eChapters

1. General Olericulture

Olericulture is Latin term ‘Olerus’ meaning herb.

China, India, USA, Turkey and Italy: Major vegetable producers.

Indian subcontinent has 80 species of major and minor vegetables apart from several wild species consumed as vegetable.

About 175 different types of vegetables are grown in India, includes 82 leafy vegetables and 41 root (tuber and bulb) crops.

Cucurbits, taros, yams, brinjal and okra have rich diversity in Indian gene centre.

USA is leading importer of cucumber and gherkins, assorted canned vegetables and other dehydrated vegetables from India.

Germany leads in import of preserved onion, green pepper in brine and dehydrated onion flakes/powder.

Singapore leads in import of dried asparagus; Japan in dehydrated garlic flakes; UAE in dehydrated garlic powder; Bangladesh in peas and Switzerland in dried mushrooms including morels.

Mizoram is the largest producer of chow chow.

1. GENERAL FLORICULTURE

Development of Floriculture’ was recommended by Dr. P.P. Trivedi committee.

India ranks 2^nd in flower cultivation next to China.

The production of loose flowers almost tripled between the 8^th Plan and the 11^th Plan.

The annual domestic demand is valued at around 60 billion USD.

About 2,33,000 hectares across the country was used for floriculture, producing 17,29,000 metric tonnes (MT) of loose flowers and 76,732 lakh cut flowers.

India has exported 22,947.23 MT of floriculture products to the world for worth of Rs. 460.75 crores in 2014-15.

The share of exports of dried flowers and plant parts are 45%, flowering plants (22%), fresh foliage (13%), fresh cut flowers (10%), live plants (7%) and bulbs and tubers (3%).

India’s share in global floriculture trade- 0.6%.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

International Group for the Genetic Improvement of Cocoa (INGENIC) formed in 1993.

Central Coconut Research Station (presently CPCRI) was established in 1940.

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasargod, Kerala established in 1970.

CPCRI hosts International Coconut Gene Bank for South Asia under the umbrella of Coconut Genetic Resources Network (COGENT) of the Biodiversity International.

National Active Germplasm Site for coconut: CPCRI.

United Planter’s Association of Southern India (UPASI) started in 1893.

Branch of International Rubber Association was established in 1948 at Kottayam, Kerala. It was renamed as Indian Rubber Institute in 1987.

Rubber Research Institute of India, Kottayam established in 1995.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

Asian continent, particularly India is known as “Land of Spices”.

Spice crops are largely grown in tropics between 20⁰N and 20⁰S.

Term ‘spice’ was derived from Latin ‘Species aromatacea’ means ‘Fruits of the earth’.

Spices and condiments are grouped under food adjuncts.

India is largest producer of spices and oleoresin.

Home of spices/ Spice bowl of India: Kerala.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION!

Major constraint of medicinal plants: Lack of genuine planting material.

Maximum number of medicinal plants belong to family Asteraceae.

Maximum demand in world market: 1. Senna leaves 2. Isabgol seeds 3. Cassia tora seeds.

India is largest producer of 1. Kewada oil 2. Senna 3. Davana oil 4. Isabgol.

India is 2^nd largest producer of 1. Opium latex 2. Jasmine concrete 3. Tuberose concrete

India is 3^rd largest exporter of periwinkle.

Thailand is largest exporter of sarpagandha leaves.

China is largest producer of 1. Geranium oil 2. Citronella oil.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

India’s exports of Processed Food was Rs. 31563.43 Crores in 2014-15, which includes products like Mango pulp (Rs. 841.39 Crores), Dried and Preserved vegetable (Rs. 847.11 Crores), Other Processed Fruit and Vegetable (Rs. 2,569.93 Crores), Pulses (Rs. 1,209.51 Crores), Groundnuts (Rs. 4,675.35 Crores), Guargum (Rs. 9,480.00 Crores), Jaggery and Confectionary (Rs. 1,161.81 Crores), Cocoa Products (Rs. 848.62 Crores), Cereal Preparations (Rs. 3,038.79 Crores), Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic Beverages (Rs. 2,231.58 Crores) and Miscellaneous Preparations (Rs. 2,437.77 Crores).

1. Introduction

During the last decade, considerable attention has been focused on the involvement of oxygen free radical (OFR) in various diseases. Molecular oxygen, while providing an efficient energy from ingested food, results in free radical and peroxide by-products, which have high intrinsic toxicity. Numerous physiological processes in living organisms occasionally produce free radicals, reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) as by-products. Their broad ranges of effects in biological systems have drawn the attention of many experimental works. ROS have been implicated in the pathophysiology of several clinical disorders, including ischemia, reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, rheumatoid arthritis, neurodegenerative, atherosclerosis, acute hypertension, hemorrhagic shock and diabetes mellitus (Hemnani and Parihar, 1998).

Oxidative stress occurs in a cell or tissue when the concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated exceeds the antioxidant capability of the cell (Simic and Jovanovic, 1986). Although humans and other organisms possess antioxidant defense and repair systems to protect against oxidative damage, these systems are insufficient under certain conditions to prevent the damage totally (Chang and Miles, 1982). Hence, the oxygen free radicals mediated damage to protein, DNA and other biomolecules accumulates during the lifetime of organisms. Many synthetic antioxidant components exhibited toxic or mutagenic effects that have directed the attention to the naturally occurring antioxidants in recent years. A multitude of natural antioxidants have already been isolated from different plant materials such as oilseeds, cereal crops, vegetables, fruits, leaves, roots, spices and herbs (Ramarathnam et al., 1995).

