eChapters

ABSTRACT

Medicinal plants are known to contain innumerable bioactive compounds that play an important role in conventional as well as western medicine. These bioactive molecules occur in plants as secondary metabolites, which have pharmacological relevance and aid in defense mechanism. In India, herbal medicines have been the basis of treatment and cure for various diseases. Conventionally, natural products have been tested as crude extracts containing complex mixtures of compounds, which if showing a desired activity, require a process of purification and identification of the active components, which can be lengthy and efficient.

In order to understand the function of these active compounds, X-ray crystallographic studies are carried out.

The present study involves the three dimensional structure analysis of purified compounds from the plants Phyllanthus amarus, Sphaeranthus indicus, Scoparia dulcis and Mangifera indica and Leonotis nepetaefolia.

India is a varitable emporium of herbs. The medicinal use of plants was known to the inhabitants of India from time immemorial. As per Indian Materia Medica, a large number of vegetables, different parts and products of flora and fauna came into use for the treatment of diseases by ancient Hindus. Generally the practitioners, of various Indian system of medicines used to utilise the flora and fauna found in their environment and accept those which were found useful after trial.Ayurved comes from Atharvaveda. There are hundred fourteen hymns which describe some diseases and medicinal practices. This was the era around 2000 B.C. The books written on Ayurved were rewritten by ‘Charak’. It is known s ‘Charak Sanhinta’. They were written in eight volumes having hundred twenty chapters in Sanskrit Sushrut wrote in similar way under the name of ‘Sushrut Sanhita’ having ten thousand verses in six-volumes under one hundred eighty six chapters. He described ‘Surgery’. Kashyap wrote on ‘Paediatrics’ and Vatsayana wrote on ‘Sexology’. Hence, very rich and old heritage of Ayurved is prescribed and documented in Hindu Vedas. This was the age when art of ‘Pharmacy’ was introduced. There after came the ‘Creative age’, when the active principles of medicinal drugs were adopted. According to Charak, in the Chapter ‘Kalpasophan’, the drugs differ with respect to land, season, source, flavour, taste, potency, post digestive effects and specification and also with respect to their body, morbid tendency, constitution, age, vitality, gastric fire, proclivities, homologation and stage of diseases.Accepting those ideas in 1864 with the help of the then king of ‘Jamnagar’ the famous Baidya, Jandu started a small factory (Rasasala) in Jamnagar. Then in 1910 Jandu Pharmaceutical works was established in Bombay to manufacture Ayurvedic medicines in large scale. Thereafter many small factories were started in different parts of India. The vedic period around 1800 B.C. The classic period of the Indian medicine begins about 600 B.C., where the treatments of various types of ailments have been indicated. Due to Industrial evolution and general economic growth in Eastern countries, there was growth of a systematic Eastern Medicine. Gradually people started to develop confidence in allopathic and ayurvedic medicines were neglected.Many allopathic medicines which were established as life saving drugs, were later found to be harmful to humans. Such medicines have been proved to have side effects which cause damage to health. The modern man of scientific C1ptitude again tries to rotate the wheel of history in search of an alternative source/truth from natural resources. With this view many attempts have been made in India and abroad to unravel the truth, described in Vedas with regards to medicinal effects of flora and fauna. Although the Allopathic medicines are found to dominate over the Ayurvedic medicines, many remote areas of tribals are still continuing the traditional practice of using medicine from their natural surroundings.

Orissa is a land of tribes and one of India’s most important forests state providing home to a very large forest dependant tribal population. Represented by 22.5% of the total population of the states of tribes of orissa, which are scheduled as 62 different ethnic groups (Biswal et al., 1997). The orissan ethnographic scenario includes as many as 62 scheduled Tribes are enlisted in the presidential orders numbering 5,915,067 persons in 1981 census constituting 22.43% of the total population of the state (26,370 and 21). Distribution of tribal population in the district during 1981 census was uneven. Their number was more in inland districts like koraput, Mayurbhanj, Sundargarh, Keonjhar, Phulbani and Kalahandi than in the coastal plain consisting of Balasore, Cuttack, Puri and Ganjam (Mohanty and Chowdhury, 1990). Different tribes exists in orissa are namely divided into three groups on ethnolinguistic basic (i) Austro-Asiatic (ii) Dravidian and (iii) Indo-Aryan (Behura, 1993). The important communities are Saora, Bathudi, Bhumija, Bhuiyan, Saunti, Gond, Kharia, Kandha, Kisan, Kolha, Munda, Oraon, Paraja, Santal, Saora and Shabar (Behura, 1993). From different district of Orissa different ethno botanist worked on geographical basis or on a particular tribe, on a particular plant, food habit, and religious occasion, social customs etc. district wise enumeration is given below.

Jain, (1971) studied magico-religious beliefs pertained to plants prevalent among different tribals of the state. Rai chaudhuri et al., (1975) reported ethno botanical uses of 38 species from the state 81 plant species used by the rural folk for antifertility, as medicine, fibre and food were reported by (Saxsena and Dutta, 1975). Saxsena et al., (1981) gave an account of ethnobotany of 83 plant species.

Cloud with dense forest and valleys the present Kalahandi district, Orissa comprises of ex–state of kalahandi and exzamindari of khariar minus Kasipur. The present district of Kalahandi district of Orissa state was a part of south Kasipur Kingdom. It continued as a princely state up to Nov. 1949 and then merged with orissa state the district Kalahandi was created out of exprinciply state of Kalahandi with addition of ex-zamindari areas of Khariar which formerly a part of Sambalpur district. Again Nuapada and Nawarangapur area separated from it and the present form of the district exist.

The modern Kalahandi district occupies the south western part of Orissa and is situated between 19 degree 10’ North Latitude and between 82 degree 30’ and 83 degree 50’ longitude. To the northern side of Kalahandi district Balangir, to south eastern side Rayagada district is situated. To south westen side Nawarangpur district, to the Southern side Koraput district and to north Nuapara district and western side Chhatisgarh are situated. The Kalahandi district extends over an area of 7920 sq. kms, which is 5.09% of total geographical area of Orissa and occupies 7th position in area of the state of Orissa. According to 2001 census, total population of the district is 13, 34,772 which has 3.64% of the whole state and density of population is 168 per sq. k.m. In the district, 2 subdivisions, 4 revenue Tahasils, 13 blocks, and 195 Gram Panchayats and 2205 villages are existing.

