eChapters

Studies have shown that modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), and controlled atmosphere storage have the ability to delay quality losses and thus extend shelf life of fresh or minimally processed or fresh-cut produce (Church 1994; Gil et al. 1996a, b; Lee et al. 1995). Modified atmosphere packaging of fruits can result in reduction of respiratory activity, delay in softening and ripening and a reduced incidence of various physiological disorders and pathogenic infestations (Artés 1993).

Jamun (Syzygium cuminii L. Skeels) is an evergreen tropical tree which belongs to family ‘Myrtaceae’. It is commonly known as java plum, jambul, jamun, black plum, faux pistachier, Indian blackberry, doowet and jambolan. Jamun is native to the subtropical Himalayas, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Australia. Its fruits are delicious and have great importance in folk medicine (Ayyanar and Subash, 2012).

Food and nutrition are necessary for all living beings to maintain good health[1]. Thermal treatment is commonly used for preservation of food. Although application of thermal treatment can ensure food safety, it may cause undesirable changes in the nutritional, sensory and functional properties of food products[2]. Due to growing awareness of connection between the diet and the health, there is an increase in demands for fresh-like, palatable, additive-free and microbiologically safe food products with high nutritional value and quality[3].

Food preservation methods are important in order to avoid glut or shortage of food in the market. In addition it helps to increase the shelf life, maintain the nutritional and sensorial quality, facilitate transportation and improve the overall value of the commodity. Even though various methods of food preservation are available now. Most of the conventional methods are thermal preservation methods which may result in the loss of volatile nutrients and flavour, different sensorial modifications, microbial spread with or without gas production, damage to the microstructure, rupture of coating or packaging surfaces and microbial recontamination caused by non-hermetic closure.

A number of quality management tools are being used in food processing industry. Often selection of such tools are tough as it involves several factors for decision-making. The problem of choice of quality management and tools can be solved by selection on the basis of the objective decision making process rather than on the opinion of the decision makers (Sukkarn and Thawesaengskulthai, 2015).

Probiotics have been newly defined as ‘live microbes which passage the gastrointestinal tract and in doing so benefit the health of the consumer differing from the earlier definitions which focused on probiotic interfaces with original intestinal microbes (Fuller, 1989). These definitions of probiotic bacteria generally agree that probiotic bacteria should be living organisms toward consult health benefits. Probiotics have been reported to play a therapeutic role by modulating immunity, lowering cholesterol, improving lactose tolerance and preventing some cancers (Kailasapathy and Chin, 2000).

In India after rice wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the second most important cultivated food crop belonging to family poaceae. Total production of wheat was 760 million tons in India during 2016-2017 (FAOSTAT, 2017) which is second largest in the world after china. In India highest producing state of wheat is Uttar Pradesh followed by Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan etc. Wheat is categorize into seven commonly known wheat classes those are hard red spring, hard red winter, soft red winter, hard white, soft white, durum and mixed wheat (Khamis, 2014). 

Most of the starch sources are cereals (40 to 90%), tubers (65 to 85%), roots (30 to 70%), legumes (25 to 50%) which contain nearly 70% of starch on dry basis (Santana & Meireles, 2014). Major application of starch is seen in food production, where it is used as a thickening agent, for stabilization, adsorption, gelling, for binding aromatic compounds and as a film forming agent as well (Subaric et al., 2007). About 0.8-3.2 tons of CO2 per ton of plastic can be saved by using starch-based plastics (Patel 1999).

Drying is basically the unit operations which is used in many of the food industry nowadays. It can be desirably known as the process of removing moisture to relent a hard products. It is the transfer of energy source, mostly it derives heat from the outer environment to the dryer in which the food products is placed.

As a result of a number of health advantages provided by functional foods, a substantial rise in their popularity has been seen in recent years (Keservani et al., 2010).