ABSTRACT

A plant grows in a highly competitive environment. It is continually being threatened by other plants encroaching upon the space from which it draws its sustenance, by microorganisms, by insects, avian, reptilian or mammalian herbivores. In order to survive, each plant must draw upon a complex of defenses, which may be physical, such as Spines or Leathery Leaves or Chemical. These defenses are passive, coming into action only when the plant is attacked which repel insects or the herbivores that attempt to feed on them. Plants protect themselves from insect attack by providing a multitude of repellent chemicals including toxic and bitter alkaloids and tannins. Non-specialist insects and other animals that attempt to feed on the plant may be repelled, injured through severe gastrointestinal malfunction or even killed. The cabbage, spinach, mustard etc. are well known for their mustard pungent flavor that deters most animals from consuming it. Even most medicinal plants like Cynanchum collialatum of the family Asclepediaceae have tannins or alkaloids like “cardenolides” that repel most animals and insects. All these plants have a basic enzyme “Myrosinase” which react with these specific tannins to produce the toxic metabolite, which repels insects and animals. But caterpillars of few insects are known to tolerate these toxic alkaloids (ex: caterpillar of Striped Tiger Butterfly-Danaus genutia) and in turn sequester the toxic alkaloids into their tissues making themselves non-palatable to their enemies. We hypothesize the analysis of possible roles of toxic alkaloids isolated from these butterflies as bio-insecticides

ABSTRACT

Senna (Cassia angustifolia), a traditional medicinal crop in Tamil Nadu warrants the modern quality guidelines viz. Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) for marketing overseas. Buyers of developed countries insist on GAP and organic certification for medicinal plants. With this in view, an experiment was conducted at Medicinal Plants Unit, Botanic Garden, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore to study the effect of various biostimulants on yield and yield attributing characters to standardize the biostimulant(s) for higher yield. The treatments included different concentrations of panchakavya (2% & 4%), moringa leaf extract (2 & 4%) and humic acid (0.2 & 0.4%). The field was laid out in randomized block design. Vermicompost @ 4 t ha^-1 was applied commonly to all the plots. Spraying with the above said chemicals was done at 15 days interval from 30 days after transplanting for four times. The observations were recorded for growth a yield characters and were statistically analyzed. The treatment 2% panchakavya + 2% moringa leaf extract + 0.2% humic acid recorded the highest value of growth and yield characters like plant height (44.58 cm), number of branches (6.1), number of pods (53.0), dry leaf yield (560.8 kg / acre) and dry pod yield (6. 72 g / plant).

A new buzz-word is rapidly spreading through the manufacturing and analytical environment. Discussions on the application of Non Invasive Research namely the Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy are often found on the agenda of production, project, and technical and even board meetings. Engineers and chemists are confronted more frequently with the challenge to decide whether a NIR instrument will be the solution to their production quality control and other analytical problems. Are there really amazing machines that can determine protein, fat, moisture, fibre, starch, nicotine, alcohol, sugar, amino acids and whatever analyses you require on any product from foodstuff to fertilizer and animal feeds in less than a minute and so simple to operate that even the unskilled labourer can handle it? In this article we will endeavor to answer the questions that often crop up in the evaluation of NIR as an analytical technique towards Natural Products.

ABSTRACT

Colchicine, one of the most widely used alkaloids is synthesized in Gloriosa species, a plant of great medicinal importance. The seeds, tubers and leaves of six different species of Gloriosa were phytochemically investigated for alkaloids and were found to contain colchicine and colchicoside. These alkaloids were isolated and quantified by HPLC analysis. This is the first report of alkaloids in Gloriosa plantii, Gloriosa lutea, and Gloriosa vuchuria. The colchicine and colchicoside content of the Gloriosa species was found to be organ dependent as there was statistically significant differences (P<0.05) between different organs but not among different species under study. The total alkaloids are organ as well as species dependent as there were statistically significant differences (P<0.05) between all the species as well as organs of different species of Gloriosa under study and its organs.

ABSTRACT

Diabetes is a chronic endocrinologic disorder characterized by high blood levels of glucose due to insufficient secretion of insulin by the pancreas or improper utilization of insulin by target cells. More than 120 million people from all over the globe are estimated to suffer from this malady. Many plants and their constituents have become chief ingredients of a number of pharmaceutical preparations used against diabetes. An intensive survey undertaken for over 4 years in the tribal belts of Orissa to identify the plants used in folk medicine and the methodologies employed by the herbal healers have revealed that 35 species are being employed to cure diabetes. Out of 313 patients (185 males and 128 females) interviewed, 211 (67.5%) use Gymnema sylvestre, Momordica charantia, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Tinospora cordifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Andrographis paniculata and Rauwolfia serpentina in one form or the other regularly. Multi-plant preparations gave 80% results whereas single plant administration gave less than 50% results. Polyherbal treatment is advocated as multi-pronged attack to achieve desired results.

ABSTRACT

Phospholipase A₂ catalyzes the hydrolysis of glycerophospholipids at the sn-2 position and releases fatty acids and lysophospholipids. When the fatty acid is the arachidonic acid, a complementary metabolism leads to pro-inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes and platelet activating factors. Thus, modulating pro-inflammatory lipid mediator production by inhibiting PLA₂ activity remains a potential target for the development of new drugs for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Medicinal plants have been explored therapeutically in traditional medicines and are a valuable source for drug discovery. Molecular docking studies were carried out for anti-inflammatory compounds from various plant sources with human non-pancreatic secretory phospholipase A₂.

