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Some species of turmeric have been documented from China, Australia, and the South Pacific, despite the fact that turmeric has been farmed all throughout the tropics. Turmeric along with the 110 species is found growing in Tropical Asia, with India, Myanmar, and Thailand having the most diversity. Black turmeric (Curcuma caesia), along with Curcuma aromatica, Curcuma amada, Curcuma aeruginosa, Curcuma longa, and Curcuma zanthorrizha, is one of the economically important species native to India. Curcuma caesia (black turmeric/ black zedoary) is a critically endangered perennial herb in the Zingiberaceae family native to India. Traditional healers employ the Curcuma genus to treat a variety of diseases in ethno medical traditions, but Curcuma caesia Roxb. is a relatively unknown and unexplored medication. In the Indian subcontinent, black turmeric is frequently used as a spice, food preservative, and colouring ingredient. Black turmeric is the most recent spice to be chemically studied, with a few papers describing 100 or more secondary metabolites from this plant, and it will continue to be a source of new bioactive chemicals.

Distribution

Black turmeric is a native of Northeastern and Central India, where it has long been used in traditional rituals and medicinal treatments. Within an altitudinal range of 200–1000 m, the species is found in moist deciduous woods, primarily in Bengal, North East, and Central India. It develops as a woodland ground cover in subtropical to temperate climates.

Morphological characteristics

Kalimusli roots are 5–22 centimetres long, cylindrical, tuberous, and 0.5–0.8 centimetres thick. Brownish on the outside, with noticeable transverse creases that are loosely spaced. Externally, lateral roots are robust, fibrous, dull white in colour, and spongy, with a length of 5 cm or more. When freshly cut, tuberous rootstock has a starch-white colour within and is mucilaginous. Simple, sessile leaves are clustered on a short stem with sheathing leaf bases that taper into a little petiole, giving the plant an almost radical aspect. They are 15–45 cm long and 1.2–2.5 cm wide, linear or linear–lanceolate, membranous, glabrous or sparsely soft haired, and are linear or linear–lanceolate, membranous, glabrous or sparsely soft haired. When the leaf tip comes into contact with the earth, it develops roots and creates adventitious buds.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are epigynous, bright yellow, bisexual or unisexual, with a lanceolate and membranous bract. The perianth is found at the top of a lengthy, sterile ovarian extension that extends above the ground. With six equal lobes measuring 1.5 cm and sparsely hairy along nerves on the interior, the perianth is gamotepallus. The ovary is tricarpellary, syncarpous, and trilocular, with a long, slender beak (stipe). Flowering and fruiting occur largely from October to January, with intermittent flowering and fruiting occurring all year.

Synonyms

Menispermum fenestratum Gaertn., Coscinium peltatum Merr., C. wallichianum Miers, C. maingayi Pierre, C. usitatum Pierre, C. blumeanum Miers var. epeltatum Boerl., C.wightianum Miers, C.miosepalum Diels, C.fenestratum var. macrophyllum Yamamoto, C. fenestratum var. ovalifolium Yamamoto, Pereiria medica.

In India, vernacularly it is known as Haldigach (Bengali), Tree turmeric, False calumba, Columbo weed (English), Jhar-I-haldi (Hindi), Maradashina, Maramanjali (Kannada), Maramanjal, Manjavalli (Malayalam), Jhade-halade, Venivel (Marathi), Darvi, daruharidra, Pitadaru (Sanskrit), Venivel, Bangwellgetta (Sinhalese), Maramanjal, Manjalkodi, Atturam, Kadari, Udaravi, Pasamantram, Imalam (Tamil), Manu pasupu (Telugu).

Morphological characteristics

It is a huge dioecious tree that can reach a height of 10 metres and has yellow wood and sap. The slices of stem and root are stiff and woody. The colour of the wood is yellowish-brown on the outside and yellow on the inside. The substance is found in huge woody, cylindrical, straight sections with a diameter of up to 10 cm; branchlets are terete, brown tomentose, and subsequently glabrescent with disciform petiole-scars. Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate, broadly ovate, rounded, truncate or shallowly cordate at base, acuminate at apex, 10-32x8-22 cm, glabrescent above, hoary yellowish-white tomentellous beneath, thinly coriaceous; main nerves 5-7, palmate, with 2 pairs of distal lateral nerves; midrib and other main nerves sunken, whitish tomentose beneath above basal margin on the lamina of leaf; stipules absent.

Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) known under the names camphor tree, camphorwood or camphor laurel of the family Lauraceae is obtained from the bark of camphor tree that is a principle source of camphor. It has its use throughout the globe and along the centuries as an ailment for various remedies that help in treating issues like irritations, pains, inflammation, congestion, etc. In addition to this Cinnamomum camphora also owns suppressive and anti mutagenic effect that is useful in treatment of deadly disease like human cancer cells retaining the healthy cells. Indian religious system is well versed with the utilization of Camphor in rituals, however the camphor used here is made synthetically.

The botanical name Cinnamomum camphora is derived from Greek language from the word ‘kinnamomon’ which refers to spice. This herb has its earliest record that is used by Egyptians for embalming purposes. Along with this it also finds its use in Sanskrit literature also. Camphor tree is a fragrant evergreen tree that is native to China, India, Mongolia, Japan and Taiwan and a variety of it is grown in Southern United States; especially in Florida. The species Camphora, referred to as camphor or karpura, is an important chemical ingredient present in the oil that found in the tissues of tree.

Morphological characteristics

It is a tall tree that grows up to 100 feet. The trunk is 8 m long and 2 m wide and bark is yellowish brown colored rough on the outside and smoother inside with vertical fissures. All parts of the tree have peculiar fragrance of camphor. Leaves are fragrant, leathery and are yellowish light to dark green with glossy veins with varied shape.

Morphological characteristics

The plant is an erect undershrub, 1.5–2.5 m tall. Leaves are elliptic-oblong to lanceolate or ovate to ovate–lanceolate, 12–25 × 5–11 cm, acute or acuminate at apex, acute or cuneate at base, glabrescent, crenate-dentate; densely stellate–tomentose beneath; petiole 4–12 mm long; Fruits globose, drupes or berries, white to yellowish-brown with or without fruit stalk, fresh being succulent, 1–3 mm in dia. Intact fruits are smooth and brownish in colour and exhibit centrally located bilocular carpel and 4 nutlets each embedded with a yellowish white seed, in a transversely cut surface of a fruit;

Floral characteristics

Flowers appear in July-November are small, 0.5 cm long, pink in colour and crowded in axillary peduncled globose cymes, solitary, pedunculate or sessile. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic and fragrant. Calyx 4 or rarely 5 toothed, pubescent, corolla infundibular, 4 or rarely 5 lobed. Stamens are 4, exserted, anthers oblong 2 loculed, dorsifixed. Ovary is superior, 4 lobed, 4 loculed, 1 ovule in each locule, style short, stigma 2 lobed. Flowering & fruiting occurs during June–Dec. Fruits when tasted at first are somewhat sweet, later bitterish; fruit has fragrant odour specially after slight bruising the fruit. The fruits of Callicarpa macrophylla are edible.

Distribution

Plants of this species grow in open and secondary forests along the upper Gangetic plains, West Bengal Plains, Eastern and Western Himalayas, Kashmir, Assam, and northern Andhra Pradesh up to an altitude of 1800 meters. The species grows in other places worldwide, such as Nepal, Indonesia, China and South Korea.

Morphological characteristics

Caesalpinia sappan is a thorny, small to medium-sized plant with prominent spines on the stem and leaf rachis that grows up to 10 metres tall. Branchlets are lenticellate, dull, and usually have paired, recurved stipular prickles. With 9–14 pairs of pinnae, the leaves are big, hairy, or glabrate.

Floral characteristics

The inflorescence is a supra-axillary and terminal raceme with golden yellow flowers that creates a huge panicle. The fruit is an elliptical pod that ranges in colour from brown to black. The peak flowering and fruiting season is from July to September, with November being a rare exception.

Distribution

The crop is native to the Indo-Malayan region. The species can be found throughout the Indian peninsula. It is also produced as a plantation crop in all of the Southern states, as well as in Odisha and Bengal to the north.

Morphological characteristics

The plant is a monoecious undershrub that grows up to 3.5 metres tall and has serrated leaves and stiff branches that emerge from the root. Lower branches feature big, typically broad, elliptical, three- to five-lobed leaves with rounded bases, while above branches have small, lanceolate leaves. Petioles range in length from 5 to 15 cm.

