eChapters

1.1 Introduction Millets are the most ancient grains that have been cultivated since time immemorial and consumed as food, feed and pastures. Millets are considered nutraceuticals’ since they possess significantly higher nutritional qualities compared to other cereals. Millets are grown across the world for grains and human food due to their nutritional advantages and ability to withstand adversities. Millets are preferred over other grains due to their short life cycle, low input requirement and ensured production with in-built genetic tolerance for abiotic stresses. Major millets include Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), while there are numerous minor millets classified as small millets. With an extent of over 0.87 lakh ha and a production of 0.66 kg ha-1, India is the world leader in small millet production (Maitra and Shankar, 2019). Small millets are primarily grown on rainfed uplands in arid and semi-arid climates with sub-optimal management. Following the green revolution due to extreme demands for food, the main focus in India was on the production of fine cereals mainly rice and wheat to overcome hunger and poverty, while millets became ignored grains. Furthermore, urbanization, increased affluence and dietary changes relegated millets to the status of poor man’s food. However, due to a re-evaluation of nutritious characteristics, millets have recently regained their lost prestige (Maitra, 2020).

Chromatography is one of the most effective technique for accurate, fast and convenient separation and identification of the components of a mixture. The method was developed by Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett (1906), described by Karl Runge (1855). Martin and Synage (1944) received Noble Prize for developing methodology of partition Chromatography.

Partition chromatography

Partition chromatogaphy is a system comprising of two physically distinguished components - a mobile component or phase and a stationary component or phase. A mixture of substances which are to be separated is placed on the system and separation takes place on the basis of difference in distribution of molecular species in two phases. Relative movement is a result of driving force and retarding effects.

Stationary phase is the sorbent, which may be liquid or paper or gel. If it is liquid then it is held stationary by adsorbing on a solid support or matrix. The mobile phase may be solvent or developer or a gas. Since the two phases are immiscible, the partitioning is defined as the distribution of solute in two immisicible phases which are in contact with one another. When a column is filled with the sorbent and solvent the two phases form a large number of theoretical plates. Each plate contains both the phases. Solutes in solution (mixture of substances to be separated) is layered on the top of the column and when it enters to the column it distributes in the two phases. The ratio of the concentration of a solute in two phases is called its partition coefficient. The resolution of solutes improves as the length of stationary phase increases.

Fig. 1: Cotton Bandage

A. Definition

A fracture is a break in the continuity of hard tissues like bone, cartilage, etc.

B. Etiology

(a) Extrinsic causes

Direct violence

Indirect violence

Dissolution in the continuity of bone/cartilage with or without displacement of fractured fragments is known as fracture.

Classification
1. On the Basis of Communication of Fractured Site to the Environment
    a.    Simple fracture : The fracture site does not communicate with the environment. 
    b.    Compound fracture : The fracture site communicates with the environment.  This type of fractures is more prone to infection. 
    c.    Complicated fracture : A closed fracture in which there is considerable injury to important neighboring vessels or nerves or accompanied by the opening of a joint or vascular cavity.

Abstract

It is evident from the previous studies that, in the crystalline terrain, the Fractures / lineaments act as master conduits for the groundwater movements and also act as favorable loci for groundwater storage. Because of this, the mapping of fracture patterns has become very popular among geoscientists. However, after witnessing failures and the fractures turned out to be water barren at many instances, geoscientists have started concentrating more on understanding the origin and the morphology of the fractures for precise groundwater targeting. In this context, a study has been conducted in parts of Western Ghats in Madurai, Dindigul and Theni districts of Tamil Nadu, South India, using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS). In the said study, the maxima zones of transmissivity were studied in relation to fractures systems, which are normally reflected as lineaments in satellite images in the area. This study in general indicates that the transmissivity is controlled by the fractures, which are interestingly the active faults of the Quaternary period in the area.

3.1 Introduction

Flower and plant part based perfumes are receiving special attention at this modern age of civilization. With pre-eminent senses of smell or taste, a large brain affording a superior intellect, would lead to the use of these abilities to improve the environment, the flavour of food and the smell of the surroundings. In fragrance industry, essential oil is a generic term given to all fragrant extracts such as essential oils, absolutes, resinoids, concretes etc. Since antiquity, flowers and plant parts have been used as flavours for food, for religious rites, for beautification of homes and gardens, as incence and insect repellent, in cosmetics and personal adornment and in medicine. Fragrance compositions are used with the purpose to affect customers through their sense of smell and the job of composing fragrances is left upto an expert known as “Perfumer”.

Despite continuing invention of synthetic fragrant extracts, natural essential oils still remain the most important part of fine fragrance. Essential oils are so aromatic and are the focus of the fragrance industry. The content of a pure essential oil product gives it an unmistakable aromatic and healing quality. Nature has always provided us with food, medicine and fibre for clothing that we need to survive. Sometime a walk in the woods, a day spent swimming in Local River or lake or a beautiful sunset can lift a person’s spirit and give them a new outlook. The aroma of a pure essential oil can do the same.

Flavour and fragrance have now become every day necessities and their demand is constantly increasing across the world. Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their basic materials are the same. For instance, orange blossom from citrus aurantium on solvent extraction produces “orange blossom absolute” but that of steam distilled produces “Neroli oil”.