ABSTRACT

Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase (PNP) is an enzyme that functions in the purine salvage pathway by catalyzing the phosphorolysis of purine nucleoside thereby releasing the purine bases and phosphorylated sugar. Interest in PNP as a drug target arises from its role in T-cell proliferation and T-cell mediated autoimmune diseases. Recently, we have isolated the compound, coixol, from the plant Scoparia dulcis L. and its three-dimensional structure has been elucidated. As the structure of the coixol mimics the structure of PNP inhibitors, we have undertaken the molecular modeling studies of this compound with Human PNP, as a screening test for further in vivo studies. Generally PNP inhibitors have been synthesized with a ribose sugar moiety attached to them. As the plant Scoparia dulcis L. contains glucose and rhamnose (six membered ring), these sugar moieties are also included along with ribose in the presen study. In order to understand the binding mode and interactions of the isolated compound attached with different sugar groups, we have carried out the docking studies with Human PNP. The interactions between the ligand molecules and active site residues of Human PNP are similar to those of solved complexes and the energy values are also comparable, which clearly indicate that these ligands may act as inhibitors.

1. Introduction

India is an exquisite example of biodiversity. From time immemorial scholars like Charaka, Barathwaj, Athreyan, Agnivesha, Dhanyandhari, Shushruthan, Wakbadan and Bharathduja etc. have studied and explored the possibility of such a diversity for human welfare and the most conspicuous exploration in this field has lead to the discovery of so many indigenous medicinal plants that were scripted mainly in Vedas (1500 BC) that contain rich materials on herbal lore of that time. Charaka in his medical treatise – Charaka samhita delt with innumerable medicinal plants, their usage and descriptions. Besides the two above said texts, treatise like Sushruth samhita and Ashtangha hridaya samhita are a few among other precious ancient texts. Thus the gradual accumulation of practical and systematic medical knowledge lead to the formation of Ayurveda.

Ayurveda - the science of life, prevention and longevity, is the oldest and most holistic or comprehensive medical system available. It was placed in written form over 2000 years ago. Ayurveda is said to have been first complied as a text by Agnivesha (Agniveshtantra). This text was later revised by Charaka and renamed as Charaka samhita (completed by Dhridhabala). The concept of medicines envisaged in the Ayurveda comes from the monumental scripture called Ashtanga hridaya and Sahasrayoga.

ABSTRACT

Free radical scavenging property and antimicrobial activity of Triphala, the herbal product made of equal proportion of Terminalia chebula, Terminalia bellerica and Emblica officinalis were evaluated. Ethanol extracts of the formulation were tested for its invitro antioxidant activity by using improved ABTS radical cation decolorizing assay and invitro antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus mutans (predominantly involved in bio-film formation) by both well-diffusion and turbidity method to determine its minimal inhibitory concentration. An effort was also made to correlate its antiplaque activity using an invitro assay (where conditions kept similar to oral cavity) with Triphala and two commercial toothpastes (Colgate and Pepsodent). The ethanol extract showed significant antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. Triphala showed effective antiplaque activity when compared with the other tooth pastes. The herbal extract effectively inhibited the bio-film formation and more antioxidant activity exhibited by the extract might protect the gum cells effectively from free radicals than the commercial toothpastes, having less antioxidant activity.

ABSTRACT

Traditionally, the rural communities of Trivandrum have been preserving small tracts of virgin forests or small groves since time immemorial due to strong religious beliefs anointed with the groves. These forest patches are biodiversity rich communities and a large number of medicinal plants of the region are confined to these groves only. The indigenous people use the plants for medicinal as well as religious purposes. Over the years, such forests have been attributed as a treasure trove of threatened species and dispensary of medicinal plants. During the investigation, 132 medicinal plants belonging to 63 families and 119 genera were recorded from 25 miniature sacred forests of Trivandrum district. This study was based on medicinal plants used in traditional health care by local and indigenous people. About 80% local people use different parts of plants for various ailments. The present finding revealed that most of the plants are used for skin diseases, cold, cough and fever, etc. Leaves are predominantly used than the other plant parts. Important families within the groves were Apocynaceae, Papilionaceae, Urticaceae, Combretaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Presence of a large number of monospecific families indicates immediate need of a conservation measure to secure sustainable utilization of medicinal plants of sacred groves of Trivandrum district.

1. Introduction

Phytochemists and pharmacologists from all over the world obtain several patents for herbal drugs developed on the basis of the indigenous knowledge systems of different ethnic groups. Many countries rich in traditional medicinal knowledge have been conducting ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants (Patil and Bhaskar, 2006). In India the native people have exploited a variety of herbal medicines for effective curing of various diseases. The plants used, preparation and administration of drug varies from area to area (Rajaram, 2006). The ethnobotanical research still plays its evident scientific role in stimulating further phytochemical and pharmacological studies (Leporatti and Corradi, 2001).

The objective of this study is to interact with Kani traditional healers and document their traditional knowledge. The Kani-tribals are one of the most primitive hill tribes of Western Ghats. They occupy the slopes of the Agasthiarmalai in Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India. Some ethnobotanical studies have been done in this area (Anonymous, 1948-76, Chopara et al., 1956, Satyavati, 1976, Jain, 1981, Nagendra Prasad et al., 1996). The impact of deforestation, urbanization and modernization makes the tribals shifting from their natural habitats to urban areas. Documenting the traditional knowledge through ethnobotanical studies is important for the conservation of medicinal plants and traditional medicines.

ABSTRACT

In vitro culture and cryopreservation techniques are complementary to ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources that are vegetatively propagated or having recalcitrant seeds. An in vitro germplasm conservation study has been conducted on Banana passionfruit (Passiflora mollissima), a plant used in rural medicine. Micropropagated plants survived up to 12 weeks in Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 0.5% sucrose. Cryopreservation experiments were carried out on the explants (apical and/or axillary buds), pre-treated with vitrification solutions, dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) and PVS2 (Plant vitrification solution-2) with or without desiccation treatment and frozen in liquid nitrogen (LN). The survival and regeneration of apical buds were higher than axillary buds when pre-treated with 15% DMSO. Treatment with 20 % PVS2 for 1 h followed by 100 % PVS2 for 20 min gave maximum shoot recovery (40%) from cryopreserved apical buds. Desiccation alone was not successful but combination of pre-treatment of PVS2 (20% for 1h and 100% for 20min) with 3 h desiccation gave 30% plant survival from frozen apical buds. Regenerated shoots were rooted on MS medium with 1.0 mgl-1 naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and 0.2 % activated charcoal.