Medicinal plants constitute a group of industrially important crops which are of great value for domestic use and for export. Plant-best drugs are being increasingly preferred in medical science. The use of various parts of several drug plants to cure specific ailments has been in vogue from ancient times on our indigenous medicine.

We are fortunate to have rich heritage in the form of information available from tribal areas gathered by the tribals through experience of generation in the form of folklore medicine. It is however unfortunate that full potential of these crops has not been scientifically explored. As compared to agricultural crops on which researches have been done for getting better varieties for high yields diseases resistance and better quality comparatively, little work has been done on the medicinal plants. The Ethnomedicinal plants are enumerated in subsequent pages and in Table 1 with their local name and families.

In Comparison to Literature : A Comparative Account

In India many medicinal plants traditionally used by tribal and other sources have been recorded by different authors, workers and researchers. Many plants that can cause symptomatic relief for various ailments have also been established. Attempts have been made by different scientists to ascertain the active principles behind the herbal cure of certain diseases. Ayurvedic preparations from plant sources have been developed in our country to certain extent. Many Homeopathic medicines have also been procured from plants and herbs. Scientific conferences in State, National and International levels are being held on Traditional Asian Medicines to ascertain the scientific truth behind them. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar and many other Institutes of our country are doing creditable work to isolate the composition of medicinal plants. Many useful compounds have been isolated from different medicinal flora and their efficiency has been established scientifically. Good numbers of Allopathic medicines prepared on the basis of herbal cures are flooding in the market in different trade marks. Still the country is to find preventive and curative medicines for Cancer, AIDS, Thalsamia and other such deadly diseases. Recent International Conference on Cancer held at New Delhi came out with a suggestion that certain flora could be explored for the possibility of treating cancer without side effects. When we are starting to realize the importance of flora for a healthy living and scientists are in search of drugs from the vegetation to irradicate diseases deforestation is reampant in our country. Our environment has been contaminated due to various types of pollutants from industries and other anthropogenic sources. At this juncture man has to maintain a balance to achieve harmony of both the factors for our better living. The tribal dweller who is considered as the ‘Maa in the forest’ has to be recognized first so far his knowledge in medicinal plants is concerned. After ascertaining the utility of medicinal plants they are to be protected, propagated both by Government and Public. Scientific experiments are to be carried out to establish the active principles behind the herbal drugs. Herbal gardens are to be instituted at different places by adopting modern biotechnological methods. There is a need to make joint efforts by the workers from the fields of Allopathic, Ayurved and Homeopathic, as a step towards “the irradication of diseases”. Such an inter-disciplinary work on medicinal plants may throw a new light for achieving success, in finding out medicines without side effect. In this context, Pharmacologists have to play a vital role while preparing the doses of drugs from plant sources.

The prosperity of any country depends upon the prosperity of its people. Food, clothing, shelter, health, education, security, roads, electricity and drinking water are the today’s basic needs. Farmers produce food. About 70 % of Indian population is engaged in farming. Therefore, prosperity of India would depend upon the prosperity of its farmers. This in turn depends upon the adoption of improved technology and judicious allocation of resources (land, labour, capital, machinery etc). Human race depends more on farm products for their existence than anything else since food and clothing – the prime necessaries are products of farming. Even for industrial prosperity, farming forms the basic raw material. To sustain and satisfy as many as his needs, the farmers include crop production, livestock, poultry, fisheries, beekeeping etc. in their farms. Earlier subsistence was the important objective of farming. Farmers took many activities such as planting of fruit trees in their farms or on the common lands just for the welfare of mankind without expecting anything in return. The kind of farming where subsistence and welfare of mankind were the main objectives is designated as mixed farming. Farming today is also a mix of enterprises. However, higher profitability without altering ecological balance is important in farming. A set of agricultural activities organized while preserving land productivity, environmental quality and maintaining desirable level of biological diversity and ecological stability is designated as “Farming System”. Here the emphasis is mainly on a system rather than on gross output.

In other words “farming system” is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustain agricultural production to meet diverse requirement of the farm household while preserving the resource base and maintaining high environmental quality. The farming system in its real sense will help to lift the economy of agriculture and standard of living of the farmers.

Various components of farming systems are as under

1. Cropping system

A system is set of elements which depend on each other and interacting among themselves. Farming system consists of several enterprises like cropping system, dairying, piggery, poultry, fishery, bee keeping, etc. These enterprises are interrelated. The end products and wastes of one enterprise are used as inputs in other. The wastes of cow, dung used as FYM in crop production and straw is used as feeding material for cow. Bullock is used for field preparation.

Cropping system is an important component of a farming system. It represents cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their makeup.

Cropping pattern: means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area. It indicates the early sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area. Crop sequence and crop rotation are generally used synonymously. Crop rotation refers to recurrent succession of crops on the same piece of land either in a year or over a longer period of time. Component crops are so chosen so that soil health in not impaired.

Terms associated with cropping and farming systems are:

1. Cropping system: is an important component of a farming system. It represents cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their makeup.
2. Cropping pattern: means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area.
3. Cropping scheme is a plan according to which crops are grown on individual plot of a farm during a given period of time with the object of obtaining maximum return from each crop without impairing soil fertility. Thus a cropping scheme is related to the most profitable use of resources, land, labour, capital, and management.
4. Multiple cropping: Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one calendar year is known as multiple cropping. It is intensification of cropping in space and time dimensions. It includes intercropping, mixed cropping and sequence cropping.
5. Quadruple cropping: Growing of four crops in a year in sequence.
6. Competition effect: Competition of intercropped spp. For light, nutrients, water, carbon dioxide, and other growth factors.
7. Complementary effect: Effect of one component on another which enhances growth and productivity.

The basic points that are to be considered while choosing appropriate enterprise in IFS are:

1. Soil and climatic features of an area/locality.
2. Social status of the family and social customs prevailing in the locality.
3. Economic condition of the farmer (Return/income from the existing farming system).
4. Resource availability at farm and present level of utilization of resources.
5. Economics of proposed IFS and credit facilities.
6. Farmer’s managerial skill.
7. Household demand.
8. Institutional infrastructure and technological knowhow.
9. Market facilities.