ABSTRACT

The details of a frame work for development of data warehouse are discussed in this paper. The concepts of data ware housing, its data ware house process, its architecture, components, data sources, data transformation, apart from free and shareware and commercial software available are described. The details of power of Data Warehouse are also described with a procedure for a better reporting of data and analysed results. The data Warehouse should be made to deliver clear indications on how the research or business enterprise is performing. There is a need to plot out the expected users for the Data Warehouse in the enterprise so that they will have the appropriate reports in a format which is quickly understandable.

The Context

A series of interventions initiated in mid-1960s that led to the green revolution in cereal production transformed the country from a situation of food def iciency to self sufficiency. The green revolution was however, restricted to productivity improvements in cereals especially wheat and rice in the initial decades, primarily grown in irrigated regions. In subsequent decades, productivity increased in other crops, namely oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, fruits and vegetables. The Green Revolution generally by passed India’s vast rain fed tracts, especially arid zones, hill and mountain ecosystems and coastal regions, thus exacerbating agro-ecological and economic disparities. Although self sufficiency was attained in food grain production, potential of different crop varieties are yet to be attained. The main features of the green revolution were:

• exclusive focus on food grains

• intensive use of water, fertilizer and pesticides to maximize yields from High Yielding Varieties (HYVs)

• practically no focus on sustainability issues

• benefited the resource-rich and large farmers and

• dependent on few technological options focusing on hybrids, changes in plant architecture.

Pulses are widely acknowledged as superfoods, three times the protein in rice and double in wheat. Besides, they are also rich in complex carbohydrates, micronutrients, protein and B-vitamins and minerals like folate, iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc and potassium. High iron content in some pulses also minimizes the risk of anaemia. Long storability without loss of nutritional value, low prices, and broader availability make pulses an affordable source of minerals, and protein, thus contributing to food security at all levels of society in India. Besides human nutrition, pulse crops are also utilized as fodder and fuel for farm households.

Frankia is potent nitrogenous biofertilizer for forest trees since it establishes symbiotic association with non-leguminous plants. Nitrogen fixing non leguminous trees thrive in temperate condition. The species belong to Casuarinaceae are an exception and grow successfully in tropical areas. Alnus for temperate regions and the genus Casuarina for tropical and sub-tropical regions stand out examples of the benefits they provide to ecosystem by the way of nitrogen fixation. They have an excellent potential to adapt themselves to grow under diverse geographical and environmental conditions providing enough fuel, fodder, pulp and timber. The microsymbiont within these root nodules of non-leguminous plants has been identified and designated as Frankia (Becking, 1970).

Historical Developments

First of all Boussingault, a French farmer during 1838 drew attention that non-legumes were capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The roots of Alnus were described as warty brownish biomass as large as man’s fist (Woronin, 1866). Frank and coworkers (1887a, b, 1891) studied the nodulated nitrogen f ixing trees regardless of whether they were leguminous or non-leguminous (actinorhizal). Frank believed that the bacteroids were protein deposits but subsequently he named the causative organism as Frankia subtilis. Moller (1885, 1890) reported the causative organism in the nodules as plasmodia and Frank also revised his opinion and pointed out that the causative organism was a fungus. Such conflicting results were due to imperfect techniques to differentiate between vesicles and sporangia. Later the organism was renamed as Frankia bruchorstii to honour Frank and his coworker, Brunchorst (Moller, 1890).

Fraudulent substitution of meat is the adulteration or mixing of the inferior or cheaper quality meat into superior quality meat. The first case of fraudulent substitution was recorded in thirteenth century A.D. at Florence in Italy. A common fraud in the meat industry in which uninspected meat is substituted for meat that has undergone inspection and been branded as satisfactory. The other frauds are the substitution of meat of another species, e.g. horse for beef especially in Britain and Ireland, beef in kangaroo meat in Australia, cat for chicken or rabbit, goat meat for mutton, mutton for venison, dog meat and cat meat for chevon in other countries including India. As per an estimate about 25-30% of meat sold in India is adulterated. These practices are more common in comminuted meat products. These illegal practices are punishable under PFA act 1955. The choice of method to be applied is depend on the need or condition of meat recovered.

Free carbon dioxide in the water accumulates due to microbial activity and respiration of organisms. Surface waters normally contain less than 10 mg free CO2 per litre while some groundwater may easily exceed that concentration up to 30 to 50 mg/L.
Principle
Free CO2 reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium bicarbonate, or with sodium hydroxide to form sodium carbonate. Completion of reaction is indicated by the development of the pink colour characteristics of phenolphthalein indicator at the equivalence pH of 8.3.
Analysis of Water and Effluents
CO2 + N2CO3 + H2O = 2NaHCO3
CO2 + 2 NaOH = N2CO3 + H2O
Reagents
1. Standard sodium hydroxide titrant (0.05N): Dissolve 40g of NaOH in boiled CO2 free distilled water and make up the volume to 1 litre. Filter the solution through a sintered glass filter to remove any Na2CO3, the concentration of solution is 1N NaOH. Store it in in glass bottle.
2. Phenolphthalein indicator

Two procedure are described for the determination of free gosssypol . The first for normal meals and the second for meals which have been chemically treated and so contain dianilinogossypol.