Floral characteristics

The flowers are unisexual. The calyx of male flowers is globose, 2.5 mm long, four to five partite, glabrous or slightly pubescent, membranous, finely mottled with a disc of six glands, and glabrous or slightly pubescent. There are approximately 20 stamens in each flower. Sepals are ovate-lanceolate and glabrous, and the disc is roughly 2.5 mm in diameter in female flowers. Fruit is a three-lobed capsule that is around 8–13 mm long and hairy. Seeds contain an oily endosperm and are speckled and smooth. Flowers bloom in January–February, followed by fruit that mature a month later.

Distribution

The species grows in tropical and subtropical places with rainfall of around 1000 mm, such as the Himalayan foothills, Kashmir to the Khasi hills, and especially in the Vindhyas southward. In North and East Bengal, Chhota Nagpur, and peninsular India, it is fairly frequent.

Morphological characteristics

This plant is a large evergreen tree about 20 meters tall and 1.5–2.4 meters in girth with somewhat straight and fluted bole. Leaves are alternate 0.5-10 cm by 2-5 cm, oblong, lanceolate or elliptic, caudate, acuminate and glabrous with slender nerves. Venation is parallel. Petiole is 0.3-0.5 cm long. It is commercially used as fragrant and in prepation of drugs. The tree contains plenty of oleoresin and has irregular dark patches. The wood burns with a bright flame giving off pleasant smell.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are bisexual, white in colour, pedicillate, in both axillary and terminal umbellate cymes, shortly pedunculed, perianth, companulate, lobes 5 spreading and densely pilose. Pedicels is 0.5-0.8 cm long, slender. Perianth remains persistent in fruit and 1.3-1.5 cm long, silky densely villous, connate at the base. Stamens are 10, anthers 10 with subsessile disc. Ovary is subsessile, villous and two-celled. Stigma is large, subsessile. Fruit is capsular, 3-5 cm long, obovoid, pericarp coriaceous and densely tomentose. Seeds are ovoid with a long tail.

Distribution

The crop is found in parts of Bengal and North-Eastern States of India covering Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

Morphological characteristics

It is a glabrous aromatic perennial or biennial herb, 1-2 meter tall. Stem is hollow. Root is thick rhizomatous. Leaves are unipinnate, bipinnate, or tripinnate, large pinna is toothed, ovate or lanceolate.

Floral characteristics

Inflorescence is compound umbel with numerous rays. Flowers are white, yellow or purple in colour, bracteate; florets white or purple. Seeds are small in size and winged. Fruits/seeds are 1.25 cm by 0.6 cm in size.

Distribution

The plant is endangered in status, which is distributed in Western Himalaya from Kashmir to Uttrakhand, in alpine scrub and forest shades between 2700-3700 meters.

Morphological characteristics

A. balfourii Stapf is an erect, glabrous shrub that grows upto 1.5 m in height. The plant has branched stems which are dull purplish brown in colur that reach about 1.2 m high. Lower leaves are long stalked while the upper ones are short. The plant has long heavy tubers with 7 to 12 cm in length. Roots are tuberous and fusiform.

Floral characteristics

The plants bears about 29 cm long inflorescence with numerous flowered racemes along with the yellow tomentum. The flowers are hermaphrodite and the mode of pollination is by bees. Sepals are helmet shaped, pubescent and blue in colur. The upper two petals are hooded and enveloped in the helmet, and the below two are glabrous. The stamens are many, the filaments are hispidulous, and the pollen is three-colpate. Carpals are yellowish, 3 to 5 in number and tomentose. Follicles range in size from 2 to 5, are sessile, and silky pubescent. Along the raphe, the seeds have a broad winged appearance. The months of September to November are ideal for flowering and fruiting in A. balfourii.

Morphological characteristics

Abroma is a shrub or small tree that grows to a height of around 3-5 metres. The plant has horizontal and velvety branches that are 10-30 cm long, 6-18 cm wide, oblong or lanceolate, more or less cordate, delicately acuminate, membranous, whole, and three to five lobed with a petiole that is 1-12 cm long. The dorsal surface of the leaves is glabrous, while the ventral surface is hairy.

Floral characteristics

The plant has beautiful and intricate scarlet like flowers (5 cm in diameter) bearing purple colour. The inflorescence is a cyme. The sepals are persistent and lanceolate, measuring about 2.5 cm long. The petals are imbricate and will shortly fall off. Stamens are situated on a short staminal tube, and there are five staminodes. Each cell in the ovary is five lobed and pyramidal, with numerous ovules. The apex, the capsules are obpyramidal, membranous, finely pubescent, and truncate at the apex. Behind each carpel is a triangular wing. December and January are the fowering and fruiting months.