Agriculture has been the base of subsistence for human settlements on the planet earth. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), people in the developing world where the population increase is very rapid, may face hunger if the global food production does not increase by 50–60%. Contribution from developing countries and developed countries to world production in 1975 was about 38% and 62%, respectively. If yield increase is keeping pace with increasing population, mass hunger can escape. In the preindependence period, Indian agriculture was usually described as a gamble with monsoons and their failures resulted in widespread famine and misery. In the last few decades, Indian agriculture has made a remarkable progress even with increased population and decreased per capita availability of agricultural land. World population is projected to be over 8 billion by 2025 and nearly 10.5 billion by the end of next century. To maintain the status quo, food production needs to be doubled. Estimates by the FAO and WHO (1992) and the Hunger Project (1991) suggest that around 1 billion people in the world have diets that are ‘too poor to abstain the energy required for healthy growth of children and minimal activity of adults’. The causes are complex and it is not entirely the fault of overall availability of food. Modern agriculture begins on the research farm, where researchers have access to all types of inputs for crops at all the appropriate times. But, even the best performing farms cannot match the yields of researchers. For high productivity, farmers need to have access to the whole package – improved seeds, water, labour, capital or credit, fertilizers, pesticides and other developed technology. Many poorer farming households simply cannot adopt the whole package. Very often delivery systems are unable to supply them on time.

Conservation agriculture (CA) defined as minimal soil disturbance (no-till) and permanent soil cover (mulch) combined with rotations is a recent agricultural management system that is gaining popularity in many parts of the world. Cultivation is defined by the Oxford English dictionary as “the tilling of land”, “the raising of a crop by tillage” or “to loosen or break up soil”. Other terms used in this dictionary include “improvement or increase in (soil) fertility”. All these definitions indicate that cultivation is synonymous with tillage or ploughing.

The other important definition that has been debated and defined in many papers is the word “sustainable”. The Oxford dictionary defines this term as “capable of being borne or endured, upheld, defended, maintainable”. Something that is sustained is “kept up without intermission or flagging, maintained over a long period”. This is an important concept in today’s agriculture since the human race will not want to compromise the ability of its future offspring to produce their food needs by damaging the natural resources used to feed the population today.

Low External Input Agriculture (LEIA)

It is a form of agriculture wherein the use of external inputs including chemical inputs is minimized and production is kept sustainable. It uses synthetic fertilizers or chemical pesticides below rates commonly recommended by the Extension workers. There is no elimination of these materials. Any system that reduces purchased chemical inputs can be called low-input farming. Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, biofertilizers, IPM, IWM and utilization of on-farm resources and management. Locally available resources are used by maximizing the complementary and synergistic effects of different components of the farming systems. There is use of external inputs in a complementary way. Main advantages of this type of agriculture are:

What is a system?

A group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli is called a system. It is not affected directly by its own outputs, having a specified boundary based on inclusion of all significant feedbacks. Human body is a system with a boundary (e.g., the skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operate the living body). Collection of unrelated items does not constitute a system. A bag of pebbles is not a system because with addition or removal of a pebble, a bag of pebbles remains and is almost not affected completely by that change. Pebbles behave as a whole if the whole bag is influenced, for example by dropping it; the constituent parts go their own ways with its bursting. It is the property of the system that mainly matters and it may be summarized in the phrase ‘behaviour as a whole in response to stimuli to any portion’.

Integration of Enterprises

In agriculture, crop husbandry is the main activity. The income obtained from cropping is hardily sufficient to sustain the farm family throughout year. Activities such as dairying, poultry, fish- culture, sericulture, biogas production, edible mushroom cultivation, agro- forestry, agri- horticulture etc. assume critical importance in supplementing their farm income. Assumed regular cash flow is possible when cropping is combined with other enterprises. Judicious combination of enterprises keeping in view of the environment condition of a locality will pay grater dividends. At the same time it will promote effective recycling of residues/ wastes.

Integrated farming system seems to be the answer to the problems of increasing food production. For increasing income and for improving nutrition of the small scale farmers with limited resources without any adverse effect on environment and agro- eco-system. In a cropping system the amount of by products can be as high as or higher than marketable produce. This may go to waste if not utilized in an animal waste component and to reduce the cost of production of the economic produce of component two and finally to entrance the net income of the farm is whole.

Livestock is the best complementary enterprises with cropping, especially during the adverse years. Installation of a biogas plant in crop- livestock system will make use of the wastes, at the same time provides valuable manure and gas for cooking and lighting.

The classification of the farming systems of developing regions may be based on the following criteria:

• Available natural resource base, including water, land, grazing areas and forest; climate, of which altitude is one important determinant; landscape, including slope; farm size, tenure and organization; and
• Dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods, including field crops, livestock, trees, aquaculture, hunting and gathering, processing and off-farm activities; and taking into account the main technologies used, which determine the intensity of production and integration of crops, livestock and other activities.

Resource use efficiency in Indian agriculture

Resource use efficiency in agriculture is defined to include the concepts of technical efficiency, allocative efficiency and environmental efficiency. Public investment, subsidies and credit for agriculture are used in an efficient manner. There are large scale inter regional as well as inter farm variations in factor productivity due to varying influence of different factors in different regions. A number of management factors such as timeliness and method of sowing, transplanting, irrigation and application of right doses of inputs and input mix play an important role in influencing inter-farm variation in crop productivity. Growing marginalization and fragmentation of land holdings coupled with rising incidence of informal tenancies and poor rural infrastructure such as road, electricity, markets and education affect factor productivity. The availability of good quality irrigation water coupled with flexibility of irrigation and drainage system and appropriate methods of application as well as pricing of irrigation water is crucial for sustainable use of land and water resources.

The stochastic frontier production function to analyse the resource use efficiency of urban farmers in Uyo, Southeastern Nigeria was done. The result shows that 65% of urban farmers were 70% technology efficient; maximum efficiency is 0.91, while minimum efficiency in urban farm is 0.43.