Diverse categories of Food Products such as canning, preservation of fruits and vegetables, processing of poultry products, dairy goods and many more present different challenges for wastewater disposal and regular use of water. A significant source of environmental pollution is the dissipated water generated from food product development and other agricultural tasks. This waste is being considered the most strenuous and requires a high amount of capital to convert this waste into reusable waste and the main reason behind this is different nutritional components such as inorganic and organic carbon compounds, nitrogenous elements, suspended and dissolved solids, high amount of biochemical and chemical oxygen demands (BOD & COD).

The proposal presented takes into account the rationale of using natural source of immunity, discarding any preservatives or artificial flavors and additives. Collection of fresh produce followed by processing of fruits and vegetables, in the form of a veggie mix slushy which is ready to eat, ready to cook and easy to digest, through the use of sustainable retorting technology. The proposal takes into account the major problems regarding food for the elder like lack of digestion, in sufficient appetite, lack of value in terms of vitamins and minerals of food, also targeting the notion of feeling sick by taking multi vitamin and immunity tablets on a regular basis.

In India the problems of protein energy malnutrition, anemia, and vitamin A deficiency are more prevalent among children and adolescents (Udayasree, Manjula, & Sowjanya, 2013). To overcome these problems, the need of nutritional compositions rich foods came into existence. One of such foods which constitute the most significant attention of nutrients is “Spirulina”. Spirulina is a common name for supplements derived mainly from two Cyanobacteria species, i.e. Arthrospira maxima and Arthrosepira platensis, which are human and animal.

Fermentation is one of the ancient techniques that been routinely used to maintain the quality of food products. This process involves the breakdown of complex substances like carbohydrates into smaller ones which assist in extending the shelf life of food products. Fermented foods and beverages shared the major portion of the human diet which positively affect the body. Beer is a low alcoholic drink in which malt, hops and other adjuncts like aromatic herbs, honey and others are fermented with yeast to obtain a product that offers unique flavour, taste and aroma (Sohrabvandi et al., 2012).

Lanolin, commonly known as Wool grease is primarily a lipid secretion from sebaceous glands of wool bearing animals. The role of Lanolin in nature is to protect wool and skin of animal from climate and the environment. It is an excellent emollient, self-emulsifying and dermatological safe for skin applications. Lanolin is a complex matrix since it is a mixture of high molecularweight esters of fatty acids with fatty alcohols, sterols, tri-terpene alcohols; diesters, long-chain alcohols & diols, long-chain fatty acids and hydroxy acids and is therefore difficult for effective matrix clean-up. Because of its water proofing and antimicrobial properties, lanolin is used mainly in cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications.

Most traditional food processing techniques like boiling, cooling, freezing, and blanching are used in a home kitchen. But now-a-days, food processing and preservation industries combine these techniques with other processing operations by using different technical prospects. As a subset of traditional processing technologies, modern processing technologies include hot air sterilization, vacuum cooking and pulsed electric-field technology as well as high pressure treatment, extrusion, microwave processing, and pulsed electric field technology.

Pre-harvest factors are responsible for the majority of post-harvest losses. Fruits which have already been infected with insects and pathogens, have been poorly irrigated and fertilized, or are of low quality before harvesting will never benefit with post-harvest cures. As a result, the process of accomplishing production quality, as well as harvesting, processing, and selling, must be taken into account.

Fruits are an essential component of a human’s healthy diet. Fruits are used as a supplement to primary foods. When compared to grains, many fruits have far greater nutritional potential. The common fig is one of the most important and widely consumed fruits (Ficus carica).

Cowpea is a quick growing leguminous forage crop. It is usually grown mixed with cereal fodders and grasses to improve the nutritive value of the herbage. It contains 20 – 24 % crude protein, 43 - 49 % neutral detergent fibre, 34 – 37 % acid detergent fibre, 23– 25 % cellulose and 5 – 6 % hemicelluloses on dry matter basis. The digestibility of cowpea fodder is above 70%. Cowpea can be grown under partial shaded conditions. It is an excellent cover crop, which suppresses weeds and enriches the soil. Cowpea requires warm climate with good atmospheric humidity. It can be grown in kharif as well as in zaid season.