ABSTRACT

In this study, different concentrations of acetone, alcohol, benzene and chloroform extract of Wedelia chinensis were carried out against human pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains. High frequency of anti-bacterial activity was observed on the Escherichia coli. Moderate amount of antibacterial activity was observed on Staphylococcus aureus. Highly resistant bacterium to this plant was screened through antibacterial pour plate method, which showed on the following organisms Citrobacter diversens, Serratia marcescens and Streptococcus pyogenes. The aim of this study is main evaluation of antimicrobial activity of plant. The ethanolic extracts demonstrating antibacterial and antifungal activity could result in the discovery of antibacterial and antifungal agents.

ABSTRACT

Solanum trilobatum Linn. (Solanaceae) was investigated for the induction of tumor using a soil borne bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Explants like stem segments and nodes were infected with bacterium. Tumors were induced from nodal explants within 10 days of infection. These explants were then transferred to MS basal medium and their growth was observed to be independent of exogenous supply of phytohormones. The growth rate of transformed callus was 10-fold as compared to control. They are used as a promising source of secondary metabolites of medicinal significance.

ABSTRACT

Albizzia lebbeck is commonly called as “vagai” in Tamil belonging to family Mimosaceae, is a large deciduous tree commonly seen throughout India. Our present aim, was to study the CNS depressant activity of Albizzia lebbeck in wistar albino rats. The bark and leaves of Albizzia lebbeck were shade dried and coarsely powdered. About 500 gm of powder was extracted using petroleum ether, chloroform and alcohol by cold maceration process. The depressant activity was accessed using actophotometer. It was claimed that in indigenous system of medicine the drug has anti-inflammatory, opthalmopathy, leucoderma, leprosy, wounds, ulcers and CNS depressant activity.

ABSTRACT

Our country is well known for developing into rich and ancient traditional system of medicines based on plants. For centuries, these ancient cultures and professional practicing on traditional system viz. Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha could remain in house hold and pass through generations to generation. India is being a developing country, of late uses bioactive natural products (secondary metabolites) using in vitro culture technology of the medicinal plant species. Recently, commercial utilization of these compounds using modern techniques is in good progress. The developed western affluent world has to now depend on these compounds mostly in drug and pharmaceutical industry in recent years. Orchids as medicinal herbs, details on plant medicinal potentialities, traditional medicinal systems viz. Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha have been described.

ABSTRACT

The present communication thr ows light on 118 species of flowering plants (Angiosperms) found in Dewghat forest (in Koraon forest range of Uttar Pradesh), which are traditionally used by the “Kol” tribal community and some other forest dwelling people, viz. Belbans, Bahelia, Mushahar etc. An enumeration of these plants materials is prepared with their botanical names, local / vernacular names, family names and using practices provided in this paper. This is the first ever report from the area under study on this aspect. In case of Anogeissus latifolia the leaf juice is used poisonous insect bite, grounded flower used in chronic diseases and its fruit is used asthma. The seeds of Cleome viscosa are given orally in stomach diseases. The leaves of Cassia alata used for ringworms and skin disease. The leaves juice and seed of Euphorbia thymifolia is used as a strong purgative. It leaf juice is also used for the remedy of ringworms and other skin diseases. It is an antidote for snakebite. The present study is aimed at indexing of all medicinal flora occurring in Dewghat forest (U.P.) and their uses for the benefit of the researchers to undertake studies on the prospects and potential of commercial exploitation.

ABSTRACT

A low molecular weight antifungal protein has been purified from the leaves of a medicinal herb, Mentha viridis, L. using a combination of cold acetone precipitation, carboxymethyl cellulose column, Q-sepharose column chromatography, and preparatory native PAGE techniques. The purified protein migrated as a single band on SDS-PAGE, with a molecular weight of ca 15.5 kDa. The purified leaf protein of M. viridis inhibited mycelial growth of phytopathogens such as Fusarium solani, Fusarium sp., and Pythium aphanidermatum. The purified protein from the leaves of M. viridis inhibited the growth of human pathogens such as Candida albicans and C. tropicalis (75 mg/mL). This inhibition is concentration dependent. The purified antifungal protein of leaves of M. viridis did not show protease, chitinase, and b-1, 3 glucanase activity.

ABSTRACT

The Kolanthamamalai hill an offshoot of Kalakadu Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of Southern Western Ghats is one of the important forest reserves of Tirunelveli District. The physiography of this range differs much from the adjacent portions of Southern Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu state due to its discontinuity, varying altitude, ridges and their height and breadth. The altitude of the hilly rugged terrain ranges from 150 to 300m, with the highest peak being Kolanthamamalai. Field visits were made in the study area to survey and to gather information on medicinal flora. The vegetation of Kolanthamamalai hill is a mixed dry deciduous type characteristic of the high and low altitude of the mountains respectively. Lowland vegetation girdles the base of the mountain on the eastern and southern side of the hills. Along the foot hills vegetation is an open scrub with occasional trees. The low-lying areas and the seasonal watercourses are densely vegetated. The natural barriers, habitat diversity, climate and moderate rainfall have resulted in the development of unique plant diversity.