Pre-dominant farming systems in various regions of India

The quick survey conducted as a part of characterization of existing farming systems throughout the country indicates existence of 19 pre-dominant farming systems with majority as crop + livestock (85%). Although crop + livestock system is dominating in the country, based on the per cent contribution to net income, the systems are classified as crop, horticulture, livestock, fisheries dominant systems where in dominant component contributes more than 50% of the total net returns. Accordingly, it was found that crop dominant farming systems are existing in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, NorthEast, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal while livestock dominant systems are present in Rajasthan and Parts of Gujarat. West Bengal, parts of Odisha and Assam states have the fisheries as a major source of income to the existing farming systems. The scope for promotion of horticulture (fruit) based systems exists in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, parts of Uttar Pradesh and in Sikkim while plantation dominant systems are available in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Kerala. In selected states and locations, highly diversified systems also exists where in none of the component contributes for 50% or more to the returns. The characterization survey data of existing farming systems in different states/zones are being interpreted and brought out in the form of National Atlas on Farming Systems. Though the various farming systems exists in the country, integration of input and output within the system is either completely lacking or at partial integration. Competition exists within and outside the farm for various byproducts generated. Cow dung is the best example as dung is required for improving the fertility of soil and meeting the household fuel. Hence, synergy needs to be made by appropriate allocation for making farming as a profitable option. Sustainable farming systems should aim for long term productivity, profitability, recycling of resources and employment generation. The monetary returns under different farming systems practiced in different parts of the country are given in Fig 1. Among the various existing systems in the country, coconut +banana+ cocoa +pineapple + nutmeg (FS9) gives the higher return of Rs 1.27 lakhs/annum.

Agriculture has under gone drastic changes from the mid 1960s through the introduction and application of various newly developed techniques in agro science such as crop and water management practices, Emphasis has been given to be integrated system approach in crop production.

It is essential to plan and implement rational policies to minimize the regional imbalances of agricultural production. The present growth in crop production has to be sustained considering ecological and economic factors. The existing as well as emerging frontiers must be examined to enhance agricultural growth on a sustainable basis. The understanding of agroclimatic relationship through crop weather conditions, soil fertility, water use efficiency, rain water management and appropriate cropping patterns based on regional resources potential must be emphasized more over agro forestry, integrated crop management, biotechnology and use of renewable energy must be emphasized for use in environmentally harmonious agriculture. Training of farmers has to be adapted to be changing technological environment.

The forest affects soil and water in many ways. Leaves and branches decreases wind strength, alter the absorption of solar radiation, and increase the surface area for evaporation. The root growth and the decomposition of plant organic matter by soil fauna and microbes, modify soil texture and structure, affecting water penetration and drainage. Changes in vegetation cover can therefore have a significance influence on the hydrological cycle and climate system.

The study area consists of the state of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. On the basis of physiographic and soil resources, this zone is clearly divisible into two sub zones; the plains of Punjab and Haryana and the highlands. Based on altitude soil type, geology, and rainfall each of these two sub zones may be further subdivided. Major sources of water in the region, in addition to rainfall and river, are lakes and ice crops of glaciers and undergrounds springs. Under ground water is largely concentrated in the plains of Punjab and Haryana. The region covers a varied land use, from highly intensive monocultures through rotational and intercropping to grazed rangeland and near natural forests.

The increasing awareness of the deleterious effects of indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture has led to the adoption of organic farming as an alternative method for conventional farming world-wide. It is gaining gradual momentum across the world and the growing awareness of organic food which is emerging as an attractive source of rural income generation especially in integrated farming systems.

In north west India where rice-wheat, cotton-wheat and pearl millet-wheat cropping systems are most prevalent. But now, these cropping systems are not proving farmers’ friendly due to higher water requirement, declining yield, susceptibility to insects and pests and adverse effect on soil health. Moreover, in the new millennium with the growing demand of agricultural commodities in national as well as international market due to ever increasing population and globalization, Indian farmers are forced to produce higher quantum of quality agricultural commodities at low cost from shrinking land and natural resources.

Mungbean - wheat cropping system requires less water and hence, can be grown in areas where water availability is limited in addition to beneficial effect of mungbean to supply N to the succeeding wheat crop which are favorable for organic farming. Wheat (desi) also known as tall wheat requires less water and is very responsive to low doses of nutrients. The dwarf wheat grown by farmers with the application of chemicals in the form of fertilizers, weedicides, insecticides and pesticides is not preferred by people and therefore, the demand of organic wheat is rising fast in national and international market. This cropping system can be taken successfully in farming systems for higher monetary returns.

There is need to shift a portion of cultivable land with organic farming as an alternate practice technique. Organic farming gives emphasis on sustainability, environmental safety and low cost production techniques over chemical farming. Keeping the issues of 21^st century agriculture in view following aspects also shows importance of organic farming: Reduce the toxic load; keep chemicals out of the air, water, soil and our bodies; reduce if not eliminate off farm pollution; protect future generations; build healthy soil; taste better and truer flavor; assist farmers of all sizes; promote biodiversity; celebrate the culture of agriculture etc.

Horticulture word derived from Latin word: Hortus meaning ‘Garden’ and cultura means ‘cultivation’.

Father of horticulture: Thomas Andrew Knight, John Lindley, Liberty Hyde Bailey.

1^st artificial hybridization in fruit crop in world: T. A. Knight.

Father of vegetables: L. H. Bailey.

1^st book in horticulture: Fruit growing in India: W.B. Hayes (1945) & related to litchi.

Export growth of fresh fruits and vegetables in term of value is 14% and of processed fruits and vegetables is 16.27%.

Contribution of horticulture sector to agriculture GDP (2013-14): 29%.

India is largest producer of Coconut, Cashew, Tea and Spices.

1. GENERAL POMOLOGY

Word pomology: Derived from Greek word ‘pome’ meaning development of fruit from inferior ovary and ‘logos’ meaning to study.

Father of systematic pomology: De Candolle.

Temperate fruits are popularly known in India as hill fruits or cold region fruits.

India ranks 1^st in productivity of grapes, banana and papaya.

Ratio of Chlorophyll a to chlorophyll b is highest in C⁴ plants.

Gibberellic acid is enhanced by exposing plants to red light.

The life line tree of ‘Thar Desert’ is Prosopis cineraria.