Cumbu Napier hybrid grass is a cross between Cumbu (Pennisetum glaucum) and Napier grass (P. purpureum Schumach.), widely cultivated across India, Africa, Sri Lanka and South East Asian countries. As the hybrid is a triploid, it displays complete sterility and high vegetative growth. In Tamil Nadu, land area utilized for growing fodder is negligible, accounting only 1.6 per cent of the total cultivated area.

Forages: The term forages denote plants that are used for feeding the animals that are cultivated in the farm, or it may be a wild used for stock feeding grown for the vegetative purpose. The vegetative phase is encouraged and the reproductive phase is suppressed.

History of jute in India: In Mahabharata times the mention has been made regarding Jute garments as pattagam (patta produced) for jute fibre products and kitajam (insect produced) for silk products. In Ain-e-Akbari, there is mention of sack cloth made from jute, in Rangapur district.

Cotton is often called as “white gold”. True to its name cotton supports the largest agro based industries in India and cotton industry ranks first in the agro based industries and engages 4 to 5 million people in cotton growing. The industrial sector employs 1.0 million people. At present there are 3660 ginning and 1570 textile mills in India. India earns foreign exchange to a tune of Rs. 2500 million through exports of cotton textiles and products. Cotton is cultivated for ‘lint’ which is used for preparing threads, yarns and medical cotton mixed with synthetic fibre and for various other purposes.

The earlier view was that the cultivated sesame originated from Ethiopia. But Bedigian and Harlen (1984) established evidence to indicate that sesame is native of India. In vedic period, liberal mention about Til (Gingelly seed) and Taila (Gingelly oil) are mentioned. The Charred seeds of Gingelly were extracted from Harappa (2500-1500 B.C).

Oilseed crops are crops which are rich in fatty acid, cultivated for the production of vegetable oil. They are used either for edible or industrial or medicinal purposes. The important oilseeds are groundnut or peanut, sesame or gingelly, sunflower, rapeseed and mustard, soybean, castor, linseed or flax, niger and safflower.

Mungbean is one of the most important pulse crops. It is grown in almost all parts of the country. Mungbean is primarily a crop of rainy season; however, with the development of early maturing varieties, it has proved to be an ideal crop for spring and summer seasons. Middle of March to last week of June is the most suitable growing period where there is a plenty of life-giving sunshine. During this period high temperature and low humidity keep insects and disease infestations at their lowest. Summer season offers an excellent opportunity for raising short duration pulses.

Pulses are seeds of leguminous plants used as food. They produce dal rich in protein. The important pulse crops are greengram, blackgram, redgram, bengal gram, soybean, cowpea, peas, lentil and lathyrus. The total area under pulses in India is 29.81 m ha with a production of 25.42 m t and the productivity is 853 kg / ha. Pulses can grow both in rainfed and irrigated conditions.

Finger millet (Ragi/ Mandua) is the principal small millet grown in South Asia. It is believed to be native of India (De condole, 1886) but according to Vavilov (1926) it originated in Abyssinia.

Sorghum is probably originated in Africa. Because of the great diversity of types grown in East Central Africa, in and around Ethiopia and Sudan, it seems probable that it originated in that area (De Condole, 1884).

Maize is one of the world’s leading crops cultivated over an area of about 194 million hectares with a production of about 1147 million tonnes of grain (2020). Among the maize growing countries, USA has the largest area followed by China, Brazil, Argentina, Ukraine and India. In respect of production also USA stands first followed by China. Regarding average yield per hectare USA ranks first followed by China. The average maize yield in India is only 3065 kg per hectare which is much lower than most of the maize growing countries of the world.

