eChapters

1. Introduction
The term “plastic” is derived from the Greek word “Plasticos" whichmeans to be capable of molding into various sizes and shapes. Daily usedsynthetic plastics are categorized based on their physical and chemicalproperties, such as thermoplastic and thermosetting. (i) Thermoplastics: Astheir names suggest, thermoplastic polymers melt and turn into a plastic orrubbery state when exposed to heat. They have various numbers of polymericchains and are the most widely used plastics in day-to-day life. Examples ofthermoplastics are Polystyrene(PS), Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polypropylene(PP), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Polyethylene (PE) etc. (Massy,2017), (Sharma et al., 2017). (ii) Thermosetting polymers: As the namesuggests, they set or harden permanently when heated (Massy, 2017). Due totheirstrong crosslinked structure, they are non-recyclable polymers. Examplesinclude Polyurethanes(PUR), Phenol formaldehyde, Melamine formaldehyde,and Polyester Resin (PR) (Sharma et al., 2017). Different polymers and theirapplications are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Introduction

No revolution occurs without disruption. Its effects break down traditions, behavior, relationships, ways of thinking, and methods of education. (Barreiro, 2021) throughout history, from the hunter-gatherer era to the present day humanity has experienced multiple industrial revolutions impacting both social and economic domains. The latest industrial revolution, which has ushered in digital transformation and enhanced productivity at reduced costs, introduces a new lifestyle distinct from our traditional daily routines. It also aims to foster a more sustainable overall environment. (Javaid et al., 2022).

The rise of Industry 4.0 is fueled by both rapid technological advancements and various social and economic factors. Central technologies propelling Industry 4.0 include wearable, augmented reality, simulation, autonomous vehicles and robots, additive manufacturing, distributed ledger systems like block chain, big data analytic, mobile computing, and cloud computing. These technologies influence and facilitate the development of new and innovative business models. (Industry 4.0 Implications for Higher Education Institutions 2019)

The advent of Industry 4.0, characterized by the integration of advanced technologies has revolutionized various sectors, including higher education. As these technologies reshape industries, they also redefine educational paradigms, creating a more interconnected, efficient, and personalized learning environment. This transformation, known as Education 4.0, responds to the demands of the Fourth Industrial Revolution by preparing students with the skills and knowledge necessary to thrive in an increasingly digital and automated world.

Introduction
Wastewater management has emerged as a critical environmental concern, posing severe threats to ecosystems, human health, and animal life due to  inadequate treatment and disposal systems. Various technologies have been employed to manage wastewater effectively, among which biological treatment techniques have gained widespread acceptance. These methods are  favoured for their affordability, operational simplicity, minimal reliance on chemicals, lower energy consumption, and eco-friendly characteristics (Smith and Brown, 2020). Among biological treatment processes, both aerobic and anaerobic methods are extensively utilized, with specific focus on Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB), Expanded Granular Sludge Blanket (EGSB), and UASB-aerobic digester reactors. Comparative analyses of these approaches highlight their treatment efficiencies, advantages, drawbacks, and operational constraints. Additionally, the integration of aerobic and anaerobic treatment systems, particularly the UASB-aerobic digester combination, has shown promising results in optimizing wastewater treatment (Jones et al., 2021).
In many underdeveloped and developing regions, inadequate wastewater management has led to severe sanitation challenges, exacerbating health risks and facilitating the spread of waterborne diseases. The lack of proper wastewater treatment, combined with deficient healthcare infrastructure and inadequate housing, further aggravates the situation. Wastewater typically contains high concentrations of biodegradable pollutants such as Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), which, if discharged untreated, contribute significantly to environmental degradation (Lee and Wang, 2019). Both organic and inorganic contaminants originating from domestic, industrial, and agricultural sources play a major role in water pollution. In regions suffering from water scarcity, the reuse of treated wastewater is an essential strategy for water conservation and sustainability (WHO, 2022).

3.1 Introduction

Women are the backbone of the family. God gave her all the power to give birth, raise the children, do all the household chores, and balance the professional work. But we forget that women are also human beings, not machines. They can’t work 24x7 they also need rest as well as proper nutrition. Women in ancient India were very powerful in terms of decision-making, political opinion, education, etc, but later on, the situation of women deteriorated. In the middle era, the situation was at its worst: women were being treated badly by the men in their own families. Currently, the situation is turning better. Women are being treated equally now times but it is not the best scenario we can have. There is still much scope in this field where equal wedges and a good environment can be provided to the women.

During the last 21 years, the scientists and scholars of the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) have been working on the design and implementation of projects which could have a large extrapolation domain in respect of imparting a pro-nature, pro-poor, pro-women and pro-sustainable livelihood orientation to technology development and dissemination. I would like to write about a few of the MSSRF initiatives, which have now become state, national and global programmes.

Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana: Strengthening the role of women in agriculture

MSSRF initiated the Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra in 2007 for empowering women farmers, including the widows of farmers who had committed suicide, in areas related to enhancing the productivity, profitability and sustainability of small-scale rain-fed farming. The empowerment measures incorporated access to technology, credit, inputs and market.

9.7.1. Function

The front axle is the unit on which the front wheel is mounted. This wheel is an idler wheel by which the tractor is steered in various directions. The function is to assist the steering and support the tractor. It is a rigid tubular or I-section steel construction, pivoted at the centre. The pivot pin is housed on bushings on a support bolted to the front of the engine. As the track width of a tractor is adjustable, the front axles have provision to be extended on both sides. The tubular front axles have telescopic arrangement for extension, whereas the I-section type of front axles are three-piece axles.