Reagents
 
    1.    Aqueous acetone:  7 parts acetone, 3 parts distilled water (V/V).
    2.    Aqueous acetone-aniline solution: To 700 ml acetone and 300 ml distilled water, add 0.5 ml redistilled aniline. Prepare solution daily.
    3.    Aqueous isopropyl alcohol solution: 8 parts isopropyl alcohol. 2 parts distilled water (V/V).
    4.    Aniline Distill reagent grade aniline over a small quantity of zinc, dust discarding the first and last 10 percent of the distillate. Store refrigerated in a brown glass stoppered bottle. Solution is stable for several months.

Introduction

Diazotrophs are phylogenetically diverse microbes spanning over various classes varying vastly on basis of physiological properties (Young, 1992), include various phototrophic microorganisms aerobic phototrophic Cyanobacteria (Vaishampayan et al, 2001), anaerobic purple-sulfur phototrophs like Chromatium, and green-sulfur phototrophs, e.g. Chlorobium, Rhodopseudomonas; chemolithotrophs Alcaligenes, Thiobacillus, Methanosarcina, Methanobacterium, Desulfovibrio or Azospirillum lipoferum and heterotrophic bacterial anaerobes (Clostridium), microaerophiles (Herbaspirillum), and aerobes (Azotobacter). Free-living aerobic nitrogen fixing bacterial genera found in soil include obligate aerobes as Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, Derxia, Achromobacter, Mycobacterium, Arthrobacter and Bacillus but the majority are microaerophilic (e.g. Azospirillum, Herbaspirillum) or facultative and obligate anaerobes (e.g. Klebsiella, Aerobacter, Desulfovibrios, Rhodospirillum, Clostridium, Erwinia).

Freesia is ornamental flowering plant belongs to family Iridaceae subfamily Ixioideae. Freesia is named after a physician and botanist from Germany named “Friedrich H.T. Freese” (1795–1876). Dr. Christian P. Ecklon, a collector of plants from South Africa, named the flower after his friend and student. Modern freesias are known as Freesia × hybrida and cultivated for cut flowers. Freesia is grown for two purposes i.e. cut flower and pot plant.
 
It is excellent cut flowers because of its appealing shapes and found suitable for various types of arrangements and bouquets. Wide range of colour increases its beauty. Hence, its flower demand increased dramatically in recent year in global market. Forced freesias are grown as pot plant. Colours in freesias consist of pink, red, orange, yellow, blue, lavender, cream and white. Some flowers are multicoloured and possess several variations of colour within the same bud. Because of their delectable fragrance, Freesias have been drafted as a vital ingredient in many fragrance oils. Freesia fragrance oils are utilized for many oil burners and vaporizers. It is used as an essential fragrance in potpourris. Freesia essence oil is high grade essence oil. This is because it is undiluted, alcohol free, and long lasting. The oil is used for aromatherapy to scent candles, soaps, massage oils, bath oils and perfumes.

Freesia is ornamental flowering plant belongs to family Iridaceae subfamily Ixioideae. Freesia is named after a physician and botanist from Germany named “Friedrich H.T. Freese” (1795–1876). Dr. Christian P. Ecklon, a collector of plants from South Africa, named the flower after his friend and student. Modern freesias are known as Freesia x hybrida and cultivated for cut flowers. Freesia is grown for two purposes i.e. cut flower and pot plant.

It is excellent cut flowers because of its appealing shapes and found suitable for various types of arrangements and bouquets. Wide range of colour increases its beauty. Hence, its flower demand increased dramatically in recent year in global market. Forced freesias are grown as pot plant. Colours in freesias consist of pink, red, orange, yellow, blue, lavender, cream and white. Some flowers are multicoloured and possess several variations of colour within the same bud. Because of their delectable fragrance, Freesias have been drafted as a vital ingredient in many fragrance oils. Freesia fragrance oils are utilized for many oil burners and vaporizers. It is used as an essential fragrance in potpourris. Freesia essence oil is high grade essence oil. This is because it is undiluted, alcohol free, and long lasting. The oil is used for aromatherapy to scent candles, soaps, massage oils, bath oils and perfumes.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Freesias are South African in origin. Most species were found in the Cape Province area in southern Africa and two others were found just north of the equator in a tropical climate and even in Sudan. Freesia x hybrida is the name of modern Freesia.

In 1866 Freesia was described as a distinct genus. Freesia alba was first described in 1878 by G.L. Meyer, and became well known in Europe, as F. refracta var. alba. Gumbleton recognized Freesia alba as a distinct species in 1896, but Freesia alba first appeared in the English nursery trade in 1878 and quickly spread to Europe and North America. It appears to have caused quite a sensation, and appeared in almost every horticultural publication of note in both Europe and America in the years following its introduction. Breeding began immediately after F. alba appeared on the market and continues to this day.

Most of the modern hybrids were first made in the 19^th century from a few species. The genus contains some superbly ornamental and adaptable plants. These range from the lovely, scented Freesia alba and the brilliant red Freesia grandiflora and Freesia laxa, to the bizarre green-flowered Freesia viridis.