System of Rice Intensification (SRI) was first developed in Madagascar during the 1980s SRI uses less inputs. It uses less seed, water, chemical fertilizers and pesticides but uses more organic manures. Rice grown with SRI technology has large root volume, profuse and strong tillers with big panicles, more and wellfilled spikelets with higher grain weight

The field is ploughed once and harrowed twice or thrice until the soil becomes well puddle. Beds are made slightly raised of 1 – 1.5 m in width and conveniently large in size and drainage channels in between the beds. The total area of nursery required to plant one hectare of land is 20 cents (800 m2 ). This method is suited where assured irrigation facilities are available. The beds should not be allowed to dry because they develop cracks and the seedlings will get spoiled. This method keeps down the weeds in the nursery. Seedlings are transplanted at 21-25 and 25-30 days age for SDV and MDV, respectively. Sparse sowing is recommended in case of hybrid rice. One kg of hybrid seed is sown in one cent area of nursery. This helps in good tillering and robust seedlings and makes it possible to transplant single seedling per hill. Seedlings are planted at 20-25 days.

Cereal grain contains 60 to 70% of starch and is excellent energy rich foods for humans. In almost every country and region, cereals provide the staple food. In the world as a whole, only 5% of starchy staple food comes from root crops (mainly cassava, potato, and yams, depending on climate), whereas the rest is from cereal. Cereals are an excellent source of fat-soluble vitamin E, which is an essential antioxidant. Whole cereal grains contain 20 to 30% of the daily requirements of the minerals such as selenium, calcium, zinc and copper.

Pulses may be defined as the dried edible seeds of cultivated legumes. They belong to the family of peas, beans and lentils (Family: Fabaceae). English word pulse is taken from the Latin word ‘Puls’, meaning pouage or thick pap. Pulses are a large family and various species are capable of surviving in very different climates and soils. Pulses are cultivated in all parts of the world and they occupy an important place in human diet.

The word cereal was derived from Ceres, the name of the Roman goddess of harvest and agriculture. Cereals are grasses (members of the monocot family Poaceae, also known as Gramineae) cultivated for the edible components of their grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ and bran. Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and therefore they are called staple crops.

Introduction

Gastro-intestinal parasites are considered as the 'silent killers' and remain hidden or undiagnosed by the livestock owners or veterinarians as the infected animals manifest meagre clinical signs. These parasites often have detrimental effects on the growth and development of animals where they can potentiate mortality especially among young, weak or nutritionally compromised animals. They negatively impact animal health in terms of reduced weight gain, anorexia, digestive disturbance, impaired reproductive performance, condemnation of affected organs, mortality in infected animals and ultimately affect animal production, contributing to huge economic losses to the livestock owners. At present, chemotherapy is the most practical and widely practiced approach to curb these infestations. But frequent and indiscriminate use of anthelmintics imposes a threat on the sustainability of current control measures. Thus, there is an urgent need for incorporation of alternate control approaches while designing our worm control programs, so that we can reduce the usage of anthelmintics and prolong their effectiveness. The effectiveness or success of any worm control strategy is evaluated based on integrated parameters like the ultimate goal of increasing production, minimizing risks regarding drug resistance and considering consumer's concerns about health and environment-associated problems. In general, gastro-intestinal nematode control strategies can target either the parasite population inside the host or the free-living stages of parasites in the environment. Here, we are discussing some of the components of sustainable control measures for these parasites in detail.