Maize or corn (Zea mays L.), which was first domesticated in Mexico, is the most widely grown cereal crop in the world. Maize is consumed as feed and food, and also has myriads industrial applications, including the production of bioethanol and starch. Due to its highest genetic potential, production and productivity among the cereal crops, maize is called as “Queen of the Cereals”. Noble Laureate Dr. Norman E. Borlaug, the Father of Green revolution stated 15 years ago that “The past two decades saw the revolution in rice and wheat, the next few decades will be known as maize era”. In India, maize is the third largest grain crop and its production and demand is increasing rapidly. In India, it is primarily a non-food cereal crop, with only 10% being consumed as direct human food, while the rest being used for feed, industrial and export purposes. The effective deployment of various frontier technologies viz. genetic engineering, doubled haploids, molecular markers, phenomics etc.has greatly helped in raising productivity of maize crop worldwide in the last decade.The present chapter provides an overview on role of frontier technologies in maize crop improvement.

India, a predominantly agrarian nation, relies heavily on agriculture for livelihoods. Over the decades, agricultural policies have focused on increasing the supply and accessibility of staple grains. This strategy has successfully reduced hunger and transformed the country’s food system (Pingali et al., 2019). At the forefront of this transformation stands Punjab that played a pivotal role in moving India from a food scarcity to self-sufficiency. Punjab’s agricultural success is globally recognized, driven by the rapid technology adoption, enabled through synergy of infrastructure, incentives and most critically, information (Singh & Kohli, 1997). Among these drivers, dissemination through agricultural extension proved instrumental in ensuring that innovations such as high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, irrigation facilities and market incentives reached farmers effectively. While various factors contributed to Punjab’s growth, but agricultural extension remains a cornerstone, translating research breakthroughs into fieldlevel impact. Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) has been a key catalyst in this journey. while serving as a premier institution in agricultural research, education, and extension. PAU’s extension system has evolved in response to shifting agricultural needs, environmental challenges, and technological advancements. Beginning in 1960s, PAU led the Green Revolution by introducing HYVs and modern agricultural inputs through a dedicated, farmer-focused extension network (Gulati et al., 2018). In its early decades, PAU’s extension services emphasized increasing productivity through mechanization and the use of fertilizers and pesticides. Initiatives such as Kisan Melas (Farmers’ Fairs) and Kisan Clubs’ facilitated knowledge transfer to rural communities, fostering large-scale adoption of new technologies. However, by the late 1980s, concerns such as soil degradation and pest resistance prompted a strategic pivot. The PAU approach shifted from purely productivity-focused methods to more sustainable and diversified practices such as Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), integrated weed management (IWM) Integrated Pest Management (IPM), water conservation, etc. Today, PAU continues to modernize its extension practices through participatory, farmer-centric approaches. The current emphasis lies in promoting innovation, entrepreneurship, adaptability and sustainability through a blend of traditional outreach and modern ICT tools. Notable innovative approaches include e-extension services via mobile apps and online portals, real-time advisory systems through SMS and digital platforms, hybrid training modules

Earlier, it was a general perception that frost is something like snow that falls from the sky onto the Earth and causes cooling of the plant surface leading to freezing and lethal damage. But, with advancement in knowledge, it is now well understood that it is the cooling of a surface to a subzero temperature which leads to solidification of the water vapours present in the air onto it resulting in the formation of a white crystalline layer of ice molecules. The ice so formed further grows into the plant system causing damage to it through intracellular or intercellular freezing.

Fruit and nut crops have adapted to a wide range of soil, climate and moisture conditions irrespective of their place of origin. The limits of the distribution of these crops across the globe are largely governed by climatic factors such as temperature, wind direction, solar luminance level, length of day (latitude) and atmospheric water vapour content besides other factors. These climatic factors are considered critical in governing the distribution of plant species because not only they limit the growth and development of plant species but also determine the consistency of annual cropping and the quality output. 

As the vulnerability of different plant species to frost and low-temperature stress is quite variable, the symptoms are also variable, therefore. The development of visual symptoms depends largely upon the plant genotype, growing environment and tissue type being exposed to low-temperature stress.

Various types of winter damage can occur to fruit trees. Temperature-related injuries include sunscald, tip dieback, bud death and heartwood damage. Even after planting frost tolerant varieties and rootstocks, it is important to manage frost occurring in regions where it is suspected to happen, it is necessary to prevent injury. When temperatures dip below the freezing point, water molecules move out of plant cells through the cell membrane due to ice formation in the intercellular spaces. Other cell constituents like sugars become more concentrated within the cell and with gradual reduction in water leads to dehydration and necrosis. At relatively short and moderate freezing temperatures little damage occurs to plants, but when temperatures fluctuate drastically or descend below -4^oC, ice crystals form and intracellular freezing occurs leading to cell death. Tip dieback, bud death, and heartwood damage usually occur in situations where temperatures drop dramatically before the plant has hardened off adequately.

Frost is a thermodynamic phenomenon that occurs in the atmosphere, especially under subtropical and temperate conditions during winter. To understand the horticultural implications of this meteorological event, it is necessary to understand the frost related terms and jargon, first. Some of the common terms used here in this book are described hereunder:

Global climate change has increased the weather variability across all geographical settings. The transitional regions between the tropics and temperate region are expected to buffer the changes comparatively for a extended duration of time.

Adverse climatic conditions like temperature, humidity, frost etc. affect vegetative growth, flowering, fruiting as well as quality of horticultural crops. Tropical crops are usually more sensitive to low temperature and frost injuries whereas temperate crops are vulnerable to high temperature effects. High temperature beyond tolerable limits may cause sunscald, tip dieback, bud death and heartwood damage. On the other hand, when temperature drops below the freezing point; water molecules ice formation in the intercellular spaces takes place showing freezing injuries on various plant parts. The symptoms like dehydration and necrosis are visible on plant due to increased concentration of sugars within the cell causing reduction in the water content. The extent of damage will depend upon the prevailing low temperature and its duration. Exposure of the plant near freezing temperature for prolonged time causes death of the plant due to formation of ice crystals in intercellular spaces.

