing for a problem for research one should as question to himself: is this problem really of interest to me?; Is it significant in the sense that it extends the frontiers of knowledge or fills an important gap in knowledge?; Can I handle this problem within the constraints of resources of money, time etc?; has this problem not been investigated by someone else? A good research proposai describes situation of problem, problem area, justification, methodology adopted for data collection, analysis, expected results and institution/ organisation that may use the outcome.

Abstract

Human Resource Management (HRM) is an essential function of every organization. Information Technology (IT) application has made such ‘human resource management’ function easy, to a great extent. Now a day, IT has been used widely across the organizations to perform different functions like, Recruitment, training, maintenance and development etc. Human Resource Information System (HRIS) is one of the latest contributions of IT to the area of human resource management, which is going to revolutionise management in 21st Century. Technology has brought changes in the existing working styles of organisations. By the introduction of HRIS, it enhances the efficiency of the organisation by changing the traditional way of working. In Human Resource Information Systems, many organizations use employee data in traditional ways. These can create conflict with the rights and interests of employees, with external stakeholders, and with society at large. The present paper discusses such issues. Other soft issues like, challenges and possible solutions are also discussed.

1 Human and Animal Interactions in the Ecosystem
1.1 Evolution

It is proved that humans and animals share common ancestors as per evolution process. Thus, it is likely that, animal capacities are similar to humans, but these capacities differ only in degree. Furthermore, if the capacity for a particular feeling gives an adaptive advantage to an animal, then this provides supportive evidence for its existence. The presence of very similar neurological structures in other animals constitutes some sort of evidence that they can have the same sorts of mental states as humans. In the process of evolution depending on the favourable and unfavourable environmental factors, few organisms may die and few organisms might multiply. The relationship between biotic and abiotic components helps in the formation of ecosystem. In this ecosystem each and every organisms have equal chance to survive. The evolution process is well explained by Darwin’s theory.

Abstract

Hundreds of bacterial taxa makes up human gut microbiota and it is comprised primarily of anaerobes belonging to four main phyla which are Firmicutes, Bacteriodetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. Anaerobes colonizes the human body, including oral cavity, small intestine, vagina, skin but the majority of them are housed in the colon. The composition and distribution anaerobes varies along the length of gastrointestinal tract because of variation in oxygen gradient, anatomy of intestinal tract and other host physiological factors. Human gets colonized by anaerobes during the birth and these initial colonizers have impact on infant’s health status. The colonization and development of the gut microbiome is responsive to variety of factors including the mode of delivery, feeding methods, environment etc. The human gut microbiota plays an important role in healthy status of host. It plays an important role in nutrient metabolism and absorption, synthesis of vitamins and production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). In turn these metabolites have positive effect on host immunity and overall host fitness. Studying, the anaerobes using culturing method remains critical in microbiology. However, culturomics approach, combined with sequencing technology, provides new insights in studying anaerobes of human gut microbiota. In this chapter we have discussed that, how human gut is an ideal habitat for the colonization and growth of anaerobes and their impact on host health. We also tried to shed light on latest technical advancement in sequencing culturing technology and their application in studying gut anaerobes.

Abstract

Human milk is the dynamic fluid provides initial and essential nutrients to the neonates and play key role in development and growth of infant gut microflora, nerve system, immunity system and other organs. Composition of human milk varies with number of factors from geographical location, individual habits, stage and period of lactation to mature or pre mature born of infant. Each component and its bioavailability in human milk plays specific function in infant nourishment. Protein and non-protein nitrogenous compounds of milk provides essential bioactive component required for preventing infants form many diseases and develop immunity. Nucleotides involve in many enzymatic and metabolic activities. Milk contains 3.0 to 5.0% fat act as a major source of energy consisting of larger portion of triglycerides. Essential fatty acid of milk important for nerve system development in infant. Additionally, fat soluble vitamins plays in sight and immune development for new-born. A Human Milk Oligosaccharide is natural prebiotic present in human milk which helps in growth of bifidus bacteria and prevent respiratory tract infection in infants. Furthermore, micro components like vitamins, mineral, enzymes involved in various essential activity lead to healthy infant.