Introduction

Incidence of ectoparasitism is on rise in the livestock population, impeding its production and performance. Those areas which were free of ectoparasites are now under great parasite load because of changing climatic conditions and global warming. Global warming has resulted in vectors shifting their habitats to temperate regions also. Ectoparasites are not only causing irritation to livestock by blood sucking and associated pruritus, they are serving as vectors for a variety of haemoprotozoan and rickettsiae leading to far-flung complications. Major ectoparasites infesting ruminants are ticks, lice, fleas and flies. Though ticks and flies are proclaimed as notorious for transmission of haemoprotozoans, now a days evidences are on rise reporting the role of fleas and lice as vectors for various haemoprotozoan and viral diseases. The need of the hour is to explore more and more ectoparasites to identify their vector potential and their effective control measures. While addressing the ectoparasitism in livestock, another major problem arises with their control. Most ectoparasitism is of seasonal nature at least in temperate areas, while it is a round the year phenomenon in tropics. Only very few compounds are available as ectoparasiticides and used by clinicians, and has resulted in onset of resistance among ectoparasites. New compounds need to be developed and marketed to counter this and at the same time it should be environment friendly also. Lest their rising use can lead to eradication of friendly fauna which can be more detrimental to the ecosystem. Now a days researches are focusing on the development of integrated tick/vector control measures which are making use of minimal chemical compounds and utilizing the synergistic application of farming techniques/practices and cultivating plants of acaricidal properties. In this era of pandemic, zoonotic nature of various haemoprotozoan/rickettsiae affecting livestock is also of concern to the mankind. So, they need to be addressed at the earliest considering their impact. The susceptibility to ectoparasitism varies from animal to animal.

Introduction

Though, India is bestowed with large livestock population (512.05 million) to which cattle buffaloes, goats and sheep contribute 190.90, 108.70, 135.2 and 65.07 numbers in millions, respectively (DADF, 2018), but at the same time, facing with a great shortage of crop residues, greens and concentrates for animal sustainability (NIANP, 2013). The shortage of these conventional feeds and fodders tropical and sub-tropical regions has already been documented and well recognized (Maneerat et al., 2015). The feed and fodder resources are gradually decreasing throughout India owing to many factors like shrinkage of common property resources and shift towards the cultivation of commercial crops etc. (Biradar and Kumar, 2013). Based on feed production and feed requirement calculated as above, India falls short by 219.2 Mt of green fodder and 226.73 MT of dry fodder (Earagariyanna et al., 2017). India faces a green fodder shortage of 63.5 percent and a dry fodder shortage of 23.5 percent and if the current situation continues then India's green fodder shortage will reach 66 percent and dry fodder will reach 25 percent by 2030 (Jitendra, 2017). This scenario demands the utilization of alternate non-conventional feed resources to sustain and economize livestock farming. The issues can be addressed by those unconventional resources like agricultural wastes which are widely available at low or zero cost and too with minimal treatment may serve as potential nutritional feeding material for animals.

Livestock poisoning by plants is often a result of management errors, range conditions, or the type of animal, rather than just the presence of poisonous plants. Forage availability can be influenced by drought, overgrazing and snow storms, or altered grazing patterns. Animals can become overly hungry during transportation or other management activities that deprive them of food and water for extended periods of time, thus making them more likely to graze toxic plants. Grazing during the wrong season may compromise an animal's ability to select adequate and non-toxic forages (James, 1994).

The toxicity of plants varies with environmental factors such as site, temperature, precipitation, and light, time of day and stage of growth. For example, mature oak leaves are less toxic than young leaves. Cyanogenic plants such as arrow grass are more toxic following a frost or drought condition. Nitrates can be higher in plants following heavy nitrogen fertilisation or during a drought. Certain animal factors must also be considered in livestock poisoning by plants. For example, goats are considered to be comparatively resistant to lantana poisoning than cattle. A hungry animal is more susceptible to poisoning than a full one. A full rumen slows consumption and also dilutes the toxin. Though the animals are exposed to a large number of toxic plants when they are left for grazing, five will be discussed in detail in this chapter. These include lantana, ageratum, eupatorium, oak and ferns (James, 1994).