Grape of the desert is Salvadora oleoides.

1. General Olericulture

Olericulture is Latin term ‘Olerus’ meaning herb.

China, India, USA, Turkey and Italy: Major vegetable producers.

Indian subcontinent has 80 species of major and minor vegetables apart from several wild species consumed as vegetable.

About 175 different types of vegetables are grown in India, includes 82 leafy vegetables and 41 root (tuber and bulb) crops.

Cucurbits, taros, yams, brinjal and okra have rich diversity in Indian gene centre.

USA is leading importer of cucumber and gherkins, assorted canned vegetables and other dehydrated vegetables from India.

Germany leads in import of preserved onion, green pepper in brine and dehydrated onion flakes/powder.

Singapore leads in import of dried asparagus; Japan in dehydrated garlic flakes; UAE in dehydrated garlic powder; Bangladesh in peas and Switzerland in dried mushrooms including morels.

Mizoram is the largest producer of chow chow.

1. GENERAL FLORICULTURE

Development of Floriculture’ was recommended by Dr. P.P. Trivedi committee.

India ranks 2^nd in flower cultivation next to China.

The production of loose flowers almost tripled between the 8^th Plan and the 11^th Plan.

The annual domestic demand is valued at around 60 billion USD.

About 2,33,000 hectares across the country was used for floriculture, producing 17,29,000 metric tonnes (MT) of loose flowers and 76,732 lakh cut flowers.

India has exported 22,947.23 MT of floriculture products to the world for worth of Rs. 460.75 crores in 2014-15.

The share of exports of dried flowers and plant parts are 45%, flowering plants (22%), fresh foliage (13%), fresh cut flowers (10%), live plants (7%) and bulbs and tubers (3%).

India’s share in global floriculture trade- 0.6%.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

International Group for the Genetic Improvement of Cocoa (INGENIC) formed in 1993.

Central Coconut Research Station (presently CPCRI) was established in 1940.

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasargod, Kerala established in 1970.

CPCRI hosts International Coconut Gene Bank for South Asia under the umbrella of Coconut Genetic Resources Network (COGENT) of the Biodiversity International.

National Active Germplasm Site for coconut: CPCRI.

United Planter’s Association of Southern India (UPASI) started in 1893.

Branch of International Rubber Association was established in 1948 at Kottayam, Kerala. It was renamed as Indian Rubber Institute in 1987.

Rubber Research Institute of India, Kottayam established in 1995.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

Asian continent, particularly India is known as “Land of Spices”.

Spice crops are largely grown in tropics between 20⁰N and 20⁰S.

Term ‘spice’ was derived from Latin ‘Species aromatacea’ means ‘Fruits of the earth’.

Spices and condiments are grouped under food adjuncts.

India is largest producer of spices and oleoresin.

Home of spices/ Spice bowl of India: Kerala.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION!

Major constraint of medicinal plants: Lack of genuine planting material.

Maximum number of medicinal plants belong to family Asteraceae.

Maximum demand in world market: 1. Senna leaves 2. Isabgol seeds 3. Cassia tora seeds.

India is largest producer of 1. Kewada oil 2. Senna 3. Davana oil 4. Isabgol.

India is 2^nd largest producer of 1. Opium latex 2. Jasmine concrete 3. Tuberose concrete

India is 3^rd largest exporter of periwinkle.

Thailand is largest exporter of sarpagandha leaves.

China is largest producer of 1. Geranium oil 2. Citronella oil.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

India’s exports of Processed Food was Rs. 31563.43 Crores in 2014-15, which includes products like Mango pulp (Rs. 841.39 Crores), Dried and Preserved vegetable (Rs. 847.11 Crores), Other Processed Fruit and Vegetable (Rs. 2,569.93 Crores), Pulses (Rs. 1,209.51 Crores), Groundnuts (Rs. 4,675.35 Crores), Guargum (Rs. 9,480.00 Crores), Jaggery and Confectionary (Rs. 1,161.81 Crores), Cocoa Products (Rs. 848.62 Crores), Cereal Preparations (Rs. 3,038.79 Crores), Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic Beverages (Rs. 2,231.58 Crores) and Miscellaneous Preparations (Rs. 2,437.77 Crores).

The domestication of oxen in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilization, perhaps as early as the 6th millennium B.C. provided mankind with the draft power necessary to develop the early plough into the larger, animal-drawn true ard (or scratch plough). Some of the earliest evidence of ploughing from around 2800 B.C.was found at the Indus Valley site of Kalibangan. Subsequent archaeological finds in Prague, Czech Republic, push the oldest known ploughed field even further back to 3500-3800 B.C. All food produce was planted and harvested by hand: seeds were scattered by hand and planted grains were brought from the field to be threshed on the dooryard. Milking a small herd of cows or goats was also done by hand. This continued for centuries. Then man discovered electricity.

In 1746, just a few years before Benjamin Franklin of Philadelphia sent a kite to catch lightning in a storm, a Doctor von Maimbray gave talk to the Royal Society of London where he described his experiment of electrifying the myrtle bush (Morella cerifera) which then put forth new branches in October, something which had never happened before. This news inspired others in Europe to carry out similar experiments. In 1749, Abbot Jean Antoine Nollet of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris France, inventor of the electroscope, published a pamphlet on “The Harmful Effects or Advantageous of Electrical Phenomena on Plants.”¹Isolated experiments continued until in 1783 Father Pierre Bertholon de Saint-Lazare of Montpellier published “About the Electricity of Plants”, a work in which he dealt with the effect of atmospheric electricity on plants, taking in their medicinal and nutritive-electrical virtues and but in particular the practical means of applying it usefully to agriculture.²He even built an electro-vegetometer, a device for collecting atmospheric electricity to distribute it in the soil and then to the plants, but he met with little success. Bertholon also conceived of subjecting plants to “electric rain” by connecting a large syringe to an electric source. A gardener, standing on a slab of insulating material in a wagon, carried a sprinkling can electrified by means of a wire leading to a static machine. “By means of this process, strange for the times, the good Abbé Bertholon, who was considered something of a sorcerer, obtained lettuces of an extraordinary size.”3