Plants have been used by man from prehistoric times to relieve from suffering and to cure various ailments. Primitive people, when injured in battle or when they had a fall or cut, they instinctively resorted to materials available at hand for staunching the flow of blood or for the relieving of pain and, by trial and error, they learnt that certain plants were more effective than others when used for these purposes. Man has also gained such knowledge from his observation of birds and animals that have been using plants for curing their ailments. Even today, we find that the domestic dog and cat, when they suffer from indigestion or other ailments, run to the field, chew some grasses or herbs and get cured. The folk medicines of almost all the countries of the world abound in medicinal plants and tribal people wherever they exist, rely chiefly on herbal medicine, even today.

Today, chemical and pharmaceutical investigations have added a great deal of status to the use of medicinal plants by revealing the presence of the active principles and their actions on human and animal systems. Investigations in the field of Pharmacognosy and Pharmacology have supplied valuable information on medicinal plants with regard to their availability, botanical properties, and method of cultivation, collection, storage, commerce and therapeutic uses. All these have contributed towards their acceptance in modern medicine and their inclusion in the pharmacopeias of civilized nations.

1. DISEASES OF MANGO

Mango is considered to be the king of fruit. India is the largest producer and exporter of mango in the world. Mango possess unique nutritional and medicinal qualities apart from being a rich source of vitamins A & C, besides its attractive form and appearance, delicious taste and appetizing flavor, the ripe mango fruit according to nutritional experts is also highly invigorating, fattening, laxative and diuretic. Every part of mango from root to tip is used in a variety of ways. This crop is affected by many fungal, bacterial and other non parasitic diseases.

1. Mango Malformation Disease (MMD)

Mango Malformation Disease is a fungal disease of mango caused by several species of Fusarium, some yet to be described. Mango is the only known host of the disease. The disease spreads on a tree very slowly, but if left unchecked, can severely reduce yields. The main method of spreading MMD to new areas is through infected vegetative planting material. There is no evidence that the disease can spread on fruit or the seeds, or that it affects human health. It usually associated with the bud mite, Aceria mangiferae but the mites have been shown to spread the disease within a tree and not between the trees. Mango malformation, also known as bunchy top, is a very serious threat to the mango industry, particularly in northern India. The Etiology of the disease still remains obscure and diverse claims have been made about its causes, e.g., physiological, viral, fungal, acarological and nutritional.

1. INSECT- PESTS OF MANGO

1. Mango hoppers: Idioscopus niveosparus, I. clypealis, Amritodus atkinsoni (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)

Management

• Avoid close planting, as the incidence becomes very severe in overcrowded orchards.
• Orchards must be kept clean by ploughing and removal of weeds.
• Pruning of dense canopy to facilitate aeration and sunlight.
• Avoid excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers.
• Immediately after withdrawal of monsoon (September-October), off-seasonal trunk spraying with Malathion 50 EC @ 15 ml in 10 lit of water suppresses the adult hoppers from multiplying further and hinders their oviposition and also kills the newly hatched nymphs.
• Avoid application of all other synthetic pyrethroids as they have been reported to cause resurgence of hoppers.
• If overlapping generations of hoppers are found, spray imidacloprid @ 3 ml or acetamaprid 4 gm in 10 litres of water at panicle emergence stage.

Introduction

• Agriculture with its allied activities is the largest sector in India with 70% dependency of its rural households for their livelihood and 82% of farmers in the country are small and marginal.
• Agriculture sector alone contributes about 14.5% towards gross domestic product (GDP) of India.
• Food grain production has experienced a considerable jump from about 51 million tonne during 1950 to 291.95 million tonne in 2019-20 as per second advance estimates. The production of horticulture products has doubled over the past quarter century and the value of global trade in horticulture crops now exceeds that of cereals. For the first time, horticulture production surpassed food production in India during 2013-14 and continues to excel currently.
• India is characteristically a country of small agricultural farms, where approximately 80% of total land holdings in the country are less than 2 ha (5 acres) with 30% irrigated land only.
• India produces wide variety of agricultural products because of its varied agro-climatic regions but low farm productivity is major concern, which is around 33% of the best agricultural farms world over. Indian farmers can get more remuneration from the same piece of land with fewer inputs, once the productivity gets increased.