All the plant biochemical processes are sensitive to change in temperature. Freeze or low-temperature stress in plants becomes lethal when the temperature is lowered beyond a critical threshold for a sufficient duration to cause irreversible damage to plant growth and development. This stress influences countless biochemical reactions which have certain temperature optima for their proper functioning.

One of the important strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of frost is to develop tolerance in plant against frost stress. Tolerance is such a condition of frost vulnerable plant species, they develop certain ability to withstand the freezing stress by avoiding the states of inter or intracellular freezing. Thus, the process of cold hardening or acclimation together with ability to super cool at freezing temperatures is usually termed as frost tolerance development.

The damage due to frost in fruit crops has been a problem for farmers since starting from their cultivation. Damage caused by frost is a worldwide problem because if all aspects of crop production are well managed, one night of freezing temperatures can lead to complete crop loss. According to Bagdonaset al. (1978) frost periods in temperate regions are shorter in duration and occur more frequently whereas in subtropical climates it is occurs with slow moving cold air masses. In tropical regions, there is usually no or very less freezing damage except at higher elevations. In subtropical fruits crops, damages occurs mainly during the winter, whereas in deciduous fruit and nut trees, it occur mainly in spring, but sometimes it occurs in autumn as well. The region prone to frost should adjust the date of planting of crop, microclimate, variety and other preventive measure. According to Attaway (1997) in South Carolina, northern Florida and Georgia, orange fruit were commonly grown before 1835, but losses due to frost damage, farmers did not prefer to grow oranges in that regions. The history of frost damage is more sporadic in nature leading to some major losses from time to time. In December 1990 and 1998

Californiacitrus industry suffered two major damaging events of frost which ranged from little damage in some regions to severe damage in the other region. The economic losses to fruit crops were high in the frost occurring in 1990 compare to frost in 1998.

Key Points

• Frostbite occurs when exposed to freezing temperatures. Animals that are weak and malnourished are more likely to be injured.

• It is a prevalent condition throughout the winter, particularly in animals who do not have shelter or have inadequate protection to protect them from the cold.

• Excessive cold can harm skin and subcutaneous tissue. In severe circumstances, injuries may be irreversible.

Introduction

Frostbite, also known as freezing cold damage, is caused by prolonged exposure to temperatures below 0º C. Exposure to freezing temperatures causes excessive heat loss, disrupting the body's heat balance and resulting in systemic or local acute freezing injury. Frost bites cause superficial tissue injury, but in extreme cases, gangrene develops in the joint or synovial sheath, and the animal dies from toxemia. However, all animal species are susceptible. It occurs rarely in healthy and well-nourished animals. Animals that have lost their coats or are malnourished are particularly vulnerable to harm. Prolonged exposure to colder temperatures increases the risk of frostbite and the severity of the injury. In the majority of cases, frostbite occurs in animals that are left in winter.

1. FRUITS

Fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, mainly one or more ovaries.

1.1. Types

1.1.1. Fleshy

1.1.1.1. Simple fleshy fruits

Develop from a flower with a single pistil.

MANGO

(Mangifera indica, Anacardiaceae; 2n=40, Origin; Indo-Burma)

• India contributes 56% of total mango production in the world
• Highest productivity in the world– Venezuela
• Pollination: House fly (Musca domestica)
• The flower is hermaphroditic with male and female flowers in the same flower panicle.
• Inflorescence-Panicle
• Hybridization work was started by Burns and Prayag in 1911 at Pune in MH.
• Caging technique of breeding was used in Mango by Dr. R. N. Singh.
• In mango, only 0.1% flower develops fruit to maturity.
• The optimum temperature range for its growth and development is 24°C to 27°C.
• It can tolerate up to 48°C during fruit development with regular irrigations, which improve fruit size, quality and maturity.
• For flower bud differentiation, suitable temp is13°C–19°C.
• Mangoes are highly susceptible to low temperature injury/Chilling injury.

Introduction
Fruits and vegetables are an important part of the human diet as they provide the necessary nutrition, essential minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, dietary fiber, etc., required for maintaining proper health. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China. Comparison of area under horticultural crops during 2011-12 and 2021-22 indicate substantial improvement from 18.5 million ha to 27.6 million ha with a simultaneous increase in production from 215.04 million MT to about 333.25 million MT respectively in the country within a span of just one decade (Table 1.1). The credit for this spectacular growth in area and production goes to the sustained efforts of the central and state governments for the launch of several farmers’/ growers’ welfare schemes viz., National Horticulture Mission (NHM), Horticulture Mission for Northeast and Himalayan states (HMNEH), Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH); R&D support by the ICAR and State Agriculture & Horticulture Universities, extension agencies/Krishi Vigyan Kendra and proactive farmers and orchardists. However, the increase in production has still not kept pace with the improvement in infrastructure for post-harvest handling, management, processing, and value addition. Various studies still indicate that under normal conditions more than 15-20% of the produce goes to waste from production to consumption which in monetar terms accounts for huge economic losses. A recent study sponsored by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries Government of India and conducted by NABARD Consultancy Services has indicated that about 19.33 million MT worth Rs 58013.71 Crores of fruit & vegetables goes to waste annually as postharvest loss (4.87-15.05%) in various channels from harvesting to consumption (NABCONS,2022). The condition becomes even worse when there is a glut in the market, road blockades, or seasonal vagaries, and farmers are forced to leave their produce in the field itself without harvesting or dispose it at throwaway prices. Such a situation can, however, be controlled by diverting thisproduce to processing for conversion into a number of value-added products for its later use in human consumption. Thus, processing and preservation of horticultural crops have now become a necessity rather than a luxury.