ABSTRACT

The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of α-mangostin on cardiac markers against isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats. Induction of rats with Isoproterenol (150 mg/kg body wt, i.p) for 2 days resulted in a marked reduction in the activities of cardiac tissue marker enzymes (LDH, CPK, GOT and GPT). Pretreatment with α-mangostin (200 mg/kg of body wt/day) orally for 6 days significantly prevented these alterations and restored the enzyme activities to near normal levels. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate the protective effect of α-mangostin on isoproterenol induced experimental myocardial infarction in rats.

ABSTRACT

Biodiversity is a major resource for drug development. Since ancient times mankind has exploited nature for all kind of useful products and enjoyed the colors, flavors and fragrances of flowers and leaves etc. The current global resurgence in the use of plant based drugs offers an ideal opportunity for the country to emerge as a major player in the herbal products market. Herbal medicines are chemically diverse and may contain thousands of bioactive compounds, which can be of immense value to the pharmaceutical industries. Since ages, herbal medicine has been a major part of traditional knowledge play an important role for identification of biological resources worthy of commercial exploitation. Origanum vulgare L. is a wild plant of Labiatae family grows widely in Ladakh region (11500 to 13000 ft). The local people of this region use this plant for various ailment and culinary purposes due to the potential of active ingredients. The present objective of this study is to isolate the thymol content, a major ingredient of O. vulgare and quantifying the same. The volatile oils were extracted through hydro-distillation and active compound was analyzed by Gas Chromatography (GC-17A Shimadzu). Our results demonstrate that the thymol content of O. vulgare from this region is 80.28% as compared to plants grown at other low altitude regions. It is well known that plants under stress respond with biosynthesis of phytochemicals to enable them to adapt to the harsh environmental conditions. Ladakh being unique in many aspects due to its geo-climatic conditions like high elevation, extreme cold, dry weather and low humidity. Plants surviving in Ladakh therefore have unique chemical composition as compared to those grown elsewhere.

ABSTRACT

Three medicinal plants namely, Eryngium foetidum (Apiaceae), Centella asiatic (Apiaceae) and Hemidesmus indicus (Asclepiadaceae) were collected from Similipa Biosphere Reserve forest and used in this investigation. Ethanolic, methanolic chloroform and aqueous extracts of different parts like leaf, root and stem were prepare through standard techniques and screened for their anticandidal potencies agains Candida albicans, C. tropicalis and C. krusei. Anticandidal activity of the extracts wer tested using preliminary and secondary screening methods, like disc diffusion metho (DDM) & agar-cup-plate-method (ACPM) and poisoned food technique (PFT respectively. On an average the inhibitory tendency of the extracts can be arranged as ethanolic extracts > methanolic extacts > chloroform extracts > aqueous extracts Maximum degree of inhibition was observed against C. krusei. Among the plant Hemidesmus indicus showed better anticandidal activities in comparison to other tw plants tested.

1. Introduction

The heritage of medicinal plants used in India has an ancient history. The epic of Ramayana witnessed Sanjivani Booti as life saving drug. Two important compendia on medicinal plants i.e., Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita were published between 1000 BC and 600 BC. In these Ayurvedic literatures, uses of more than 1,200 plant drugs along with their action and specific therapeutic applications are mentioned. Charaka made 50 vargas (groups) of drugs while Sushruta made 38 ganas (groups) of drugs (Singh and Gautam, 1997). India, with its diverse agro-climate, harbors large plant-diversity. Eastern Himalayas comprising Darjeeling, Sikkim and adjacent Nepal as well as Bhutan hills are very rich in florastic diversity, several of which are endangered but economically useful medicinal plants with high demand in national as well as in international market (Manandhar, 1999). A great many of these wild Himalayan medicinal plants have found their way into modern bio-pharmaceuticals and bio-cosmetics in recent times (Rai et. al., 2000). One such species is Nepalese Kutki (Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Pennell) belongs to family Scrophulariaceae.

P. scrophulariiflora is better known by the name Nepali Kutki. The rhizome of this plant has been found to contain the chemicals like Kutkin, D-mannitol and vanillic acid (Yang, 1996). It is said to have effects on fever, malnutrition due to digestive disturbance, jaundice, diarrhoea and dysentery (Zhang et al., 1994). In India it is valued for their demonstrated value as an antibiotic. They are also used as an adulterant of, or as substitute for, Gentiana kurrooa. Properties that these two species share include the ability to stimulate appetite and gastric secretions (Jain, 1968). In Nepal rhizome of this species is also used as a cathartic, in case of dyspepsia, as a purgative as well as in the treatment of scorpion bites (Anon., 1993). Some of the important active photochemicals are listed in Table 1.

ABSTRACT

According to WHO report, over 80% of the world population relies on traditional medicine, largely plant based for their primary healthcare needs. India has 15 Agroclimatic zones, 12 ecoregions and 47,000-plant sp. and is one of the 12-mega biodiversity centres. The Indian Systems of Medicine have identified 1500 medicinal plants, of which 500 species are used in the preparation of commercial drugs. These medicinal plants contribute to 80% of the raw materials used in the preparation of drugs.

ABSTRACT

Advances in biotechnology, particularly methods for culturing plant cells and tissues, can provide new means for the commercial processing of even rare plants and the chemicals they produce. These new technologies will extend and enhance the usefulness of plants as renewable resources of valuable chemicals. Aristolochic acid is mainly found in the genus Aristolochia. Aristolochic acid has been shown to have anti-tumour activity and has been recommended for its activity against various effects of snakebite and its capacity to inhibit phospholipase A₂ or other enzymes. Considering the importance of medicinal use of A. bracteolata and A. indica, in the present study, they were selected for in vitro development and rapid multiplication of plant through tissue culture. The study was undertaken to enhance the in vitro production of Aristolochic acid in different tissue cultures. Cell suspension culture was established from friable calli of both the species in MS liquid medium. Bergmann plating technique was carried out for cell line selection for more production of Aristolochic acid. Primary transformation was carried out by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 / pTOK233 with Gus and hpt genes to confirm the transgenic potential of A. bracteolata and A. indica. In order to enhance the production of aristolochic acid in in vitro culture condition, the physical, chemical and biological conditions were altered. Aristolochic acid was isolated, identified and purified from naturally growing plants as well as from tissue culture plants and all other culture staes