The horticultural produce includes fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops and spices. However, fruits and vegetables are the most consumed and important commodity among them. Morphologically and physiologically, the fruits and vegetables are highly variable and may come from a root, stem, leaf, immature or fully mature and ripe fruits. They have variable shelf life and require different suitable conditions during marketing. All fresh horticultural crops are high in water content and are subjected to desiccation (wilting, shrivelling) and to mechanical injury. Various authorities have estimated that 20-30% of fresh horticultural produce is lost after harvest and these losses can assume considerable economic and social importance.

Maturity

It is the state of reaching a stage of full or advanced development of tissue of fruits and vegetables, after which it will ripen normally. During the process of maturation, the fruit receives a regular supply of food material from the plant and at maturity, the abscission or corky layer formed at the stem end stops this inflow. Afterwards, the fruit depend on its own reserves, and carbohydrates are dehydrated and sugars start accumulating until the sugar acid ratio formation. In addition to this, typical flavour and characteristic colour also develop. It has been determined that the stage of maturity at the time of picking influence the storage life and quality of fruit, when picked immature like mango develop white patches or air pockets during ripening, thus lacks in in normal brix acid ratio or sugar acid ratio, taste and flavour. On the other hand, if the fruits are harvested over mature or full ripe, then they are easily susceptible to microbial and physiological spoilage and their storage life is considerably reduced. Such fruits continue to show numerous problems during handling, storage and transportation. Therefore, it is necessary or essential to pick up the fruits or vegetables at correct stage of maturity to facilitate proper ripening, distant transportation and to obtain maximum storage life.

Fruits and vegetables account for nearly 90% of total horticulture production in the country. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world and the leader in several horticultural crops namely Mango, Banana, Papaya, Cashewnut, Arecanut, Potato and Okra. However, the nature of horticultural crops being such that it’s not easy to make assessment of their production. These crops, especially vegetables are grown in small plots, fields or in the backyard of the houses; do not have single harvesting in most of the cases which makes their assessment difficult. Many horticultural crops have multiple pickings in a single season. Similarly many fruit trees are scattered, which do not count for assessment.

India has witnessed increase in horticulture production over the last few years. Significant progress has been made in area expansion resulting in higher production. Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by 2.6% per annum and annual production increased by 4.8%. During 2017-18, the production of horticulture crops was 311.71 Million Tonnes from an area of 25.43 Million Hectares. The production of vegetables has increased from 101.2 Million Tonnes to 184.40 Million Tonnes since 2004-05 to 2017-18 and production of fruits has increased from 50.9 Million Tonnes to 97.35 Million Tonnes since 2004-05 to 2017-18.

The world ‘‘Unfruitfulness’’ means a state or character of being unfruitful or barrenness. It is a vital constraint in so many fruit crops leading to a great loss to the farming community. In contrary, ‘Fruitfulness’ is the state where a fruit plant is not only having the ability of flowering and fruiting, but also carry on these fruits up to maturity. The inability of the plant to do so is known as ‘unfruitfulness’ or ‘barrenness’. Despite of profuse flowering, poor fruit retention in an orchard has been found owing to poor fruit setting at initial stage and subsequently abscission of the fruitlets. All the trees of an orchard do not bear flowers and fruits in the same extent or regularly and sometimes fail to bear flowers and fruits under similar conditions while other trees bears heavily. Such type of characteristics of trees may be attributed to unfruitfulness. Thus, all the problems affecting fruit retention upto final stage can be considered under unfruitfulness of a tree. Therefore, it is a very complex problem of an orchard and needs proper understanding for economical and effective management to maintain sustainable production of fruit crops.

CAUSES OF UNFRUITFULNESS

There are innumerable causes perceived behind unfruitfulness. Majorly, It may be due to poor root shoot ratio, lack of balance between vegetative and reproductive (fruiting) growth, heavy crop load which leads to restriction of fruit bud production and finally short of the crop in the following years.

Juvenility

Juvenility is referred to the phase of plant growth following germination from seed during which flowering does not occur and the bud meristem is not competent to respond to seasonal environmental inductive cues, and hence plant remains vegetative. The changes from juvenile to mature characteristics are well known as phase changes phenomenon. Plants are unable to initiate flowering after germination and have to undergo in a juvenile developmental phase. This transition period (phase) is a gradual and continuous process until the flowering takes place. The length of this phase varies considerably between different species. In annuals like Arabidopsis, the juvenile phase is typically very short, whereas in perennials like hybrid aspen, it is several years.