INTRODUCTION

Freesias are extremely popular bulbous plants that are best known as florist flowers. They bear bell-shaped tubular flower and are grown commercially on a vast scale. They are grown both for flower trade as well as in house gardens. Freesias are suitable for pots, shallow pans, beds, indoor decoration and window boxes. Freesia flowers are prized for their curious elegant form, peculiar arrangement of the blossoms on their stalks and a vast range of delicate colours ranging from creamy white to yellow, orange, red, purple, brown, lavender and vermillion. They are highly valued cut flowers.

Freesia flowers are so strongly scented that only a few potted or cut blossoms can bring fragrance to an entire room. Its unusual appealing shapes make them suitable line flowers for any arrangement. They also make fragrant additions to bouquets and their wide range of colours increases their versatility for design uses.

The process for freeze dried flowers began in 1989. Freeze drying was first used by the Peruvian Incas of the Andes, who stored their food on the heights of the Andes. The ancient Incas were the first to learn the benefits of sublimation. They discovered that when they dried food at high elevations, the results were better. Even though the food would freeze, it would dry well if left exposed to the sun. The reduced pressure at high elevation, combined with the dry air and energy from the sun, had caused sublimation to occur.

Food preservation methods are important in order to avoid glut or shortage of food in the market. In addition it helps to increase the shelf life, maintain the nutritional and sensorial quality, facilitate transportation and improve the overall value of the commodity. Even though various methods of food preservation are available now. Most of the conventional methods are thermal preservation methods which may result in the loss of volatile nutrients and flavour, different sensorial modifications, microbial spread with or without gas production, damage to the microstructure, rupture of coating or packaging surfaces and microbial recontamination caused by non-hermetic closure.

Abstract

Drying is a widely used method of food preservation. It leads to some structural changes in the dried material resulting in poor quality and rehydration. Freeze drying, though a costly process, reduces water activity without exposing the food material to high temperatures, eventually retains the original quality to a great deal. Moisture in the foods is frozen to ice which is sublimated under low pressure. Low pressure helps to vaporise the ice without transforming it to liquid, hence leaving the food structure porous in nature. The food is claimed to preserve the nutritional, sensory and re-constitutional qualities.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Most food materials are composed of a very high percentage of water, which can be as high as 95%, and this makes them susceptible to microbial activity. Microbial activity spoils the products, leaving them useless for human consumption. It not only changes their taste and color but it may also develop toxins, thus making them unsafe. There are various methods for preserving food but in order to make them shelf stable, removing water from foods helps keep them from spoiling for a longer period of time.

15.1. Introduction

Freezing is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of food preservation, which allows preservation of taste, texture, and nutritional quality in foods better than any other method. It is a process of bringing down the temperature of food below its freezing point and the frozen storage generally refers at temperature below -18oC.

15.2. Theory of freezing

The freezing process is a combination of the beneficial effects of low temperatures at which micro-organisms cannot grow, chemical reactions are reduced, and cellular metabolic reactions are delayed. Freezing is generally referred to as a unit operation in which the temperature of food is reduced below freezing point and a proportion of water undergoes a change in state to form ice-crystals. Immobilisation of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water cause lowering of water activity of the food. Thus reduction in water activity and use of low temperature coupled with some pre- treatments like blanching is the basis for food preservation by freezing. Fruits such as strawberries, oranges, raspberries, black currants and vegetables like green pea, green beans, sweet corn, spinach, sprouts and potatoes are examples of commercially frozen products.

Introduction
Freezing is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of food preservation, which allows the preservation of taste, texture, and nutritional quality in foods better than any other methods. The freezing process is a combination of the beneficial effects of low temperatures at which micro-organisms cannot grow, chemical reactions are reduced, and cellular metabolic reactions are delayed. Freezing is generally referred to as a unit operation in which the temperature of food is reduced below the freezing point and a proportion of water undergoes a change in state to form ice crystals. Immobilization of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water cause a lowering of water activity of the food. Thus, reduction in water activity and use of low temperatures coupled with some pre-treatments like blanching is the basis for food preservation by freezing. Fruits such as strawberries, oranges, raspberries, black currants, and vegetables like green peas, green beans, sweet corn, spinach, carrots, sprouts, and potatoes are examples of commercially frozen fruits and vegetables.
The frozen food market is one of the largest and most dynamic sectors o the food industry. Despite considerable competition between the frozen food industry and other sectors, large quantities of frozen foods are being consumed all over the world. The frozen vegetable industry mostly grew after the development of scientific methods for blanching and processing in the 1940s. The commercialization history of frozen fruits is older than frozen vegetables. The commercial freezing of small fruits and berries began in the eastern part ofthe United States in about 1905.

52.1. Aim

To conduct practical on freezing of fruits.

52.2. Theory

Freezing is a method of preservation in which the food temperature is reduced below freezing point and a proportion of water changes in to ice-crystals. Immobilization of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water cause lowering of water activity in the food. Thus, reduction in water activity and use of low temperature coupled with some pre-treatments is the basis for food preservation by freezing. The method for freezing of fruits depends upon the intended use. The process variables for freezing of different fruits and flow chart are shown in Table 52.1 and Fig 52.1. Generally fruits after preliminary treatments are packed in sugar syrup and frozen in freezer. The fruits are frozen to an internal temperature of -18oC or lower and kept at 18oC or lower throughout transport and storage.