Introduction

Global warming is chiefly due to combustion of fossil fuels for multifarious energy needs, causing emission of greenhouse gases which trap energy from the sun leading to warming. These climate changes bring in variation in patterns and emergence of new zoonotic diseases to newer areas. These changes sometimes create conducive conditions for the propagation of insect vectors. History shows that most of the diseases have a direct correlation with climatic changes. The survival and propagation of pathogens are directly related to temperature and humidity etc. Extreme shifts in weather patterns resulting from global warming and climate changes adversely affect the ecosystem resulting in new diseases, re-emergence of earlier diseases including emergence of zoonotic diseases. The emergence of the new cholera strain O: 139 and outbreaks of Dengue, West Nile virus and Rift Valley fever in newer and non-endemic areas have been linked with the El Nino effect. The spread of disease agents may be facilitated by factors including environmental conditions, the presence and availability of suitable hosts, the arthropod's feeding behavior and host preferences.

Introduction

In developing countries, ruminants thrive mainly on poor quality feeds and pastures, whose nutritive value is poor. They are having a low content of nitrogen, energy, minerals and vitamins and high content of lignin and silica, which limit their efficient utilization by ruminants. Therefore, these poor quality feeds and fodder needs to be upgraded in terms of their nutritive value using various treatments like physical, chemical, physico chemical and biological methods to improve intake and utilization of nutrients from poor quality roughages. However, supplementation of critical nutrients like energy, protein, minerals, vitamins also improved the productivity and health of the ruminants (Dass et al., 2011). Availability of oil cakes as protein supplement in developing countries is very poor and at a very high price, This has led to use of non-protein nitrogen source as urea, to compensate for the nitrogen deficiency of fibrous feeds (Dutta et al., 2009). Thus, enhancing intake, digestibility and availability of nutrients from poor quality roughages are only possible through optimization of rumen fermentation. The use of solid multi-nutrient block supplementation /urea-molasses blocks/ multi nutrients blocks/ pashu chocolates to provide optimum levels of various nutrients primarily for better growth of rumen micro organisms. They need rich sources of fermentable nitrogen, minerals and vitamins, which are lacking in the fibrous feeds like cereal straws (Sahoo et al, 2009). This offer several advantages such as easy transport, storage and handling, and reduced risks of poisoning as compared with other approaches, such as giving a small amount of urea in drinking water, sprinkling of urea solution on fibrous feeds before feeding, or urea-ammonization of crop residues (Dutta et al ., 2009).

Introduction

Water resource is imperative for the survival of all life-forms on planet earth and defines the limits of sustainable development, without any substitute. Only 2.5% of all water on the earth is freshwater, and of that, around 0.5% is accessible through ground or surface water supplies. The increasing world population, industrialization and climate change is putting additional pressure on water resources. This is also true for livestock sector. As per prediction equations, the requirement of water for livestock will rise from 2.3 billion m³ in 2000 to 2.8 billion m³in 2025 and 3.2 billion m³ in 2050 (Hedge, 2012).

The balance between humanity's demands and the quantity available is already precarious (Karin et al, 2002). Additionally, climate change poses a serious threat to water resources as the climate system and the hydrological cycles are intimately linked, and any variability in climate affects the hydrological cycle. The World Bank report on the water and climate change inter-linkages also reiterated that climate change could profoundly alter future patterns of both water availability and use, thereby increasing levels of water stress and insecurity, both at the global scale and in sectors that depend on water (Alavian et al., 2009).

Introduction

Genetic programs in livestock have been extensively used to improve their productivity over the last 50 years. The traditional approach of breeding, based on quantitative genetics principle, has been very successful (Schaeffer, 2006), without knowledge of genes increasing or decreasing in herds. Effective progeny testing program and use of genetically proven bulls have made drastic genetic improvement in livestock populations. Further advances in computation for genetic merit have further added to improvement process. Livestock producers presently are focusing on overall development of livestock with improved health, production, reproduction and longevity and therefore, the traits are becoming the part of selection program (Decker et al., 2009). Advancement in molecular biology along with high-throughput genotyping has led to discovery of a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in livestock (Van Tassell et al., 2008). SNP arrays covering the entire genome may explain most of the genetic variation in important traits of livestock (Meuwissen et al., 2001). These SNPs may act as molecular markers and be used as a substitute for phenotypic selection. This process, in a broad sense is known as molecular or marker-assisted breeding and describes selection strategies including marker-assisted selection (MAS) and genome wide selection (GWS) or genomic selection (GS).