Food, Water and Air are three essential elements for existence and sustenance of life. Primarily food is manufactured by the plants by trapping the energy of Sun in presence of carbondioxide and water. Foods can be broadly classified into energy foods and protective foods. While energy is required for all bodily functions, protective foods confer a degree of resistance against diseases, corrects some disorder and prevents occurrence of certain conditions that occur due to deficiency of certain elements and phytochemicals. The balanced diets are said to be those which have an appropriate amount of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. All these three components play certain essential role in the process of metabolism. Deficiency or insufficiency of these major food components may lead to energy deficient disease conditions and are considered responsible for malnutrition world wide. Energy deficiency can threaten the existence of life. Food grains, tubers and roots are major sources of carbohydrates, and proteins. Sufficient intake of carbohydrates, proteins and fats alone does not ensure health. Health and wellbeing are the two important aspects of life, which makes it worth living. For being healthy, besides energy, body requires minerals and vitamins which are present mainly in fruits and vegetables. The role phytochemicals play in cleansing the body and fight against diseases, was understood quite recently. Therefore, for a healthy life we need to consume a balanced diet comprising of appropriate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fruits, vegetables and nuts. While the former three can be consumed based on the energy requirement of an individual, one should consume at least 180 and 300 grams of fruits and vegetables respectively everyday.

Introduction

Nutrition, a basic human need, is a critical part of health and development. Nutrition can be defined as the intake of food, deliberated in relation to the body’s dietary needs. On one hand, good nutrition – an adequate, well balanced diet combined with regular physical activity – is a foundation of good health, whereas,poor nutritionleads toreducedproductivity,impairedmental andphysical development, increased susceptibility to disease, and reducedimmunity. According to WHO, under-nutrition, together with vitamin and mineral deficiencies accounts for one-third of all child deaths and impairs healthy development and lifelong productivity. At the same time, sedentary lifestyles, demographic shifts, urbanization and the liberalization of markets have steered the world population to being overweight along with risk of chronic diseases like hypertension, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, coronaryheart disease, stroke, etc.; thus, resulting in a double burden of malnutrition.

To address this dual burden of malnutrition, individuals needaccess to sufficient and good quality food; but focussing solely on food security is unlikely to solve the problem of global malnutrition. The challenges of malnutrition cannot be solvedjustbyincreasingfoodproductioninordertoimprove healthand nutritional status of the population. To resolve such challenges, awareness about food choices for optimal health plays a pivotal role among population.

Human nutrition is the science of understanding food; its component; intake; and how it is related to health, growth, development and diseases. Human nutrition involves the study of ingestion, digestion, absorption and assimilation of the nutrients; their metabolic functions, deficiency or excess disease as well as their regulation through several factors such as choosing particular food components/nutraceuticals or physical activity.

Abstract

Ethnobotany as an academic discipline surfaced in the 19^th century. Traditional medicine is used globally and is of rapidly growing economic importance. In developing countries, traditional medicine is often the only accessible and affordable treatment available. The chapter deals with importance of plants in the life of people, value of collecting the plant samples and adding knowledge to plants based on their economic potential and issues related to ethnopharmacology.

Keywords: Ethobotany, Ethnopharmacology, Drug discovery, Research ethics.

India is home of 16.7 % of the world population living in just 2.4 % of the worlds total land area. The decennial increase in population (1991-2001) has been 18.1 equivalents to the total population of Canada, France and Germany. The population in this century has 1.6 billion by 1960.

5.1 Population Growth

In 2000, the world had 6.1 billion human inhabitants. This figure may rise to more than 9 billion in the next 50 years. For the last 50 years, world population multiplied more rapidly than ever before, and more rapidly than it will ever grow in the future. Anthropologists believe the human species dates back at least 3 million years. For most of our history, these distant ancestors lived a precarious existence as hunters and gatherers. This way of life kept their total numbers small, probably less than 10 million. However, as agriculture was introduced, communities evolved that could support more people.

World population expanded to about 300 million by A.D. 1 and continued to grow at a moderate rate. But after the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, living standards rose and widespread famines and epidemics diminished in some regions. Population growth accelerated. The population climbed to about 760 million in 1750 and reached 1 billion around 1800.

In 1800, the vast majority of the world’s population (86 percent) resided in Asia and Europe, with 65 percent in Asia alone. By 1900, Europe’s share of world population had risen to 25 percent, fueled by the population increase that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. Some of this growth spilled over to the Americas, increasing their share of the world total. The 2000 growth rate of 1.4 percent, when applied to the world’s 6.1 billion population, yields an annual increase of about 85 million people. Because of the large and increasing population size, the number of people added to the global population will remain high for several decades, even as growth rates continue to decline.

Between 2000 and 2030, nearly 100 percent of this annual growth will occur in the less developed countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, whose population growth rates are much higher than those in more developed countries.