ABSTRACT

Advances in biotechnology, particularly methods for culturing plant cells and tissues can provide new means for the commercial processing of even rare plants and th chemicals they produce. These new technologies will extend and enhance the usefulness of plants as renewable resources of valuable chemicals. Aristolochic acid is mainly found in the genus Aristolochia. Aristolochic acid has been shown to hav anti-tumour activity and has been recommended for its activity against various effect of snakebite and its capacity to inhibit phospholipase A2 or other enzymes Considering the importance of medicinal use of A. bracteolata and A. indica, in th present study, they were selected for in vitro development and rapid multiplication o plant through tissue culture. The study was undertaken to enhance the in vitr production of Aristolochic acid in different tissue cultures. Cell suspension culture was established from friable calli of both the species in M liquid medium. Bergmann plating technique was carried out for cell line selection fo more production of Aristolochic acid. Primary transformation was carried out by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 / pTOK233 with Gus and hpt genes to confirm the transgenic potential of A. bracteolata and A. indica. In order to enhance the productio of aristolochic acid in in vitro culture condition, the physical, chemical and biologica conditions were altered. Aristolochic acid was isolated, identified and purified from naturally growing plants as well as from tissue culture plants and all other cultur stages.

ABSTRACT

A rapid micropropagation technique have been established for Solanum trilobatum L., a medicinal plant from internodal explant. Callus formation was observed from both cut ends of explants cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2,4-D (3.0 mg/l). Direct shoot and multiple shoot formation were noticed from explants (proximal cut end) on BAP (2.0 mg/l) alone and BAP (2.0 mg/l) + NAA (0.5 mg/l). Root formation was directly produced from the basal cut end of explants cultured on IBA (1.0 mg/l). In vitro plantlet regeneration has been achieved on BAP (2.0 mg/l) + IBA (1.0 mg/l). Regenerated plants were transferred to sterile vermiculite and soil mixture (3:1). In vitro propagated plants were grew successfully under the field conditions. In vitro propagation can be a useful tool for the conservation of this medicinal species.

ABSTRACT

An efficient and reliable micropropagation and mycorrhization techniques were established for a medicinal plant Solanum trilobatum L., using internodal explant. Callus formation occurred from both the cut ends of explants cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2,4-D (3.0 mg/l). Direct shoot and multiple shoot formation were noticed from the proximal cut end of explants on BA (2.0 mg/l) alone and BA (2.0 mg/ l) + NAA (0.5 mg/l). Root formation was directly induced from the basal cut end of explants cultured on IBA (1.0 mg/l). In vitro plantlet regeneration has been achieved on BA (2.0 mg/l) + IBA (1.0 mg/l). After 4 weeks, well-developed in vitro plantlets were hardened in plastic cups filled with sterile soil and vermiculite (3:1). During acclimatization, sterile Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungal spores were added for enhance the survivability of in vitro plants in the field condition. The level of biochemical changes and increased survivability were studied in 10 weeks old plants inoculated with spores of Glomus mosseae and Gigaspora margarita.

Introduction

Solanum trilobatum L., an important medicinal plant, belonging to Solanaceae is widely distributed in South Asia and has been used in Indian traditional medicinal systems of Siddha and Ayurveda. The members of Solanaceae accumulate steroidal alkaloids based on a C₂₇ cholestane skeleton, e.g. solasodine and tomatidine. Recently, mixtures of solasodine glycosides have been successfully used for the treatment of certain human skin carcinomas (Cham, 1994). Solasodine glycosides have antineoplastic activity in cell culture, animals and in humans (Cham and Daunter1990). It has been demonstrated that specific endogenous lectins which are present on the plasma membranes of susceptible cells recognize and bind the sugar moiety of the solasodine glycosides and the glycosides are subsequently internalized and cause cell death (Cham and Daunter1990). Hence the present study was undertaken to isolate the solasodine from S. trilobatum.

1. Introduction

Plant metabolites are the major sources of pharmaceutical food additives, fragrances and pesticides. It is estimated that the market potential for herbal drugs in the western world alone could range from US $ 4.9 billion to 47 billion by the year 2000 if the AIDS epidemic continues unchecked (Biotechnology and Development, 1991). A similar situation exists for plant based food additives, fragrances and bio-pesticides. The natural resources for plant based chemicals are limited but the consumer preference for natural products is greater. Alternative avenues for plant products have gained prominence during the past few years. In recent years, plant Biotechnology has gained considerable importance for the production of phytochemicals (Heble, 1996).

During the past three decades, several phytochemicals with biological activities have been identified from higher plants for plant tissue culture industry (Verpoorte et al., 1991). Vincristine, vinblastine, artemisinin, taxol and podophyllotoxin are in the list of approved drugs. Some products under clinical trials are forskolin, castanospermine, ginkgolides and hyperin (Heble, 1996). In recent years, there has been renewed interest in screening higher plants for novel biologically active products particularly to combat such ailment that have defined synthetics and antibiotics. This has resulted in the development therapeutics used in the treatment of cancer, hypertension, AIDS, malaria and other diseases.