A plant is considered juvenile from the time it is at seedling stage until it is mature and capable of initiating flowering. Length of juvenile period in most of woody plants is still considered as a big problem. Indeed, it affects the plant breeding efficiency, plant propagation, and selection of new cultivars. In fact, juvenility is a complex phenomenon still not fully understood. Juvenility period extends from seed germination until the plant attains the ability to flower. Furthermore, all the stages namely seed germination, juvenile growth period and transition to the reproductive stage until fruitful inflorescence development are long and not always synchronous in the seedling population. It arrives at the age 30-40 years in Fagus sylvatica L., and at l0 years or even more in olives. Juvenile period is affected by both environmental and genetic factors. Attempts made in past to overcome juvenile period in most woody plants on the environmental level have shown very limited success.

Fertilizer is a substance of natural or synthetic origin, applied to soils or to plant tissues (usually leaves) for the supply of one or more nutrients essential to the plant. It is classified in two types, inorganic fertilizers and organic fertilizers. Both the fertilizers play major role to the crops if they are properly and appropriately applied. To obtain maximum benefits, it is important to apply fertilizers at an appropriate time, amount and in a precise manner. The method of fertilizer application should be selected appropriately taking into consideration the age and stage of crop plants, their root extensibility, type of orchard management, kind and amount of fertilizers to be applied. The fertilizers should be given over the area of crop plants, where their active roots are spread. In fruit trees, fertilizer should be given in restricted area i.e. in the surrounding area of about 1 to 1.5 m away from the trunk of the trees in active root zone.

When to apply the fertilizers?

Majority of the crops require nutrients at different stages like growth & development, flowering and fruit setting time. In fruit crops, stages like new flushes emergence, floral buds differentiation and fruit development require more nutrients. Time of application of fertilizers may also vary depending on types of fertilizers, need of the crops, soil and climate.

Irrigation is one facet of the inputs which need to be carefully managed so that profits are maximized. Irrigation plays a major role in any agriculture crop production. One should be aware of different types of irrigation adapted in orchards or crop cultivation to become a successful grower. Irrigation is very important component of crop cultivation as sufficient moisture must be maintained in the soil for obtaining the optimum growth and good quality yield. The aim of irrigating a plant should be to wet the entire root zone without allowing any wastage of water beyond the root zone. The irrigation systems have to be properly devised so that the water requirements of the trees are met at the minimum expenditure without any wastage of water. Irrigation practices can be improved if a range of important factors like crop type, crop water requirements, climatic conditions, soil type, water quality, method of irrigation are taken into account.

Crop type

The type of horticultural crops grown influences irrigation practices. Annual vegetable and melon crops have high water requirement, hence irrigation management is extremely critical to their productivity during their relatively short life span (10-20 weeks). Perennial fruit crops tend to require less water and management, although critical, is not generally as critical as for annual crops.

The high density planting (HDP) in fruit crops is one of the new concepts of increasing the productivity without affecting the quality of fruits. The concept of high density planting was pioneered in temperate fruits in Europe at the end of 1960, since then there is rise in establishment of commercial high density orchards throughout the world. Initially HDP was followed mostly in temperate fruits e.g., apple. HDP is defined as a method of planting wherein more numbers of plants are planted per unit area as compared to conventional planting density or it is a modern method of fruit cultivation involving planting of fruit trees densely, allowing small or dwarf trees with modified canopy for better light interception and distribution and ease of mechanised field operations. It is one of the important methods to achieve high productivity per unit area both in short duration and perennial fruit crops.

Now-a-days, new orchards of fruits are planted in this system with a view to produce higher fruit yield and increased profitably. In addition, there is also a need to feed the growing population and provide them nutritional security and land resources are shrinking simultaneously due to the industrialization, urbanization etc., hence it is required to develop the modern facilities to compete with the developed nation. The success of this technology in most of the fruit crops is dependent on the use of methods to control shoot growth so as to maximize light interception. The main aim of HDP is to obtain the twin prerequisites of productivity by maintaining a balance between vegetative and reproductive growth without sacrificing plant health and fruit quality.