53.1. Aim

To conduct practical on freezing of vegetables

53.2. Theory

Freezing is often considered the simplest and most natural way of preservation for vegetables. Frozen vegetables and potatoes form a significant proportion of the market in terms of frozen food consumption. The quality of frozen vegetables depends on the quality of fresh products, since freezing does not improve product quality. Pre-process handling, from the time vegetables are picked until ready to eat, is the important factor affecting quality of finished product. The process variables for freezing of different vegetables and flow chart are shown in Table 54.1 and Fig 54.1. Generally fruits after preliminary treatments are packed in sugar syrup and frozen in freezer.

INTRODUCTION

Preservation of food by drying or chemical means as by alcohol or acid fermentation and that by the use of ice is long recorded in history. With the advancement of science and the knowledge governing various unit operations in food processing, these food preservation techniques employing thermal, radiation, or low temperature or a combination of these have only got further refined as regards their viability and commercial applications. Process foods of different genre and cuisine, which include frozen foods too, are increasingly becoming popular the world over for reasons of quality, safety and year round supply of nutritious foods to cater to different niche segments of human society. Increasing health consciousness is buoying those processed foods which are preserved and stabilized using non-thermal technologies as these ensure retention of food nutrients to a better definition. Interest in frozen food also stems from need to deliver safe and nutritious foods with extended shelf-lives.

Freezing is one of the easiest and least time consuming methods of food preservation. The freezing process is a combination of the beneficial effects of low temperatures at which microorganisms cannot grow, chemical reactions are reduced, and cellular metabolic reactions are delayed.

Methods of Freezing

1. Sharp freezing (slew freezing)

In sharp freezing commodities are exposed at -15 to -29⁰C. It required 3-72 hrs. Here the thawed tissue cannot regain its original water content. The ice crystals formed are large and rupture the cells. The thawed tissue cannot regain its original H₂O content.

1. Introduction

Freezing is a method of food preservation that involves lowering the temperature below the freezing point of food generally -18 °C or below. During freezing of food the water present in them changes its state to form ice crystals. Human beings in the colder regions have used freezing as a means of preservation since they learnt hunting and gathering foods. The foundation of the modern frozen industry was laid in mid 1920 when Clarence Frank Birdseye, an American inventor used cold brine solution to chill packaged fish and extended it further for quick freezing of meat poultry fruit and vegetables. 

The cotton aphid :Aphis gossypii: Aphididae

Both nymphs and adults cause the damage by sucking the plant sap from shoot tips, flowers and leaves.  Severe infestation may result in complete drying of affected parts.  Attacked leaves curl up, wither and fall. These are yellowish green or brown coloured aphids.  The total life cycle from first instar nymph to adult occupies an average of 8-10days.  It reproduces parthenogenetically and viviparously.  The female may produce 10-30 young ones in a life span of 10-12 days.  The nymphs transform into adult in 5-8 days after passing through four moults.

Botany: French bean has tap root system with poor nodule formation. Leaves are trifoliate. Though a self-pollinated crop, French bean offers wide variability for plant growth (bushy / climbing), colour of pod (green / waxy coloured), cross section of pod (flat / oval / round), pliability (stringed / string less) etc.

Varieties

1. Arkakomal: Plant is bushy. 70 days for flowering.
2. Blue pod medium: It is a white seed variety. It has bluish black spots on pods.
3. Bountiful: Introduction from US comes up in September to February. Seeds are Brown sweetish. It is resistant to common disease.
4. Contender: Tolerant to powdery mildew and mosaic.
5. Pant anupama: Developed from pantnagar. Bushytype
6. Pusaparvathi: Developed by X ray radiation of American variety IARI

Among the pulses, rajmash is one of the high potential pulse crops with a yielding potential of 18 to 20 q per ha. Rajmash or French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a short duration non–traditional grain legume and one of the precious and highly relished pulse crops of North India. Rajmash is known by various names viz., French bean, rajma, haricot bean, field bean, kidney bean, snap bean, pole bean etc. It is an important winter vegetable grown both for tender pods and dry seeds, which form a rich source of crude protein (21.25%), fat (1.7%) and carbohydrates (70%). Besides, it contains 0.16 mg iron, 1.76 mg calcium and 3.43 mg zinc per 100 g of edible part (Jasvinder Kaur and Mehta, 1994). The fresh pods and green leaves are used as vegetable. The antimetabolites of dry beans needs removal by cooking and soaking in water.

Among beans, the most popular bean is French bean and it has wider distribution and larger gene pool. Various names are associated with cultivars viz., Snap bean, salad bean and green bean and all these names associated are with beans of vegetable types. The names haricot bean, dry bean and navy bean are applicable to pulse types. String bean, dwarf bean and pole bean applicable to growth forms. It is known as Rajmah in Hindi, Tingalawari in Kannada and Fras bean in Punjabi. Cultivars preferred for Canning, frozen and freeze-dried are having round pods. Fresh market cultivars are flat or oval shaped. Yellow pod cultivars are also grown. Generally fresh market cultivar yields higher in temperate region than in tropical region. Beans are said to be antidiabetic and good for bladder burns, cardiac, carminative, diuretic.