ABSTRACT

Indole alkaloids gramine, tyramine and tryptamine were isolated from the aerial part of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. for the first time and their antimicrobial properties agains microbial pathogens were studied. Structures of the compounds were elucidated base upon the spectroscopic data such as ¹H-NMR, ¹³C- NMR and MS. The evaluations o the crude extract and the alkaloids for their efficacy in inhibiting the growth of huma pathogenic bacteria and dermatophytes were carried out in vitro. The crude extrac was effective in inhibiting the growth of all the tested microorganisms. Tryptamin and tyramine did not inhibit microbial growth when tested individually, but in combination the growth inhibition of Klebsiella pneumoniae was prominent. Gramin was the most effective one in inhibiting the growth of all the tested microbial pathogens

ABSTRACT

Natural sources have been exploited since the dawn of civilization for the sustenance of mankind. With the passage of time numerous medicines were discovered to treat various maladies utilizing the vast resources of land and the sea, along with the knowledge base support of folklores and folk medicines of different regions of the world, Marine natural products chemistry has gained prominence during the last four and half decades with a view to harnessing the vast potential of the sea particularly in search of drugs by virtue of modern science and technology. Products of marine algae or seaweeds have been used as medicine as well as food and feed and latterly as nutraceuticals. Advanced societies of the world consume seaweed extracts (in the form of alginates, agars and carrageenans) every day in their foods or pharmaceuticals that is complemented by the excellent safety records of commonly ingested species. In this account, I will be focusing on the health care applications of seaweeds.

Health care has two aspects e.g. healing or amelioration of disease conditions with medicines and the other being sustenance of the health system. Seaweeds have been reported to be the source of many bioactive and nutritionally important compounds e.g. antibacterial, antiviral, immunomodulator, cytotoxic, anticancer, neurotoxic, blood anticoagulant, antifertility, vitamins, proteins and minerals. Status of these activities in India and elsewhere in the world has been discussed.

ABSTRACT

Nature provides a wealth of information on natural products with novel architectur and very high medical potential. Given the enormous medical and economic impac of natural product pharmaceuticals we have obvious reasons to improve the activitie of the existing compounds and to discover new metabolites. Although natural product are a proven source of drug candidates they exert powerful physiological effects in one form or other. Only a small proportion of these compounds satisfy the rigorou criteria set by the pharmaceutical company. Also the amount of active compound isolated from the natural products is so small that it is difficult to exploit it in an industrial level. So there arises a need to synthesise synthetic compounds which ma be tested for bioactivity from the easily available starting materials by a simpl methodology. The quest for finding new drugs against various diseases such as AIDS cancer etc. act as a motivating factor in designing synthesis of new materials. In thi way most of the compounds synthesized can be tested for bioactivity to be effectivel used to fi ht a ainst certain dreadful diseases.

We have synthesised some polycyclic heterocycles through cycloaddition methodology and explored the bioactivity of the products. These molecules have basic skeleton of the natural products and possess the biological properties of the natural products. Thus they may be termed as pseudo natural products. These compounds are screened for antifungal and antibacterial activities and are found to possess bioactivity.

Keywords : Heterocyclic compounds, antifungal activity, DMSO, pathogens, inhibition zone.

ABSTRACT

Medicinal plants are known to contain innumerable bioactive compounds that play an important role in conventional as well as western medicine. These bioactive molecules occur in plants as secondary metabolites, which have pharmacological relevance and aid in defense mechanism. In India, herbal medicines have been the basis of treatment and cure for various diseases. Conventionally, natural products have been tested as crude extracts containing complex mixtures of compounds, which if showing a desired activity, require a process of purification and identification of the active components, which can be lengthy and efficient.

In order to understand the function of these active compounds, X-ray crystallographic studies are carried out.

The present study involves the three dimensional structure analysis of purified compounds from the plants Phyllanthus amarus, Sphaeranthus indicus, Scoparia dulcis and Mangifera indica and Leonotis nepetaefolia.

The prosperity of any country depends upon the prosperity of its people. Food, clothing, shelter, health, education, security, roads, electricity and drinking water are the today’s basic needs. Farmers produce food. About 70 % of Indian population is engaged in farming. Therefore, prosperity of India would depend upon the prosperity of its farmers. This in turn depends upon the adoption of improved technology and judicious allocation of resources (land, labour, capital, machinery etc). Human race depends more on farm products for their existence than anything else since food and clothing – the prime necessaries are products of farming. Even for industrial prosperity, farming forms the basic raw material. To sustain and satisfy as many as his needs, the farmers include crop production, livestock, poultry, fisheries, beekeeping etc. in their farms. Earlier subsistence was the important objective of farming. Farmers took many activities such as planting of fruit trees in their farms or on the common lands just for the welfare of mankind without expecting anything in return. The kind of farming where subsistence and welfare of mankind were the main objectives is designated as mixed farming. Farming today is also a mix of enterprises. However, higher profitability without altering ecological balance is important in farming. A set of agricultural activities organized while preserving land productivity, environmental quality and maintaining desirable level of biological diversity and ecological stability is designated as “Farming System”. Here the emphasis is mainly on a system rather than on gross output.

In other words “farming system” is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustain agricultural production to meet diverse requirement of the farm household while preserving the resource base and maintaining high environmental quality. The farming system in its real sense will help to lift the economy of agriculture and standard of living of the farmers.

Various components of farming systems are as under

1. Cropping system

A system is set of elements which depend on each other and interacting among themselves. Farming system consists of several enterprises like cropping system, dairying, piggery, poultry, fishery, bee keeping, etc. These enterprises are interrelated. The end products and wastes of one enterprise are used as inputs in other. The wastes of cow, dung used as FYM in crop production and straw is used as feeding material for cow. Bullock is used for field preparation.

Cropping system is an important component of a farming system. It represents cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their makeup.

Cropping pattern: means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area. It indicates the early sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area. Crop sequence and crop rotation are generally used synonymously. Crop rotation refers to recurrent succession of crops on the same piece of land either in a year or over a longer period of time. Component crops are so chosen so that soil health in not impaired.