The fruit trees are grown for optimum production of quality fruits that fulfill our requirement. Therefore, proper care and management of trees is mandatory to manipulate plant growth and plant environment. Training and pruning are important operations that provide not only the proper framework to the tree but also the favourable environment leading to desired plant growth and reduction in disease and pest attack.

Training

It is a physical manipulation technique that provides proper shape, size and direction to the plant in initial stage of growth. The techniques like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or pruning of some parts are are followed.

Objectives

• To improve physical appearance and usefulness of plant by providing appropriate shape and size to the plant and maintaining proper root-shoot balance.
• To facilitate easy cultural operations including canopy management, inter-cropping, plant protection and harvesting.
• To develop strong scaffold branches with better crotch angles in all directions that are capable of bearing heavy crops over the years without breakage of limbs.
• To provide adequate sunlight and air to the centre of the tree.

Layout of an orchard

Layout means the way by which something is arranged or laid out. The purpose of designing a layout for an rchard is to assign the actual position for trees/ plantations, roads, water channels, buildings etc. The layout should be planned very carefully and implemented properly to facilitate proper care and maintenance of an orchard. The plan should provide optimum number of trees per unit area as well as sufficient space to each of the tree for proper development and ease in various cultural operations of the orchard.

Materials required for layout

Measuring tape, rope, pegs, poles and planting board.

Based on agro-climatic conditions, the following system of planting are generally followed for planting of fruit trees:

1. Square
2. Rectangular

Plant Propagation is a technique through which multiplication or production of new individuals take place from selected propagules. The methods of propagation are broadly divided in two categories:

1. Sexual method
2. Asexual method

1. Sexual method of Propagation

In this method, plants are produced from seeds and such plants are called seedlings. Seed is considered as a dormant plant which develops into a complete plant if subjected to congenial environment.

Advantages

1. This is very simple, cheap and easy method of propagation.
2. Some species of fruits, ornamental annuals and vegetables which cannot be propagated by asexual means should be propagated by this method. e.g. papaya, marigold, tomato etc.
3. Hybrid seeds can be developed by this method.

A nursery is a place, where seedling, saplings, trees, shrubs, and other plant materials are grown and maintained until they are placed in a permanent place.

Advantages of Nursery

1. The area being small and compact, it is convenient and easy to grow large number of seedlings per unit area.
2. Management of favourable growing conditions becomes easy and feasible.
3. Easy management of pests and diseases in compact area.
4. Establishment of disease free and virus free scion bank.
5. Ensure optimum utilization of labour, water, nutrients and other inputs.
6. Ensure easy and cheap availability of plants.
7. Promotion of export through supply and processing of quality plant materials.

A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule. In broad sense, seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration purpose. Seed technological point of view, seed may be sexually produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). It also refers to propagating materials of healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, sets, slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose. Quality seed, therefore, can be defined as the seed which fulfills the minimum requirements of getentic and physical purity, seed germination and vigour freedom from weeds and other crop seeds and other relevant seed standards.

HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

The Horticultural crops are majorly classified on the basis of its consumption and uses as fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops. Moreover, these crops have been further classified into various groups on the basis of their habitat, growth pattern, edapho-climatic requirements and uses. All branches of horticulture classified specifically as hereunder:

A Classification of fruits

1. Based on Climatic adaptability
   1. Tropical fruits: These fruit crops are grown in tropical climatic regions which are geographically located between the parallels of 23° 27' South (Tropic of Capricorn) and 23° 27' North (Tropic of the Cancer) of the equator. They are generally evergreen and very sensitive to cold. Eg. Mango, Pineapple, Banana, Papaya, Citrus, Sapota, Avocado etc.
   2. Sub-tropical fruits: Fruit crops are grown in between temperate and tropical climatic regions. They may be either deciduous or evergreen nature. Eg. Mango, guava, citrus, durian, jackfruit, bread fruit etc.

Horticulture has emerged as one of the potential agricultural enterprises in accelerating the growth of economy in India. It offers not only a wide range of options to the farmers for crop diversification, but also provides ample scope for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate huge employment opportunities. Horticulture has been evolving in form of horticulture industry in our country owing to its significant role in nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation. The production of fruits, vegetables and flowers has acquired much importance in recent times due to their increasing demand. India has a wide variety of climate and soil on which different horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops and spices are cultivated successfully.