Origin and Distribution: Phaseolus vulgaris was domesticated in Central America about 7000 years ago and it is also thought to be domesticated in Brazil and Northern Islands and was introduced to Europe in 16th century. Vavilov (1951) reported that Phaseolus vulgaris originated in South Mexico and Central American centre of origin. The first cultivar has been selected in Peru. From Peru it spread to Europe and to Asia. Wild species P. aboriginus in North West Argentina is considered as the wild progenitor of French bean. Based on growth habit, crop can be classified into pole type, semi pole type and bush type. Former varieties are more string types. American origin of P. vulgaris is questioned by De Candolle (1584). Southern part of Mexico and Central America are considered to be primary centre of origin. While secondary centre lies in Peru-Bolivian-Ecuador of South American continent. In Europe, French bean spread rapidly in 16th and 17th centuries and reached England by 1594. From Europe, it was introduced to India during 17th century (Simmonds, 1976).

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a nutritious protein-rich legume vegetable crop cultivated in all parts of the world except Antarctica. Immature pods are consumed as vegetables, and matured pods are used as grain legumes (Allem, 2013). French bean is cultivated in 1.65 million hectares of area with a production of 26.98 million tonnes and productivity of 16.36 tonnes per hectare for vegetable purposes. As a grain legume, French bean was cultivated in 33.02 million hectares with a production of 28.90 million tonnes and productivity of 874.1 kg/ha during 2019 globally. In India, French bean is grown in 2.56 lakh hectares for vegetable purposes and 126.91 lakh hectares for grain legume purposes with a production of 7.26 lakh tonnes as immature pods and 53.10 lakh tonnes of grain legumes with a productivity of 2.83 t/ha of green pods and 418.4 kg/ha as grain legumes (area, production and productivity of livestock, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, 2020). However, the area, production and productivity statistics of beans in FAO statistics may also include other beans such as mung bean and others (Sharma et al., 2013). French bean is also known by other names such as common bean, kidney bean, dwarf bean, haricot bean, string bean and garden bean. In India, French bean is also known by different names as Frash bean and Rajmah in Hindi, Shravanghevada in Marathi, Thingalaware in Kannada and Fras bean in Punjab.

French bean, Phaseolus vulgaris under the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and having chromosome No.2n = 2x = 22 is an important leguminous vegetable crop grown worldwide for its tender fruit (pod) as vegetable and dry seeds as pulse. French beans are unique among plant foods due to their high protein content. It is a highly variable species that has a long history of cultivation. Most of the bean varieties for processing (canned, frozen, and freeze-dried) are round podded, while fresh market cultivars are often flat or oval shaped. French bean is a valuable source of the amino acids lysine and tryptophan; minerals likes, iron, copper and zinc; and beneficial phytochemicals, antioxidants and flavonoids.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
French bean is thought to have been originated in South and Central America. Southern Mexico and Central America are considered to be the primary centre of origin, while secondary centres lies in Peru-Bolivia-Ecuador region of American continent. It was actually domesticated in Mesoamerica first and travelled south, probably along with squash (Cucurbita species) and maize. Multi-locus sequence data have indicated that the domestication of common bean was initiated 8000 years ago. Cultivation of French beans started by the American Indian tribes settled in Tehuacan Valley of Mexico and in Callejon de Huaylas, Peru. When Christopher Columbus returned from his second voyage to the New World in the year 1493 he brought French beans with him in the Mediterranean region. French beans were considered to be rare to find and expensive but soon became one of the commonly used beans in the 19th century. In France, French beans were introduced in the year 1597 by the Conquistador (Spanish explorers). In Europe, the French bean spread rapidly in the 16th and 17th centuries and reached England by 1594.

The frequency distribution of the populations of M₂ and M₃ generation for each genotype was extracted according to Panse and Sukhatme (1961). Skewness and Kurtosis for all the characters were calculated as per the standard method. Skewness refers to the symmetry of the frequency distribution. A measure of skewness is obtained as making use of the second and their moments about the mean. It is defined as,

Frequency distribution table is a statistical table which shows the sets of all distinct values of the variables arranged in order of their magnitude either individually or in groups with their corresponding frequencies side by side.

Need for frequency distribution table

1. To condense the data
2. To provides quick reference for the entire data
3. To facilitate quick & easy statistical analysis of data
4. To reveal the pattern within the data

10.1 Introduction

There are very few frequency modulated fiber optic sensors. This is because frequency modulation of light occurs under a limited range of physical conditions. The principal one is based on Doppler effect. There are few other circumstances under which the frequency of light is modulated. These include luminescence and Raman scattering. Luminescence has been included in chapter 7under fluorescence based sensors. In this chapter we shall focus on the sensors based on Doppler effect and Raman scattering. In particular, we shall discuss the measurement of blood flow velocity, colloidal particle motion and Raman spectrum using optical fibers.