Major industries constituting the food processing industry are grains, sugar, edible oils, beverages and dairy products. The key sub-segments of the food processing industry in India are dairy, fruits and vegetables, poultry and meat processing, fisheries, food retail etc. Agro processing is the sunrise sector of the Indian economy in view of its large potential for growth and likely socio economic impact specifically on employment and income generation. India has the advantage of being one of the fastest growing economies in the world and it is the largest producer of several agricultural commodities. The food processing sector ranks first in terms of employment and number of factories in operation and third in terms of output.

In India, out of the total production of fruits and vegetables, nearly 76 per cent is consumed in fresh form, while wastage due to improper post harvest accounts for 20 to 35 per cent. Only around 2 percent of vegetables and 4 percent of fruit production are being processed. 

4.1 Introduction

A huge amount of waste in the form of liquid and solid is produced in the fruit and vegetable processing industry which causes pollution problem if not utilized or disposed off properly. Generally solid waste is dumped in local landfills, eaten and scattered by stray animals, which has now become a major cause of environmental pollution. The waste obtained from fruit processing industry is extremely diverse due to the use of wide variety of fruits and vegetables, the broad range of processes and the multiplicity of the product [79]. The solid waste from fruits and vegetables includes peel, stone, rag, seed, core etc is of economic value and can be used for manufacturing of various by-products [21]. The extent of the waste produced from processing industries of some of the important fruits and vegetables, is given in Table 1.

In India, utilization of fruits and vegetables for processing is hardly 1.8% of the total production. There were 5166 processing units till 1^st Jan, 2009 of fruits and vegetables products throughout the country. About 90% of these units are small scale units with annual production limit of 50-250 tonnes. These units have no organized methods of waste disposal. In certain places this waste is taken away by farmers for their disposal as cattle feed or field manure.

Fruits have been one of the earliest foods of mankind. Ancient Indian texts like Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, religious books and puranas are replete with mention of various kinds of fruits. The mango is believed to have been grown for more than 4000 years. Mention of apple, the forbidden fruit, in the Holy Bible is well known. The date-palm is recorded as the fruit crop grown by mankind since 7000 BC. The first book in the world on fruit culture is said to have been the one written on litchi in 1056 AD. In the earlier period of human civilization, fruits served both as food and medicine. Fruits, nuts and tubers were the staples for early wanderers and gatherers. The settled agriculture made mankind more dependent on cereals, pulses and oilseeds for staples and fruits, vegetables and nuts became more a medicine than food.

Many evolutionary and anthropological changes occurred in course of time with changing food habits. At every stage of major change, food habits determined the life expectancy. After completing a full cycle or helix, time has returned to focus on fruits and vegetables again as food, from a stand point of health and wellbeing. From being trees of wild and forests in earlier period, fruit crops became confined to palaces and orchards of Kings in medieval period. In modern Era, it came to stay as commercial commodities dictating the terms of trade. Due to its growing commercial importance the governments across the globe focused to expand the area under fruit crops and cross border trade in several fruits and vegetables. Horticulture research started prioritizing the traits in fruits that determine the economics of trade. In line with these developments, Indian government assigned great significance to horticultural crops since 8^th five-year plan period, and the allocation for horticultural research was increased to `110.2 crores from `31.96 crores in the previous plan. During the 10^th five-year plan period in 2005-06, the National Horticulture Mission was started. As the net outcome of these efforts, the area under fruit crops increased from 2.87 million ha in 1991-92 to 6.48 million ha in 2016-17. The production increased from 28.63 million tonnes to 92.85 million tonnes and productivity from 9.96 tonnes/ha to 14.33 tonnes/ha during the same period (Anon, 2017).

Out of the total value of output of agricultural crops, fruits and vegetables contribute the lion’s share of 23%. The major fruit crops producing states are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal and Chattisgarh. The major fruit crops grown are banana, mango, citrus fruits (sweet orange, mandarin, lime & lemons), peach, guava, papaya, pomegranate, sapota, apple, pineapple, ber, litchi, avocado, etc. Several minor crops like jackfruit, aonla, bael, jamun, custard apple, fig, karonda, phalsa, carambola, etc., are also grown. Some exotic fruit crops like dragon fruit, kiwi, durian, Malayan apple, rambutan, etc., are also getting imported either due to its extra ordinary taste or exotic flavor.

Introduction

The term cropping system refers to cropping patterns used on a farm and their interactions with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and available technology over a fixed period. The fruit based cropping system includes different fruit crops as major component on particular field for a fixed period through intercropping or multistory cropping. Intercropping is growing of two or more crops together on same piece of land simultaneously with definite row arrangements to utilize farm resources efficiently. Multistory/Multitier cropping refers to growing together of  crops of different heights at the same time on the same piece of land and thereby using land, water and space in an efficient and economic manner.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Drought and rampant poverty, the double plague of arid region, present a scenario of misery and insecurity across the region where agriculture is the main livelihood and chief source for subsistence of the rural people. The conditions of low and erratic rainfall, extreme temperature conditions, high evapo-transpiration, scarce water resources, infertile and saline soils with ill-defined profile development threaten sustainable agriculture. Sustainable productivity is difficult to achieve by monoculture of either seasonal or forage crops. Thus cropping system approach for agricultural production is of far greater significance in these regions. Traditionally efforts have been made by the native people, obviously to achieve sustainable production ensuring ecological stability, to grow several species together, e.g. pearl millet, moth bean, cluster bean and gram between the natural stands of khejri (Prosopis cineraria), bordi (Zizyphus rotundifolia), lasoda (Cordia myxa), pilu (Salvadora oleoides), and ker (Capparis decidua). The perennial species also provide fodder for sheep and goats during scarcity periods.