Introduction

Increasing public concern regarding the use of pharmaceuticals in livestock feeding due to the emergence of drug resistance has led to an enhanced interest to plant derived bioactive compounds as alternative means to improve livestock health and production. Plants bioactive compounds are the plant secondary metabolites having pharmacological or toxicological effects in animals. Secondary metabolites are formed within the plants as well the primary biosynthetic and metabolic routes for compounds associated with plant growth and development, and are considered as products of biochemical deviate in the plant cells and not required daily for the performance of the plant. Some of them are found to have various important functions such as protection, attraction or signaling in the plants. Most species of plants seem to be competent in synthesizing such compounds. Plants with potent bioactive compounds are often characterized as both poisonous and medicinal, and a beneficial or an adverse effect may depend on the quantity eaten by the animal. Some tropical tree leaves and typical food and feed plants with bioactive compounds with less prominent effects, their intakes are usually considered as advantageous.

Introduction

"The new science of nutrigenomics teaches us what specific foods tell your genes. What you eat directly determines the genetic messages your body receives. These messages, in turn, control all the molecules that constitute your metabolism: the molecules that tell your body to burn calories or store them. If you can learn the language of your genes and control the messages and instructions they give your body and your metabolism, you can radically alter how food interacts with your body, lose weight, and optimize your health." (Mark Hyman 2006).

Nutrients have long been considered merely as fuel or cofactors however, it is accepted that diet and feeding strategies play an important role in determining the basic physiological processes that influence the health and wellbeing of animals and ultimately influence the efficiency of production. Traditional research related to animal nutrition mainly deals with either deficiency or excess of the particular nutrient which affects their health and productivity. Subsequently, it was appreciated that nutrients can themselves participate in the regulation of metabolic pathways, for instance through the allosteric regulation of specific enzymes, or by modulating hormone secretion. Shifting of balance between health and disease states involves the complex interplay of genes and the environment, which includes nutrients. The use of systems biology approach in nutrition has attracted both scientists and industrialists during recent decades and a link between diet and health is well established. However, it has often been difficult to easily evaluate the effects of specific nutrients, combinations of nutrients and nutrient interactions because of the lack of straightforward biological indicators that respond to even the simplest changes in nutrition or nutritional status.

Introduction

During transition period and lactation, the high-producing dairy cows undergo a period of extensive tissue catabolism because of negative nutrient balance. Homeorrhetic mechanism at this stage ensures that nutrients are partitioned to favour the growth of fetus prepartum and meet the demand of nutrients in early lactation. Simultaneously the homeostasis secures survival of the animal body functions. However, a decline in feed intake in transition period leads to metabolic disturbances and low milk production in early lactation. The postpartum negative nutrient balance impairs immune and reproductive functions in dairy cows and buffaloes. The increased demand for nutrients and decreased dry matter intake results in low circulating glucose and insulin levels and elevated non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and ketone bodies postpartum. The energetic status of a cow or buffalo modulates the secretion of hormones that play key roles in growth of ovarian follicles, ovulation, corpus luteum (CL) formation, and oocyte competence. The NEBAL not only limits milk production potential but also has a detrimental effect on immune cells. Negative nutrient balance is associated with changes in the pattern of ovarian follicle growth and oocyte quality and alteration in endocrines. In addition, cows under negative nutrient balance have extended periods of anovulation. These changes could be minimized by supplementing energy rich supplements like prilled fat or any bypass fat preparations.