In 1920, although electric vehicles were not used on the American farms about 5,000 electric industrial trucks were produced by 12 American manufacturers, while estimates of the total fleet ranged from 6,000 to 15,000, most of them built during the war. Most used an exchange charging system. Among the manufacturers seen in and around cities and towns were the Commercial Truck Company, the Lansden Company, the Walker Vehicle Company (now owned by Commonwealth Edison), the Ward Motor Vehicle Company, the Steinmetz Electric Motor Corporation, Walter Motor Truck Company, and the Baker R L Corporation.One step away from agriculture, Charles A. Ward of New York City, was head of his family’s baking company, made up of the Mackey Company, the Ward Corby Company, the Ward Bread Companyand the Ohio Baking Company of Cleveland. In 1911, Ward had decided to replace his horse-drawn delivery vehicles with electric trucks, thus doing away with the unsanitary stable hitherto part of or adjacent to bakery.¹

Alongside this, the challenge of using stationary electric agricultural machines continued to be met. Two innovations which entered into dairy farming were the milk cream electric centrifugal separator and the surge milker. The Babson brothers (Henry, Fred and Gus) of Chicago were friends of and dealers for electrical battery inventor and entrepreneur Thomas Edison, and importers of Belgian-made Méllote separators. In 1916, the Babsonsproduced their own Pine Tree milking machine. While the overall design was similar to others, the electrically powered Pine Tree Pulsator outperformed any other pulsator made. These machines were powered by a 32-volt Delco system with 12 batteries near the barn. Pine Tree Pulsators were simple enough that the farmer could maintain them himself. The Pine Tree Pulsator was patented in 1921. The problem with this unit was that it was difficult to keep clean.

The 21^st century dawned with interest in the potential of electric agricultural machines. Beginning in 2000, a concept study, MELA Mobile Elektrische Leistungsund Antriebstechnik Mobile (electric power train technology)supported by universities and organizations in Germany as well as Fendt Agricutural Company (AGCO) showed a possible solution on tractor electrification with electric driven auxiliaries as well as electric CVTs and implement electrification. In 2003 the University of Hohenheim developed an electric combine harvester called Magda. With the introduction of a 42 VDC power supply system, the range of small rotational drives and servo motors could be covered. They showed that if more power had to be transmitted, threephase alternating current should be used since threephase machines had a large speed range and a large range of constant power.

During the first years of the century, longestablished transport manufacturers have been quick to see the environmental advantage of electric propulsion, be it with batteries, hybridelectric or fuel cell. With airliners, Boeing, Airbus and Tupolev quickly saw the advantage. With motorcycles, names such as HarleyDavidson, Curtiss, Ducati, Saroléa and Royal Enfield have positioned battery packs between two wheels. With trucks, Daimler, Toyota, Cummins, Peterbilt, DAF, Volvo, Leyland, Kenworth, and Isuzi, among others have taken the electric route. With buses, Alexander Dennis, Scania, Volvo, New Flyer, Van Hool, DAFVDL, Blue Bird, Heuliez, Rampinican carry their passengers more silently. It therefore seemed only logical that traditional agricultural machinery builders should make the same transition. The first to do this was John Deere, established in Moline, Illinois in 1837.

This chapter traces the history of the electric quadcopter commonly known as the drone, prior to its use in agriculture.

As long ago as 1493, the versatile Italian Leonardo de Vinci, painter, sculptor, machine designer often inspired by his observations of Nature, made a sketch in one of his little notebooks of a screw-like machine next to which he wrote in his mirror-handwriting:

If this instrument made with a screw be well made – that is to say, made of linen of which the pores are stopped up with starch and be turned swiftly, the said screw will make its spiral in the air and it will rise high.¹

Four centuries later, in 1863, the Viscount Gustave du Ponton d’Amécourt, President of The Society for the Encouragement of Aerial Locomotion by Means of Heavier than Air Machines, published a forty-page monograph in Paris, entitled “The Conquest of the air by propeller. Account of a new system of aviation.” In this he took the Greek words helico and pteron, meaning “spiral” and “wing”, and combined them into the word hélicoptère (helicopter). D’Amécourt and his friends were among those very few who were passionately convinced that the future of flying was with heavier-than-air machines. To prove their point, having built a fragile flying machine model driven by clockwork springs, they watched it ascend vertically for a few seconds to a height of less than 3 metres (10 feet), only to crash back to the ground.

EAAMs (Electric Agricultural Aerial Machines) have emerged from drones used for both aerial filming, as toys and even as racing units. A Price water house Coopers’ study revealed that the global market for drone-powered business solutions was valued at $127.3 billion in 2016. For agriculture, prospective drone applications in global projects were valued at $32.4 billion. Stelios Kotakis and colleagues at market research firm IHS Markit projected that there would be around 400,000 shipments of drones to firms in the agriculture and forestry sectors in 2017. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations projects that by 2050 humanity’s ranks will likely have grown to nearly 10 billion people. Farmers will need to produce more with less, while preserving our environment for future generations. And society has a duty to help them achieve this. Although agriculture is perceived as a traditional economic sector, precision agriculture technologies have already boosted crop yields significantly in the last decades. The same study forecast that agricultural consumption would increase by 69% from 2010 to 2050.

In 1920, a 30-year-old Czech writer Karel Èapek, wrote a play called “R.U.R.” (Rossumovi Univerzální Roboti or Rossum’s Universal Robots). For this dystopian work about a bad day at a factory populated with sentient androids, Èapek called the androids “roboti”, as suggested byhis brother Josef, a painter and writer. It was premiered in Prague on 25^th January, 1921.

Èapek was admired for his opinions:

My dear Miss Glory, Robots are not people. They are mechanically more perfect than we are, they have an astounding intellectual capacity, but they have no soul.

But surprisingly he was keen on gardening!