Fruit based cropping system is now considered to be the most ideal strategy to provide food, nutrition and income security to the people (Chundawat, 1993, Chadha, 2002, Awasthi and Pareek, 2008). Integration of annual crops with fruit trees yields multiple outputs that ensure production and income generation (Randhawa, 1990 and Osman, 2003) in a sustainable manner. Natural resources (land, solar radiation, water, soil etc.) as well as socio-economic inputs (labour, credit, power, and market infrastructure) are efficiently utilized. Crop productivity under tree canopy is enhanced due to improved soil fertility (Young, 1989) and ameliorative influence of shade by reducing understorey temperature and evapotranspiration (Bunderson et al., 1990). Incorporation of fruit trees into the cropping system is more remunerative. It increases the resilience of the system over time. It enables to i) maximize system productivity on annual basis, ii) utilize resources with high efficiency through due consideration of various interactions and direct, residual and cumulative effects occurring in soil-plant-atmosphere continuum, iii) intensify input use vis-à-vis quality of environment, and iv) impart sustainability of farm resources and environment in long term perspective. The type of horticulture based cropping system in arid region has been discussed in this paper considering these issues.

Beverages:-The fruit beverages are easily digestible, highly refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing, nutritionally for superior than many other synthetic drink. There are two types of fruit beverages i.e. unfermented beverages and fermented beverages. Natural juice, RTS (Ready to Serve), nector, cordial, squash, crush syrup, fruit juice concentrate and fruit juice powder are the main unfermented beverages. The fermented beverages are wine, champaigne, port, sherry, tokay, muscut, neera, cidar, orange wine, berry wine and fenny are the important.

Fruit juices which do not undergo alcoholic fermentation are termed as unfermented beverages. They include natural and sweetened juices, RTS, nectar, cordial, squash, crush, syrup, fruit juice concentrate and fruit juice powder. Barley waters and carbonated beverages are also included in this group.

Fruit crops, majority of them are generally perennial in nature and owing to the outcrossing during their evolutionary stages, they are highly heterozygous. Genetic improvement is extremely difficult due to the complex genetic nature. The germplasm collection, conservation and evaluation take long time and area. Although the concept of core collection is very much valid, there is always a question mark when it comes to highly heterozygous crops as to whether the sample is good enough to represent the population. Due to the propagation by seeds, the large variability present needs to be evaluated for various characteristics. The genetical studies carried out in many of these crops are not conclusive and the progeny performance cannot be predicted. The biometrical methods to estimate the parameters viz., combining ability, heritability using the methodologies such as diallel have proven to be futile excercises to a very great extent. Parental selection, which is so vital for a successful breeding programme is very difficult as mainly selection has to be based upon the phenotype. Breeding for particular traits like biotic or abiotic stress has been difficult as resistance is not found within the spp and interspecific / intergeneric hybridization is difficult because of incompatibility barriers for eg the ‘PRSV’ breeding programme in papaya. In highly heterozygous crop like mango, there exists strong genotype x environmental interaction, which alters the performance of improved varieties.

Indian subcontinent is a mega-center of crop plant diversity, as well as wild relatives and other useful taxa (Zeven and de Wet 1982). Diverse agroclimatic conditions, agricultural practices, and ethnic diversification have resulted in the development of a rich diversity of crop plants among native and introduced taxa (Arora 1991). Fruit crops contribute significantly to nutrition and health because they are high in dietary energy and contain a significant amount of vitamins and minerals (Pareek et al., 1998). Most of these species serve multiple functions, such as food, shelter, timber, fuel, medicine etc. As a result of their numerous applications, tropical fruits significantly contribute to food and nutritional security, income generation, ecosystem and environmental sustainability.

Jammu division with three agro-climatic zones viz., sub-tropical, intermediate (low hills) and temperate (Fig. 1) has vast potential for horticultural industry by way of improving the productivity of existing orchards and using vast tracts of underutilized wastelands, kandi areas of sub-tropical zone and hilly areas of intermediate and temperate zones for fruit production. For this, there is need for plantation of suitable varieties, budded/grafted on proper rootstock and following of improved orchard management practices viz., training and pruning, nutrient and water management and pest and disease control. At present, fruits occupy an area of 118805.00 ha with the production of 274006.70 MT and productivity of 2.31 MT/ha in Jammu division.

Sub-tropical zone

It comprises both irrigated and unirrigated areas and goes upto an attitude of 500 m above mean sea level. This zone is characterized by hot summers and relatively dry but pronounced winters. The land is suitable for cultivation of mango, citrus crops (sweet orange, mandarin particularly kinnow, lime, lemon), guava, litchi, ber, papaya and other minor fruits. Some low chill varieties of temperate fruits like peach, plum, pear and strawberry have been introduced at Advanced Centre for Horticulture Research (ACHR) of SKUAST-J, Udheywalla and peach cultivars Shan-e-Punjab, Flordasun and Flordared and pear cultivars Patharnakh and LeConte have shown good yield and quality crop. Besides, strawberry cultivars Chandler, Gorella, Fern and Belrubi have also shown promising yield with proper management practices. For rainfed areas, hardy fruits like aonla, phalsa, ber, guava, lasoda, karonda and custard apple are more suitable with aonla, phalsa and ber being commercially more viable.