Introduction

Mineral imbalance in the animal body produces several problems. Normal dairy animals experience constantly changing nutrient demands and environmental stress during pregnancy and lactation. In the first part of the cycle the negative balance must be held to minimum, later the reserves must be replenished through fine tuned nutritional support for optimum production of the dairy animals. Inadequate blood calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), or potassium (K) concentrations can cause a dairy animal to lose the ability to rise to her feet as these elements are necessary for nerve and muscle function and are therefore of particular concern in the newly calved dairy animal. Mechanisms for maintaining blood status of these elements concentrations perform efficiently most of the time but occasionally these homeostatic mechanisms fail and metabolic diseases such as milk fever occur. Understanding about cause and predisposing factors behind the same may be helpful to develop strategies to avoid these disorders.

Macro elements have a significant role in normal functioning of the body, including proper reproduction and production. Imbalance of these elements in the body of a peri parturient animal creates severe problems to the animal body and even the productivity of the animal gets seriously affected. Among the macro elements calcium, phosphorus and magnesium with cation-anion balancing elements (sodium, potassium and chlorine) play an important role in normal health of dairy animals during the parturition period.

Introduction

The science of Biotechnology has been making every effort to create new opportunities for the welfare of humanity. Modern biotechnological tools are applied in India to boost fish production through aquaculture as well as conservation of the vast aquatic resources of the country for sustainable utilization. Transgenic technology is widely used in biotechnology, from the generation of genetically modified (GM) foods to the production of pharmaceutical proteins. This technology has been successfully used to develop fast growing super-fish stocks for aquaculture. The main reasons for genetic manipulation of species used in aquaculture are to enhance the growth and efficiency of food conservation, to increase tolerance to environmental variables like temperature and salinity, to produce new colour variants of ornamental fishes, to increase the resistance of species to pathogens, etc. Though the conventional selective breeding approach has proven to genetically upgrade rohu19, it is a rather time consuming process. Traditional selective breeding approaches in combination with transgenesis can bring about faster improvement of selected traits.

Introduction

Any work condition revolves around three main components - the man, machine and environment. 'Man'-is represented by the worker who is either the controller or the executor of an action. Therefore the work output depends on how efficiently the workers are performing. In this context, the health of the worker is of utmost importance. It is one of the prime supporting pillars of productivity. If the health condition declines, efficiency is reduced and productivity suffers. Work involves a variety of physical and cognitive activities performed to achieve a desired or specified productivity. It may include a single individual or a small or large group of people as the worker. It is characterized by a specified duration, specific speed or work pace and a required amount of effort. The performance and efficiency expected from the workers have a direct bearing on the work process or work tool and the work environment. All these stress the bodily systems and affect the health of the worker. The stress could be classified as physiological stress and psychological stress Occupational health deals with the study and maintenance of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in the workplace (WHO, 1957). Occupational Physiology and Ergonomics are related branches of Occupational health that are in particular concerned with the study and maintenance of health and well-being during work.

Introduction

The concept of feeding system of different aquatic components of the aquaculture is not simple like that of domestic animals where feed, feeding and the animals can be observed closely and manipulated at once. In case of aquaculture both biotic and abiotic factors play an important role in feeding as well as the growth of the animal. Factors like water temperature, dissolved oxygen, light intensity, etc. regulate the intake of feeding, its digestion and assimilation. Conditioning factor, feed conversion rate, survival rate, percent weight gain, daily weight gain, specific growth rate are some of the parameters used routinely to monitor the effects of feeding on growth performance of the fish.

In aquaculture, supplementary feed is provided in conjunction with the available natural food such as plankton, periphyton, benthic organisms, aquatic plants etc. Aquaculture is a feed-based industry, with artificial feed accounting for major expenditure exceeding 60% of total operational cost. In India, freshwater aquaculture is mainly carp-based, which accounts for about 89% of total aquaculture production (Ayyappan and Jena, 1998). Successful and sustainable aquaculture depends upon the provision of nutritionally adequate, eco-friendly and economically viable artificial feeds. Effective utilization of feed depends upon many factors such as acceptability of the feed, its digestion, assimilation etc. apart from other rearing management protocols.