Abstract

Multi-commodity flours were prepared by blending rice flour, mung flour and potato flour with wheat flour in ratios of 0:0:0:100, 5:5:5:85, 10:10:10:70 and 15:15:15:55, respectively and packaged in glass jar, high density polyethylene and aluminium flexible packaging for biscuits development. The standardized formulations for biscuit had ingredients as 100 g flour/multi-commodity flour, 45 g sugar, 45 g hydrogenated fat, 1.25 g sodium bicarbonate, 1.25 g baking powder and 1.0 g curry leave powder. The biscuits were baked in convective baking oven at 180 > C for 10-15 min till baked. The well baked biscuits were removed from the oven, cooled to room temperature, packaged and stored under ambient condition. The physical quality (Mass, thickness, diameter, spread ration percent spread and bulk density), of biscuits were analyzed just after preparation under ambient condition. Results were also reported that the spread ratio of multi-commodity flour biscuits increased with decrease in the incorporation of wheat flour in multi-commodity flours. It is clear that spread ratio is mostly influenced by the diameter and thickness of biscuits.

Abstract

Food processing involves the transformation of raw animal or plant materials into consumer-ready products, with the objective of stabilizing food products by preventing or reducing negative changes in quality. Without these processes, we would neither be able to store food from time of plenty to time of need nor to transport food over long distances. Food processing has also gained its importance in the wide variety of diet among people throughout the globe and availability of exotic food items at various places. Processing of food items enhance the taste, flavor and aroma of the food thereby increasing the overall chances of its acceptability among the masses. So, it is essential to determine and recognize the database of physical and engineering (aerodynamic and mechanical) properties of these agricultural products because these properties play an important role in designing and developing of specific machines and their operations such as sorting, separating and cleaning, also to determine the optimum in seed metering device in pneumatic planter and precision sowing machine to suite every size of these grains.

Abstract

The knowledge of engineering (physical) properties constitutes important and essential data in the design of machines, storage structures and processes. The present investigation was carried out determine the physical parameter (diameters, mass, volume, density, sphericity, angle of repose etc.) of varieties KPS 10. The moisture content in green pea (KPS 10) was observed 411.77% (db). The average values of dimensional and geometrical parameter like length (D₁), width (D₂), height (D₃), AMD, GMD and SMD were found 9.517mm, 9.343 mm, 7.707 mm, 8.856 mm, 8.816 mm and 15.305 mm respectively. Mean values of mass of 1000 pea seeds, volume, bulk density and true density were found 329.501 g, 0.2 ml, 0.275 g/cm₃ and 0.304 g/cm₃ respectively. Average values of angle of repose, sphericity, porosity and moisture content were found 24.7, 0.926 %, 9.528 and 80.96%, respectively.

Abstract

The research work was conducted on the moisture dependent physical properties of kidney bean (White speckled kidney beans) were analyzed. Length, width, thickness varied between 1.53-1.90, 0.79-0.94, 0.58-0.76 cm for kidney beans, respectively. Arithmetic mean diameter and geometric mean diameter were 0.96-1.19 and 0.88-1.11 cm₂, respectively. Volume, Sphericity and surface area ranged between 0.44 -0.87 cm₃, 0.57-0.60 and 2.91-4.68 cm₂ for white speckled kidney beans, respectively. The kidney bean was soaked in normal water with initial moisture content 14.22 % (db) upto 270 min and attained the final moisture upto 83.23 % (ab).

Abstract

The frictional properties such as coefficient of friction and angle of repose are very important in designing of storage bins, hoppers, chutes, conveyors, harvesters and threshers etc. Angle of repose is the angle made with the horizontal at which the material will stand when piled. The angle of repose is also important in designing the equipment for mass flow and structures for storage. The static angle of repose (b) was determined using an open-ended cylinder of 150 mm diameter and 250 mm height. The higher the moisture content, the higher the cohesion between the seeds. In terms of flow ability, the seeds are heavier and the inertia to move is increased. Coefficient of internal friction is the frictional resistance of seeds with each other. Coefficient of external friction is the frictional resistance between the seeds and the surface. The rolling resistance is directly proportional to the weight of the rolling object and to the coefficient of rolling resistance which is dependent on the rigidity of the supporting surface and indirectly proportional to the effective radius of the rolling object. The air velocity at which an object remains in a suspended state in a vertical pipe under the action of the air current is called terminal velocity of the object.

Abstract

Rheological properties of dough from different flours are very important to know about the kneading and modeling process especially for development of bakery products. Rheological testing is helpful to examine the structural and fundamental properties of dough. The basic principle underlying evaluation of rheological properties are mechanical behavior of the dough, in conjunction with the physical structure of the dough, the molecular structure of the protein continuous phase in the dough and with chemical reactions of functional groups. This chapter presents some of the methods currently used in bakery industry for determining the rheological characteristics of the flour and the dough. The instruments such as Farinograph, Mixograph, Extensigraph, Alveograph and Amylograph, which are used for the measurement of dough rheological properties (due to visco-elastic behavior of dough) were described.

Abstract

The electromagnetic processing instruments such as microwave is very commonly used at house hold level, hence understanding the behavior of food as well as factors affecting its dielectric properties becomes important. Dielectric properties (DEP) play an important in electromagnetic processing of food products and mainly depend upon the moisture content, physical properties, composition, temperature and power applied. Different methods have been used to determine the DEP of food material including parallel plate, coaxial probe, resonance cavity, transmission line and free space method. The selection of these methods is again based on several factors such as type of materials, accuracy of measurement, the scope of the research, frequency range, availability of equipments and resources. Present study thus summarizes the importance of DEP of food, influencing factors and the different measurement techniques.

Abstract

Thermal properties of food are its ability to conduct, store and lose heat. These properties are inherent in food processing and preservation practices. Thermal properties are important for modelling processes, engineering design of processing equipment, sterilization and aseptic processing. Important thermal properties are thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal diffusivity. These properties depend on chemical composition, water fraction and temperature.

Introduction

Thermal properties are involved in almost every food processing operation. It is essential to have knowledge of thermal properties of foods which is important in analysis and design of various food processes and food process equipment involved in heat transport. Thermal properties of food are greatly depending on composition, temperature and density of food. Thermal properties required for heat transfer calculation include specific heat, enthalpy, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity. Thermal properties of foods are related to heat transfer control in specified foods and can be classified as thermodynamic properties (enthalpy and entropy) and heat transport properties (thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity). Thermo physical properties not only include thermodynamic and heat transport properties, but also other physical properties involved in the transfer of heat, such as freeze and boiling point, mass, density, porosity, and viscosity. These properties play an important role in the design and prediction of heat transfer operations during the handling, processing, canning, storing, and distribution of foods.