Introduction

Fruits are undoubtedly God’s gift to mankind. Fruits are protective foods as they contain vitamins, minerals and enzymes, necessary for better functioning of human body and for fighting diseases. History of fruits is as old as that of Adam and Eve who ate the forbidden apple. Date palm seems to be the earliest fruit cultivated by man as early as 7000 B.C. Pomegranate is also one of the oldest fruits which was under cultivation as early as 3500 B.C. During ancient times, monks survived solely on fruits and milk giving an indication about importance of fruits and antiquity of fruits in India. India is the place of origin of mango, banana, phalsa, jack fruit, bael, aonla and a few citrus fruits whereas all other fruits are introduced from foreign countries. Litchi, loquat, persimmon, peach and sweet orange are from China; papaya, guava, sapota, avocado, custard apple and pineapple are from tropical America; and apple, plum, pear, date palm, mangosteen, strawberry, cherry, almond, walnut, apricot, grape and pomegranate are from the Central Asiatic Regions.

Introduction

Salinity is an encompassing term used to describe saline and sodic soils, and the marginal quality groundwater unsuitable for crop irrigation. A soil is considered to be ‘salt-affected’ when either excess soluble salts or excess exchangeable sodium or both adversely affect the soil properties and plant growth. Depending on the values of soil saturation paste extract electrical conductivity (EC_e), pH (pH_s) and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), salt-affected soils (SAS) are grouped into saline (EC_e > 4 dS m^-1, pH_s < 8.2 and high ESP< 15) and sodic (EC_e< 4 dS m^-1, pH_s>8.2 and ESP >15) categories. Under certain conditions, both excess soluble salts and exchangeable sodium may be present resulting in saline-sodic conditions (EC_e > 4 dS m^-1, pH_s>8.2 and ESP >15)(Sharma and Singh, 2015). Based on FAO/UNESCO soil map of the world (1970-1980), the global extent of SAS was earlier computed to be 831 Million ha (M ha) consisting of 397 M ha saline and the remainder 434 M ha sodic soils. Although this estimate is still widely used, recent studies suggest comparatively higher global extent of salinity and the associated problems; especially in irrigated arid and semi-arid regions across the world. Not withstanding the discrepancies in such estimates, it is certain that salinity continues to impose substantial costs on global food production and environmental sustainability.

Fruit drop is a natural phenomenon, which occurs in most of the fruit crops. Fruit trees usually bear a large number of flowers and only a very small percentage leads to harvesting of fruits. Fruit drop occurs at various stages of maturity of fruit development. It is an adjustment of tree to its resources. Such drop is natural and beneficial to the trees and it will prevent exhaustion of the resources and breaking of branches by overbearing. The fruit drop usually takes place in definite waves or at a definite stage and those are presetting, post setting, jar drop and pre harvest drop.

The first drop i.e. presetting occurs immediately after flower opening. Usually male flowers as well as female/ hermaphrodite flowers with aborted pistil drop off at this stage.

Second drop i.e. post setting occurs a fortnight later than the first drop. This drop includes unfertilized flowers as well as some fertilized flowers drop as a result of adjustment in the trees between nutritional factors arid fruit set.

Fruit drop is a premature shedding of fruitsbefore harvesting for commercial purpose. There are so many reasons for fruit drop like internal (Hormonal balance, morphological and genetical) and external (biotic and abiotic) factors. Fruit drop is very much serious in some fruits like apple, peach, currant, mango, citrus etc. Fruit drop may occur at various stages of fruit growth,starting right from fruit setting till its harvesting. It may be natural, environmental or pest related.Losses due to fruit drop at various stages have long been a serious threat to the fruit growers. After determining the actual cause of fruit drop, adoption of a suitable control measure can bring relief to the growers. Among different drops, pre-harvest drop is of great economic importance which can cause serious crop loss to farmer.

1. Introduction

India has diverse agro-climatic conditions which, widely promote the cultivation of different types of fruit crop. A wide variety of fruit crops are grown across the country such as banana, mango, citrus, papaya, guava, grapes, pomegranate, apple etc. Globally, we rank second in fruit production after China. The total area under fruit crops is 66.64 lakh ha with a production of 99.06 million Mt (Anon., 2018). However, the average productivity (13.03 t/ha) in fruit crops is quite low than other countries. Further, the per capita fruits availability in our country is 207.9 g/ day which is below than the recommended quantity of 230 g/capita/day (Anon., 2018). 

Losses resulting from pre harvest and harvest drop of fruits have long been a serious problem to the fruit growers. As the fruits of some species and varieties approach the picking maturity, they tend to loosen from the stalk and considerable quantities may drop prior to and during the picking operation. Such fruits are badly damaged and if salvaged have a very low value compared with those picked from the tree. In certain fruit crops, the problem of fruit drop is very serious. Whereas in some, the fruit drop starts right from the time of fruit set and is severe at a number of stages of fruit development. In some fruit crop serious drop occurs before harvest.

Fruit firmness is an important indicator of maturity. During ripening, fruits may soften and become too soft at the overripe stage. The changes are detected by pressing the fruit in between hands or by using devices like a pressure tester or texture analyzer to measure the texture of fruits and vegetables. Commonly used pressure testers to measure the firmness of fruits and vegetables are the Magness–Taylor Pressure Tester and Penetrometer. Principle: For the measurement of pressure, the maximum force required to rupture the sample is measured by pushing a cylindrical metal probe into the sample to a given depth. The Magness-Taylor pressure tester can be used to determine the softening of fruits during maturity. In this instrument 10 lb or 30 lb force springs are available. Each of them is provided with one or two punches of 5/16 or 7/16 inch in diameter. The plunger of larger diameter is used on softer material, while; the smaller one is used for firmer material.
Procedure
1. Select the pressure tester according to type of fruit
2. Remove a thin portion of the skin in case of waxy fruits

‘FRUIT’, “a food, drink and medicine, neatly packed by nature in attractive, handy and easy-to-open containers”, is a sensible definition indicating significance of fruits in human life. In botanical terms, fruit is a ripened ovary and in horticultural science it is the plant product, which is edible on ripening. From the nomadic age to present day civilized life, man has used fruits as food. Human civilization is irrevocably linked with the culture of fruit plants and trees. References of larges number of fruits in the very ancient literature of different languages throw light to this fact.