STUDIES ON HUMAN RELATIONS
Introduction

A human relation is frequently used as a general term to describe the ways in which managers’ interact with their employees. A number of things were happening in United States in the 1920s and 1930s, organizations were growing in size and in their dependence upon technology. Social groups were breaking down. The combination of all these factors with the growing dissatisfaction with paced, mechanized, highly standardized work led to changes in two major directions. Management science developed as a technical discipline, concerned with the establishment of efficiency models of managerial and organizational behaviour. The other perspective was initiated by the work of Human Relation scientists. They are discussed in detail here.

Abstract

Human resource management (HRM) has experienced a strong evolution. It is necessary to evaluate the design and implementation of personnel policies in order to provide useful information to managers. The objective of HR Audit is to analyze and evaluate the HR policies and their level of fit with the firm’s strategy and the characteristics of human capital. A periodic and systematic audit is very important in order to check the effectiveness and proper implementation of various HR policies in the organization. This chapter will represent various sections where the HR audit can be carried out, what should be the task of auditors, what are the steps/processes that needs to be followed at the time of audit, and various tools for HR Audit and preparation of Audit Report to be used for future references. At the end of this chapter a case study has been presented in order to make the study more effective.

10.1 Leading Self and Other

Leading up

In order to develop the ability to be a good Leader, people must learn to lead up with their leader, lead across with colleagues, and lead down with followers. Each of these skills draws on different principles. Leading up is the process of influencing a leader. The principles of leading up greatly increase the chance for success.

11.1 Time Management

One of the greatest assets business can have is an employee who uses his or her time to its fullest potential. Time is something that we can lose and never get back. People are always wishing they had more hours available in the day. The solution to this common problem is easier than one might realize. With a few minor adjustments in how to utilize time, people can change how to manage time. Proper time management can change life on a fundamental basis for the better.

Time management is not an instinct and instead, must be learned. . Using time wisely allows a person to complete tasks in an allotted time period, take on additional work, or spend more time with family. There are many things in an office environment that prevent effective time use.

Interruptions are time-wasters, especially since items one may consider urgent are not necessarily important. There is no way to pre plan the time and duration of an interruption, which may cause a loss of train-of-thought, difficulty concentrating, or complete memory lapse. Although it is difficult to avoid interruptions, there are methods for limiting their duration and impact the schedule.

Time is not like other resources which can be stored and used in the future, Time is a very special resource that you cannot be stored or saved for later use. Everyone has the exact same amount of time each day. Time not well used cannot be retrieved. Most people, feel like they have too much to do and not enough time. They blame lack of time for their poor finances, stress, bad relationships, and for not exercising their body.

Wise time management can help people find the time for what one desire, and for what they need to do. People need time to get what they want in life. If they wait for extra time to appear, they might lose the game of life. Through right time management, they can “create” the time they need, and not just wait for it to come. By planning time wisely, they will have more time to do more things.

Abstract

Ensuring the provision of safe and healthy working conditions to all workers and promoting the availability to them of certain minimum welfare amenities are the constitutional obligations of all employers as well as the Indian state. Enlightened employers tend to provide for these facilities on their own, as part of their performance and retention strategies. Others, however, largely consider these obligations as burden. Some recent researches reveal that the pursuit of numerical flexibility policies is becoming rampant amongst employers in the advanced world; they are doing so to cut costs and become more competitive. This means more use of labour-cost-saving devices and neglect of some basic rights of workers. Of course, intense competition amongst companies puts pressure on them to attempt cost-cutting and ignore these legal provisions. It should be noted however, that the law relating to working conditions is perhaps the most basic of labour laws in any country; therefore, its sanctity has to be maintained with an added responsibility by all concerned and as a societal value.

Introduction

In free India’s tryst with destiny, achieving survival and sustenance through agriculture, was not only an option but an imperative. This led to the remark of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to say in 1947, “everything else can wait but not agriculture.” Green Revolution was indeed one of the major achievements of India in the post independence period. We no longer experience famines, where millions of people were starved to death in the pre independence period. But we still have over 200 million children, women and men who go to bed each night partially hungry. Access to clean drinking water and balanced diet remains a far cry despite substantial Govt expenditure in large number of programmes launched by the Centre and all the States. According to Niti Ayog, the country is far behind in reaching to the objectives of UN millennium development goal of reducing the incidence of hunger and maternal and foetal under- nutrition. 

HCI is the study of how people interact with computers, especially as it relates to technology design. User-centered design, UI and UX are combined with HCI to provide intuitive technology and products.

Human-computer interaction (HCI) is the field of study that focuses on optimizing how users and computers interact by designing interactive computer interfaces that satisfy users' needs. It is a multidisciplinary subject covering computer science, behavioral sciences, cognitive science, ergonomics, psychology, and design principles. HCI focuses on designing, implementing and evaluating interactive interfaces that enhance user experience using computing devices.