Abstract

Quality assessment of fruits and vegetable before marketing and processing is an essential task. Various destructive and non-destructive methods have been investigated to achieve this goal. Among the several prevalent noninvasive methods, optical properties measurement methods also promotes for nondestructive quality inspection of fruits and vegetables. The optical properties of biological tissue are, therefore, very importance important for getting sample information and data quantification of the inside of the material. The main goal of this chapter is, thus, to introduce fundamental concept of optical properties, its principle and application in fruits and vegetables. The discussion of electromagnetic radiation for better understanding of the nature of light has also been explored.

Introduction

Sem (Dolichos) bean, Hyacinth bean or Field bean is one of the most ancient crops among cultivated plants. It is a bushy, semi-erect, perennial herb, showing no tendency to climb. It is mainly cultivated either as a pure crop or mixed with finger millet, groundnut, castor, corn, bajra or sorghum in Asia and Africa (Maass et al., 2010). It is a multipurpose crop grown for pulse, vegetable and forage. The crop is grown for its green pods, while dry as well as fresh green matured seeds are used in various vegetable food preparations, as most of the nutritive value is concentrated in the seeds. FAO website reports that Dolichos lablab (field bean) is a dual purpose legume. It is traditionally grown as a pulse crop for human consumption in south and south-east Asia and eastern Africa. Flowers and immature pods also used as a vegetable. It is also used as a fodder legume sown for grazing and conservation in broad acre agricultural systems in tropical environments with a summer rainfall. Also used as green manure, cover crop and in cut and carry systems and as a concentrate feed.

Abstract

The chapter aims at introducing selected physical properties of food and biological materials in food process and application in the field of food technology. These physical properties of food are not only used for designing of food equipments but can also maintain the nutritive value of food to a greater extent during processing in these equipments.

Introduction

The investigation of food engineering is spotlighted on the inspection of equipments and system used to process food materials on a commercial scale. Building of system for food materials can be efficient if two factors are known, the nature of the food product and what happen to the food during its processing. Food materials are organic in nature and it has a certain kind of qualities which recognize them from other processed food product. Since food materials are organic in nature, they have (a) shapes usually found in normally non regular; (b) properties which differ from other food products; (c) heterogeneous arrangement; (d) properties are varied due to climatic conditions, ripening conditions, etc. and (e) several other factors such as (e) influenced by chemical changes, moisture content variation and enzymatic movement. Managing food materials with these remarkable attributes requires extra thought, for the most part by implication and extra sources or reasons for different varieties. The attributes of a food material that are autonomous of the on looker, quantifiable, can be measured, and characterize the condition of the material (yet not how it accomplished that state) are considered as its physical properties.

Abstract

During present investigation a comparative study was done to see the effect of storage on physical properties of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) packed in HDPE and stored under ambient temperature. Four varieties of tomatoes taken for current investigation were Badshah, Himshikhar, NS-524 and Raja. From the studies it was clear that TSS increased gradually during storage duration for entire tomato varieties due to loss of some moisture from tomatoes. Variety NS-524 shows maximum shrinkage among all during observation period.

Abstract

In India, the allium groups (onion and garlic) are important bulb crops for home consumption as well as sources of income to many peasant farmers in many parts of the country. The garlic bulbs are valued for their flavor and have wide applications in food and their antimicrobial, antifungal, insecticidal and antioxidative properties. The engineering properties of garlic bulb, clove and skin plays important role in the planning of various post-harvest operations like drying, sorting, grading, bulb breaking, peeling and designing the process equipments like bulb breaker, clove separator and peeler. The aim of this chapter was to study the engineering properties viz., physical, mechanical, aerodynamic and frictional properties of garlic bulbs, and cloves in both peeled and unpeeled form.

Introduction

India is rightly the spice bowl of the world. India has the largest domestic market for spices in the world. Indian spices are the most sought-after globally, given their exquisite aroma, texture and taste. Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a world’s favourite, versatile horticultural commodity consumed for culinary, medicinal and antimicrobial purposes and is being cultivated for over 5000 years. The most important part of the garlic plant is the compound bulb. Each bulb is made of 6-26 cloves and is wrapped in a white papery sheath. Some varieties have a radish or purplish sheath. The bulbs are valued for their flavour, command extensive commercial importance because of their wide application in food and pharmaceutical preparations. Garlic is still probably nature’s most powerful medicinal plant to us today. It is recognized to have remarkable preventive and curative abilities. Garlic is mainly used aromatic spices and pickles as it has digestive, carminative and anti-rheumatic properties. It is being used in ayurvedic formulation since a long for curing lungs, healing the intestinal ulcer and checking muscular pain and giddiness.

Abstract

Physical properties of food are aspects such as colour, structure, texture, rheology and interfacial properties, and composition. We have a range of instrumental methods for objectively characterising and measuring food structure and physical properties. These are useful for applications such as new product development, benchmarking, reformulation and specification.

Colour

Consistent and accurate measurements of the colour and visual appearance of food products is extremely important. Various methods are available for colour measurement, allowing a wide variety of sample types to be measured. Colour measurement results are typically provided on the CIELAB scale. Others are available on request.

Humankind has always been a perceptive feel for rheological testing, e.g. in physical and visual evaluations of material properties such as hardness, stiffness, flexibility, and viscosity, and their relation to end-use quality characteristics. People often naturally measure the quality of solid foods by gently squeezing them, or liquid viscosity is measured by gently rotating the liquid in its container. These intuitive measurements gradually became formalized into quantitative descriptions of material properties.

Rheology can be defined as the study of how materials deform, flow or fail when force is applied. The name is derivated from Greek word: rheos, meaning the river, flowing, streaming. Therefore rheology means “flow science”. Rheological investigations not only include flow behaviour of liquids, but also deformation behaviour of solids. Normally, to measure rheological properties, the material is subjected to a controlled, précised and quantifiable distortion or strain over a given time and the material parameters such as stiffness, modulus, viscosity, hardness, strength or toughness are determined by considering the subsequent forces or stresses (Dobraszczyk and Morgenstern, 2003). The term rheology was coined by Eugene C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette College, in 1920, from a suggestion by a colleague, Markus Reiner (Steffe, 1996)