1. What are Primary produce?

Primary produce, also known as primary products, refers to raw materials or natural resources that are derived from agriculture, forestry, fishing, or mining activities. These products are typically unprocessed or minimally processed, and are often used as inputs in further manufacturing or production processes. Examples of primary produce include crops such as wheat, corn, and soybeans, as well as livestock such as cattle, sheep, and pigs. Forestry products such as timber and paper pulp, as well as fish and other seafood harvested from the ocean or inland waterways, are also considered primary produce.

1. Choose the most appropriate option with a tick mark

i) Floating plants are required for breeding

a) Guppies

b) Angel fish

c) Swordtail

d) Gourami

ii) Breeding traps are generally used for

a) Egg-scatters

b) Egg-depositors

c) Livebearers

d) Nest-builders

1. A production of 600 tones/ha/year of tilapia in cages has been recorded in Laguna Bay in Philippines.

2. Indian Major Carps (IMC) contributes 84% of India’s aquaculture production.

3. The seed production of the carps has been standardized, with commercial hatcheries producing over 19000 million fry per year.

4. A pit like structure located near the outlet of the pond is called as harvesting pit (measures about 50 - 100m2).

5. Size of the nursery pond = 12 x 6 x 1m.

6. Size of the Rearing pond = 25 x 12 x 1m.

7. Size of the production pond is 0.1 to 2 ha.

8. Size of the quarantine pond is less than 0.5 ha.

9. During construction to retard erosion and seepage, soil must contain a minimum of 25% of clay.

10. The depth of the pond must be 0.5 to 1m.

Introduction

The science of Biotechnology has been making every effort to create new opportunities for the welfare of humanity. Modern biotechnological tools are applied in India to boost fish production through aquaculture as well as conservation of the vast aquatic resources of the country for sustainable utilization. Transgenic technology is widely used in biotechnology, from the generation of genetically modified (GM) foods to the production of pharmaceutical proteins. This technology has been successfully used to develop fast growing super-fish stocks for aquaculture. The main reasons for genetic manipulation of species used in aquaculture are to enhance the growth and efficiency of food conservation, to increase tolerance to environmental variables like temperature and salinity, to produce new colour variants of ornamental fishes, to increase the resistance of species to pathogens, etc. Though the conventional selective breeding approach has proven to genetically upgrade rohu19, it is a rather time consuming process. Traditional selective breeding approaches in combination with transgenesis can bring about faster improvement of selected traits.

Introduction

Culture of aquatic organisms is a significant economic endeavor that benefits millions of people worldwide by generating employment opportunities and ensuring food security. One of the lucrative aquaculture ventures in many countries is the cultivation of freshwater pearls. Prior to the development of cultured pearl farming, pearls were harvested from the Gulf of Mannar, the region between India and Sri Lanka, the Bay of Bengal, the Egyptian coast (Red Sea), and the Persian Gulf (Saudi Arabian coast) (Matlins 2001; Strack 2008), which benefited the nation’s economy. However, the natural pearl fisheries have been depleted as a result of indiscriminate fishing, habitat destruction, and pollution. Realizing its economic significance, pearl farming has developed into a successful aquaculture activity to support the nation’s aqua-economy through innovation and standardization of farming techniques.

Pearls are cultured in both marine and freshwater environments, and they are particularly created in bivalves with an inner nacreous layer. Many countries like China, Japan, Australia, Indonesia, French Polynesia, Cook Islands, Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Mexico are major pearl producing countries through farming (Gervis and Sims 1992; Southgate 2007; Southgate et al. 2008 & Saurabh et al. 2021). In addition to the economic benefit like other bivalves these pearl producing mussels has positive environmental impact and also has several nutritional benefits. Freshwater bivalves including these pearl mussels are widely used in aquaculture for aquaculture-effluent treatment of aquaculture farms. The shells of bivalves are the source of two highly versatile chemical compounds, calcium carbonate or calcium oxide which is having wide industrial applications. The shells are used in cosmetics and traditional medicine, handicraft and jewelry. These economic and environmental benefits have catalyzed expansion of the bivalve aquaculture industry in various regions of world. During 2009 to 2018 the average freshwater pear cultured production was 1928 tonne while China continued to dominate world freshwater pearl culture (FAO, 2020). However, the freshwater pearl culture production has declined from 3321 tonne in 2009 to 703 tonne in 2018. This drastic decline may be due to overexploitation, habitat degradation, pollution, lack of proper management and many more and it has threatened long term sustainability of fisheries and this farming sector. It gives an alarming call for all fisheries managers and policy makers to formulate management measures to implement for the betterment of the sector. Though this farming technology has a great potential to increase the aqua economy of the country, growth should be sustainable.

Introduction

Pearls have been favourite jewel of humanbeing since ancient times. Pearl is a natural gem and is produced by living organisms, the pearl oysters and mussels (Molluscs), unlike other precious stones. It is perhaps, the only gem that does not require the treatment by lapidary. According to our Indian system of gemmology, of the nine maharatnas (Heera, Mukta, Manikya, Pravala/Munga, Gomeda, Indra-neela, Vaidurya, Pushyaraga, and Panna) pearl (Mukta) is only next to diamond (Heera). The science of pearl culture has not been widely popular, however, the art and trade form has reached the zenith.