Terms associated with cropping and farming systems are:

1. Cropping system: is an important component of a farming system. It represents cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their makeup.
2. Cropping pattern: means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area.
3. Cropping scheme is a plan according to which crops are grown on individual plot of a farm during a given period of time with the object of obtaining maximum return from each crop without impairing soil fertility. Thus a cropping scheme is related to the most profitable use of resources, land, labour, capital, and management.
4. Multiple cropping: Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one calendar year is known as multiple cropping. It is intensification of cropping in space and time dimensions. It includes intercropping, mixed cropping and sequence cropping.
5. Quadruple cropping: Growing of four crops in a year in sequence.
6. Competition effect: Competition of intercropped spp. For light, nutrients, water, carbon dioxide, and other growth factors.
7. Complementary effect: Effect of one component on another which enhances growth and productivity.

The basic points that are to be considered while choosing appropriate enterprise in IFS are:

1. Soil and climatic features of an area/locality.
2. Social status of the family and social customs prevailing in the locality.
3. Economic condition of the farmer (Return/income from the existing farming system).
4. Resource availability at farm and present level of utilization of resources.
5. Economics of proposed IFS and credit facilities.
6. Farmer’s managerial skill.
7. Household demand.
8. Institutional infrastructure and technological knowhow.
9. Market facilities.

Agriculture has been the base of subsistence for human settlements on the planet earth. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), people in the developing world where the population increase is very rapid, may face hunger if the global food production does not increase by 50–60%. Contribution from developing countries and developed countries to world production in 1975 was about 38% and 62%, respectively. If yield increase is keeping pace with increasing population, mass hunger can escape. In the preindependence period, Indian agriculture was usually described as a gamble with monsoons and their failures resulted in widespread famine and misery. In the last few decades, Indian agriculture has made a remarkable progress even with increased population and decreased per capita availability of agricultural land. World population is projected to be over 8 billion by 2025 and nearly 10.5 billion by the end of next century. To maintain the status quo, food production needs to be doubled. Estimates by the FAO and WHO (1992) and the Hunger Project (1991) suggest that around 1 billion people in the world have diets that are ‘too poor to abstain the energy required for healthy growth of children and minimal activity of adults’. The causes are complex and it is not entirely the fault of overall availability of food. Modern agriculture begins on the research farm, where researchers have access to all types of inputs for crops at all the appropriate times. But, even the best performing farms cannot match the yields of researchers. For high productivity, farmers need to have access to the whole package – improved seeds, water, labour, capital or credit, fertilizers, pesticides and other developed technology. Many poorer farming households simply cannot adopt the whole package. Very often delivery systems are unable to supply them on time.

Conservation agriculture (CA) defined as minimal soil disturbance (no-till) and permanent soil cover (mulch) combined with rotations is a recent agricultural management system that is gaining popularity in many parts of the world. Cultivation is defined by the Oxford English dictionary as “the tilling of land”, “the raising of a crop by tillage” or “to loosen or break up soil”. Other terms used in this dictionary include “improvement or increase in (soil) fertility”. All these definitions indicate that cultivation is synonymous with tillage or ploughing.

The other important definition that has been debated and defined in many papers is the word “sustainable”. The Oxford dictionary defines this term as “capable of being borne or endured, upheld, defended, maintainable”. Something that is sustained is “kept up without intermission or flagging, maintained over a long period”. This is an important concept in today’s agriculture since the human race will not want to compromise the ability of its future offspring to produce their food needs by damaging the natural resources used to feed the population today.

Low External Input Agriculture (LEIA)

It is a form of agriculture wherein the use of external inputs including chemical inputs is minimized and production is kept sustainable. It uses synthetic fertilizers or chemical pesticides below rates commonly recommended by the Extension workers. There is no elimination of these materials. Any system that reduces purchased chemical inputs can be called low-input farming. Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, biofertilizers, IPM, IWM and utilization of on-farm resources and management. Locally available resources are used by maximizing the complementary and synergistic effects of different components of the farming systems. There is use of external inputs in a complementary way. Main advantages of this type of agriculture are:

What is a system?

A group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli is called a system. It is not affected directly by its own outputs, having a specified boundary based on inclusion of all significant feedbacks. Human body is a system with a boundary (e.g., the skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operate the living body). Collection of unrelated items does not constitute a system. A bag of pebbles is not a system because with addition or removal of a pebble, a bag of pebbles remains and is almost not affected completely by that change. Pebbles behave as a whole if the whole bag is influenced, for example by dropping it; the constituent parts go their own ways with its bursting. It is the property of the system that mainly matters and it may be summarized in the phrase ‘behaviour as a whole in response to stimuli to any portion’.

Integration of Enterprises

In agriculture, crop husbandry is the main activity. The income obtained from cropping is hardily sufficient to sustain the farm family throughout year. Activities such as dairying, poultry, fish- culture, sericulture, biogas production, edible mushroom cultivation, agro- forestry, agri- horticulture etc. assume critical importance in supplementing their farm income. Assumed regular cash flow is possible when cropping is combined with other enterprises. Judicious combination of enterprises keeping in view of the environment condition of a locality will pay grater dividends. At the same time it will promote effective recycling of residues/ wastes.

Integrated farming system seems to be the answer to the problems of increasing food production. For increasing income and for improving nutrition of the small scale farmers with limited resources without any adverse effect on environment and agro- eco-system. In a cropping system the amount of by products can be as high as or higher than marketable produce. This may go to waste if not utilized in an animal waste component and to reduce the cost of production of the economic produce of component two and finally to entrance the net income of the farm is whole.

Livestock is the best complementary enterprises with cropping, especially during the adverse years. Installation of a biogas plant in crop- livestock system will make use of the wastes, at the same time provides valuable manure and gas for cooking and lighting.