Fruits exhibit vast diversity in various forms, shapes and aspects. According to climatic requirements, they are temperate, tropical and subtropical crops. Major tropical and subtropical fruits include mango, banana, citrus, grapes, litchi, pineapple, papaya, sapota, guava, mangosteen, avocado, jack, ber, passion fruit etc. Fruits can be grown in very rich and favourable climatic conditions, but some fruits are adapted to adverse conditions of dessert (date palm), moisture-stress arid zones (aonla, ber, custard apple) and saline regions. Fruit plants vary in morphological traits such as plant size and shape. They may be herbaceous as banana and pineapple, shrubs as cherries and phalsa, small trees as ber and limes, big trees as mango and jack and vines as passion fruit and grapes. Fruits are of different sizes and shapes also. The range is from very small berries of phalsa to very big fruits of durian and jack. Taste wise variation is also very clear in fruits. We have very sweet fruits (litchi, sapota, dates and banana) acidic/sour ones (aonla, tamarind, bilimbi) and fruits with specific sugar/acid blend (varieties of mango, grapes, oranges).

Fruit jelly is an important part of diet of all human being. It is easily digestible, highly refreshing, appetizing and nutritionally far superior to many foods. Today, a wide variety of fruit jellies are consumed in the home, at work place and sport stadium. There has been considerable increase in the consumption of fruit and vegetable jellies in the world during last few years. Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear strained fruit extract free from pulp after the addition of required amount of sugar, citric acid and pectin. It should contain minimum 65 percent of total soluble solids and minimum 45 percent of fruit portion (Dhawan, 1998). Guava is rich source of pectin and acid content and have thick flesh is preferred for jelly making. For getting good quality jelly, mix under-ripe fruits give better pectin content and ripe fruits provide the flavor. Winter season fruits yield better quality jelly (Singh and Dhawan, 1983). It is a clear or translucent fruit spread made from sweetened fruit (or vegetable) juice and set using naturally occurring pectin. Additional pectin may be added where the original fruit does not supply enough. Jelly can be made from sweet, savory or hot ingredients. It is made by a process similar to that used for making jam, with the additional step of filtering out the fruit pulp after the initial heating.

Jellies are the products used as bread spreads all over the world. These are made from fruits rich in pectin. Guava, because of its rich pectin content, is processed into jelly. Processing of guava into jelly is practiced by processors all over the world. Colouring of jams and jellies has been an age old practices colorants. Great attention is being paid now days to the usage of natural colours in view of the hazards that the synthetic colours pose to human health. Incorporation of carrot resulted in colour improvement over control. Jelly containing carrot as a colouring source was found slightly better than other vegetables. Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear strained fruit extract free from pulp after the addition of required amount of sugar, citric acid and pectin. It should contain minimum 65% of total soluble solids and minimum 45% of fruit portion (Dhawan, 1998).

9.1. Introduction

Fruit juice and beverages generally comprise of naturally extracted juices, drinks, ready to serve (RTS) beverages, nectars, squashes, cordials and appetizers etc. These products are highly refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing and nutritionally superior to many synthetic and aerated drinks. Fruit juice is the natural liquid expressed by pressure or other mechanical means from the edible portion of the fruit. Fruit juices are generally extracted from fruits in a number of ways, depending on their structure and composition.

The composition of juice is unaltered during preparation and preservation while for fruit beverages like drinks, squashes, cordial etc the fruit juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour, flavour etc are mixed in appropriate proportions to a desirable taste. Apple juice, orange juice, mango squash, guava drink, pineapple juice and squash, mixed fruit drink, mango nectar etc are the commercial products available in the market.

Introduction
Fruit juice and beverages comprise naturally extracted juices, drinks, ready to serve (RTS) beverages, carbonated juice drinks, nectars, squashes, cordials and appetizers, etc. These products are highly refreshing, thirst-quenching, appetizing and nutritionally superior to many synthetic and aerated drinks. Fruit juice is the natural liquid expressed from the edible portion of the fruit. Fruit juices are generally extracted from fruits in several ways, depending on their structure and composition. Soft fruits such as berries or tomatoes can be pressed in a fruit press or pulped by using a juicer attachment to a food processor. Citrus fruits are usually reamed to extract the clear juice. Harder fruits, such as pineapple, are peeled, pulped and pressed to extract the juice. Apple and pear fruits are crushed in a fruit grater and pressed in a hydraulic/ basket press to extract a clear juice. Passion fruit juice is prepared by using a pulper-finisher that separates the skin and seeds from the pulp. The fruits like mango, guava, apricot, peach etc from which the clear juice extraction is difficult are passed through the pulper to make pulp and then the pulp is utilized for preparation of juice, fruit drinks and ready to serve beverages. The composition of juice is unaltered during preparation and preservation while for fruit beverages like drinks, squashes, cordial etc the fruit juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour, flavour etc are mixed in appropriate proportions to a desirable taste. Apple juice, orange juice, mango squash, guava drink, pineapple juice and squash, mixed fruit drink, mango nectar etc are the commercial products available in the market.