With the turn of the last century, the demand for pearls increased, but their supplies from the existing fishing grounds have diminished due to overexploitation and pollution. Such a situation necessitated tremendous research attention in the following decades with support from state and trade sectors, the world over. This led to the evolution of culture pearl technology as a booming aquaculture enterprise in Japan and China. These two countries have a monopolistic control over pearl trade.

Introduction
Freshwater pearl farming is an emerging and promising sector within India’s aquaculture industry, offering significant potential for economic growth and sustainability. As the country modernizes its agricultural and aquacultural practices, the cultivation of freshwater pearls presents a lucrative opportunity for farmers, particularly in regions where traditional agriculture faces challenges. Recognizing its importance, the Indian government has integrated pearl farming into its broader Blue Revolution initiative, which seeks to enhance the fishing sector and improve livelihoods through sustainable practices.
China and Japan are the main producers of freshwater and marine pearls, respectively, whereas China is the world’s biggest producer of pearls, including both marine and freshwater pearls, with 3540 tonnes produced, accounting for 98% of global pearl production. Bangladesh, Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam, have recently begun both research and industrial-scale programs in response to the worldwide commerce potential of farmed freshwater pearls (Fassler, 1994). The history of pearl farming in India dates back to 1969 with the stablishment of the Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA), which initiated the cultivation of freshwater mussels for pearl production. This effort has gained momentum over the years, with states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan becoming key players in the industry. Farmers in these regions are increasingly adopting pearl farming as a viable and profitable alternative to
conventional agriculture. India is home to over 50 species of mussels found in various freshwater ecosystems.When a foreign body becomes lodged within the mantle (the skin) of pearl mussels or oysters, the mantle secretes a nacreous substance in response to the irritation. This process results in the formation of layer-by-layer nacre coating over the intruding object. Nacre consists of
80-90% calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and a protein called Conchiolin. As this sector develops, freshwater pearl farming not only promises to contribute to the economic growth of local communities but also positions India as a competitive player in the global pearl market. By addressing existing challenges and continuing to support innovation and education, the future of freshwater pearl farming in India looks increasingly bright.

Introduction

Majority of the commercially important freshwater prawns belongs to the genus Macrobrachium of family Palaemonidae. Among the commercially important freshwater prawns of India the most important cultivable species at present is the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii due to its superior cultivable attributes such as fast growth rate, large size, wide range of salinity tolerance, hardiness and compatibly to grow with carps. The species enjoys good consumer preference and domestic as well as export market demand. Freshwater prawns are cultured in freshwater or low saline brackish water (salinity <10 ppt) and can be cultured either alone (monoculture) or in combination with fishes such as carps, tilapia and milkfish (polyculture). Freshwater prawn culture can be carried out in earthen ponds, cement cisterns, in pens or in cages. However, most of the operations are being carried out in earthen ponds.

1. To which family freshwater prawn belong?

 a) Arthropoda b) Crustacea

 c) Palaemonidae d) Malacostraca

 2. Scientifc name of freshwater prawn is .........

 a) Penaeus monodon b) Scylla serrata

 c) Macrobrachium rosenbergii d) Metapenaeus monoceros

 3. Freshwater prawn is also known as .........

 a) Giant river prawn b) Scampi

 c) Banana prawn d) Both a & b

 4. Identification features of freshwater prawn are .........

 a) Presence of grey and longitudinal streaks of light and dark colour

 b) The largest pereiopod of adult male is dark blue.

 c) The eggs of berried female are yellow in colour

 d) All of these

1. Web Based Services

People can reach the web, which is short for "World Wide Web," which is a huge network of papers and tools that are all linked together. The web, which was created by Tim Berners-Lee in the late 1980s, changed the way people around the world share and receives information.

The growth of technology has had an impact not only on the formats and sources of the information, but also on the manner in which library services are provided and the locations where they are provided. A portion of libraries and the resources they provide have been relocated to the digital realm created by the Internet. The web works on a client-server model: web computers (clients) ask web servers for web pages and other data and then show them. There are connections between the text, pictures, movies, and apps that make up these tools.

Web development is based on key tools like HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), and JavaScript, which make it possible to make web pages that look good and let you interact with them. Over time, improvements like flexible web design (which makes sure that websites work on all devices) and web APIs (which let different software systems share data) have made the web experience even better.

Extension workers are required to visit farm homes as a fundamental aspect of effective Extension work. These visits are essential for building trust and securing the cooperation and friendship of farm families, especially in areas where the value of educational programs is not fully understood, where group meetings are uncommon, or where cultural norms prevent women from meeting publicly. As an Extension worker, reaching all members of the community involves employing various methods. While individual visits may not reach as many people as other approaches, there are occasions where only a personal visit will suffice. Words can be misunderstood, but a friendly smile, genuine empathy, or practical assistance are universally understood. It is crucial for Extension workers to be liked by families, as this acceptance is necessary for the families to accept their recommendations. Establishing rapport takes time; understanding local customs and observing social niceties during visits can significantly impact their success. For example, sharing tea with a family can be a critical gesture.