10.1 Introduction

Edible oil production is a separate sector of the food processing industry. There are several species of plants in the world whose oil can be utilized for human consumption for edible and non-edible uses. Though around 40 oilseeds are known, only around a dozen oilseed crops have become commercially important including ten seed crops and three tree crops. These oil seed crops (mostly annual) of commercial importance are groundnut, rapeseed-mustard, sesame, soybean, sunflower, cottonseed, safflower, niger, castor and linseed. The three major tree oil crops are palm, olive and coconut [63]. Besides these, the kernels of some other tree crops i.e. apricot, almond, walnut, hazelnut, olive (fruits are used), peach, can also be utilized for oil extraction purposes for edible and non-edible uses. Besides oil of the oilseed crops, the oils of tree fruits and kernels are also becoming popular very fast for various food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.

Large scale requirement and local shortages of oils for various edible and non-edible uses have prompted the identification of many new sources of oil during the last few decades. They are ricebran, corn, sal, mahua, jatropha, kokum, melia, rubber, mango kernel, kusum, simarouba, neem, karanj, crambe, moringa, tumba, jojoba and tobacco seed etc. Most of these oilseeds and their products have wide utility in the specialty oils sector and are mostly used for non-edible purposes. Soaps and detergents, paint and varnish, lubricants, pesticides and medicines, cosmetics, bio-diesel fuel industry are the major consumers of these non-traditional oilseeds. All the oil crops will gain greater attention in future as they are renewable and biodegradable in nature [63]. List of oil crops have been given in Table 1.

Abstract

Fruit leather is a concentrated source of nutrient, energy and minerals processed from fruits in the form of sheet or leather. It is eaten as a desert or snack since ancient time. Fruit leathers have a greater benefit than fresh fruits if equilibrium ingredients are established and seasonal surplus of fruits are utilized and contributed to minimize post-harvest losses. The process of making fruit leathers involve making fruit puree and adding additives and preservatives for the purpose of enhancing taste and shelf-life. Drying, the key unit operation in making fruit leathers, is the most energy intensive and time consuming step in the process, modern drying techniques can be implemented to overcome the limitations. By novel means of processing technologies or enrichment could lead fruit leather to introduce high quality food product in the market. Continuous research and development can lead to a new era of production and development of fruit processing and overcome the obstacles during processing. In addition study on chemical and biochemical hazards involved in overall process will guide to ensure product safety. Market research tools e.g. quality function deployment method and other market analysis methods could be applied to understand the product trend, demand, consumer expectations and the scopes of improvement.

Fruit trees can be planted in the backyard or any open space near the house. In absence of backyard area, fruit trees can also be grown on the rooftop by planting in polythene bag, plastic container, cemented pot, etc. Growing fruits like papaya, banana, lemon, mango, pineapple, coconut, pomegranate, etc. in the premises of house can fulfil the family requirement of fruits. It will help to get fresh fruits from own garden, which are free from any chemical or pesticide. There is a different satisfaction in plucking of fruits grown by own effect.

Mango

Mango (Mangifera indica) is one of the prominent fruit crops of India. It has delicious taste and excellent flavour. Mango fruit is utilized at all the stages of its development. Raw fruits are used for preparation of pickle, chutney and juice. The ripe fruits are consumed directly and are used for preparation of several products like squash, syrup, jam and jelly. Ripe mango contains about 0.6 per cent protein, 0.1 per cent fat, 11.8 per cent carbohydrate, 0.3 per cent minerals and 1.1 per cent fibre. 

There is wastage and loss of food during its journey from production to consumption. Approximately one-third of the massive 1.3 billion tonnes of food produced annually goes to waste due to various factors such as poor
handling after harvesting, unfavorable storage conditions, insect infestations, and diseases. To combat these losses, synthetic chemicals have historically been used to control pathogens and pests, but concerns over their potential health risks have led to restrictions on their usage. In response, researchers are now focusing on developing safer and more effective physical treatments for disinfecting and protecting horticultural produce. This chapter specifically explores the advantages of using heat treatment as one such method, discussing how it helps maintain the quality of fruits and vegetables while simultaneously reducing postharvest losses.
Some of the heat processing methods are discussed below:
Fruit juices, RTS and nectars are preserved by pasteurization or by using chemical preservatives. Squashes, crushes, syrups and cordials are preserved by adding chemical preservative like potassium metabisulphite or sodium benzoate.

Introduction

Marketing as we know plays an important role in the proper utilization of any crop irrespective of its type and variety. Unless and until producer is not able to market his crop efficiently, he will not get the remunerative price for his produce. For the past few years marketing part is getting more attention than production as giving 100 per cent to the production side only will not pay much to the farmers. Proper distribution of the product to its proper place where demand is more and that too in time is also important. Government is also encouraging the farmers for marketing of their produce in a right and effective manner. No doubt every crop is in need of efficient marketing but fruits because of more perishable in nature require advanced marketing facilities.

1. _________________ work for grape fruit setting.

   a) Alar

   b) IAA

   c) Cytokinin

   d) Abscissic acid

2. A fruits that develops from a hollow pear-shaped fleshy receptacle (hypanthodium) which encloses a number of minute male and female flowers in known as :

   a) Aggregate fruit

   b) Hesperidium

   c) Pome fruit

   d) Syconus fruit

Classification refers to grouping of individuals with similar identities related to genetic make up, evolution or climatic requirements. The major units are order, family, sub-family, genus, species, variety/cultivar and strain. Monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous are two major classes and most of the fruits are covered under dicotyledonous family. Different basis of classification of fruits are: Botanical; Ecological; Stem morphology; Fruit morphology; Flowering habit; Respiration rate; Photoperiodism; Shade tolerance; Drought tolerance; Soil texture and topography; Soil reaction; Soil tolerance; Horticultural; Bearing habit; Inflorescence type; pollination types; Type of self incompatibility; Type of dichogamy; Edible parts; Center of origin; Ploidy levels; Longevity of fruit crops; Fruit size and Nutrient contents of fruits.