German Prof. Peter Laurenberg conceived first the word horticulture. The term “Horticulture” is known in written form first in seventeenth century in a book entitled “New World of Words” by Phillips.

Etymologically the word “Horticulture” is derived from two Latin words viz. ‘Hortus’ [garden or enclosure] and ‘Cultura’ [cultivation]. So, literally horticulture means ‘garden or enclosure culture’ or ‘cultivation of garden crops within protected enclosures’.

Garden: Garden is a broad term derived from the Latin word Gyrdan meaning “to enclose”.

DIVISIONS AND DEFINITION OF HORTICULTURE

Pomology: (pomum = fruits, logy = science) It is a branch of horticulture which deals with study or cultivation of fruit crops starting from raising of saplings and intercultural to harvesting operations. The ‘pomology’ term is derived from latin word pomum (means fruits) and greek word logy (means science).

1. Genus - Pythium (Type species - Pythium aphanidermatum)

‘Pythium’ is a large genus comprising of more than 200 species. Species of Pythium are either terrestrial or aquatic. They are found world wide and most of them are plant pathogens on many economically important cultivated crops, as well as wild plants. They are facultative saprophytes and can live saprophytically in the soil and plant debris for indefinite periods in the absence of suitable hosts. Pre-emergence and post-emergence damping off of seedlings of numerous angiospermic plants, root rot, rhizome rot and fruit rot are the most common diseases caused by species of Pythium.

Pythium debaryanum, Pythium aphanidermatum, Pythium myriotylum, Pythium indicum, Pythium vexans and Pythium graminicolum are some of the most important plant pathogens, that cause damping off, seed decay, soft rots and root rots of many economically important crops, such as chillies, eggplant, tobacco, tomato, castor, potato, ginger etc.

Life cycle of Pythium

The mycelium of the fungi consists of slender, hyaline, coenocytic hyphae. The hyphae grow both inter- and intra-cellularly. No haustoria are produced.

1. Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

‘Ginger’, which originated in Southeast Asia has a long history that goes back over 5000 years when the Indians and Ancient Chinese considered it as a tonic root for all ailments. At an early date it was exported to Ancient Rome from India and was used extensively by the Romans. Subsequently it was cultivated in several other countries for its medicinal value. Ginger is cultivated in most of the states of India. Kerala and Meghalaya are the major ginger growing states. India’s production of ginger constitutes about 50 per cent of the total world’s production.

Ginger is an erect, herbaceous , perennial, flowering plant, the rhizome of which is used as a spice. Ginger is an ancient spice and is a common ingredient in many Asian foods and is used in soups, curries, noodles, stews etc. It is widely used to flavor beverages, such as tea, coffee, lemonades, cocktails etc. In many places across the world ginger is used in sweets, alcoholic beverages, such as ginger beer and wine. Ginger has powerful anti-inflammatory properties. Further it has many other health related benefits, such as ability to help with arthritis, osteoarthritis, relieves nausea and pain, prevents cancer, improves respiratory conditions and reduces flatulence. It also boosts bone health, strengthens the immune system and increases appetite.

A ‘spice’ is a seed, fruit, root, bark, bulb, corm, rhizome or any other part of a plant primarily used for enhancing the taste, flavor or color of food. Some spices serve as preservative of food substances. Many spices have antimicrobial properties. Spices are sometimes used in medicines, religious rituals, cosmetics, perfumes etc. Spices are more commonly used in countries having warmer climates, especially in meat preparations. Many spices have substantial antioxidant property due to the presence of phenol compounds, particularly flavanoids.

India is the major producer of spices and contributes about 75 per cent of world’s spice production. Developing and under developed countries of the world supply about 55 per cent of spices to the global markets and the major markets in global spice trade are the United States of America, The European Union, Japan, Singapore, Saudi Arabia and Malaysia.

Objectives

1. To identify the morphological character of different spices and condiments.
2. To know the best variety of particular crop in that region.
3. To know the problems which are the main drawback of that region in the cultivation of spices and condiments.
4. To know the feedback of farmers.

General information of Institute

1. Name of Institute:
2. Address of the Institute:
3. Establishment year of the institute:
4. Director of the Institute:
5. Total area of the Institute:
6. Climatic condition of Institute:

Objectives

1. To know about value addition and its benefits.
2. To know the value added products of various spices and condiments.

Value addition: The maximum realization of the price of the product through processing, packaging and marketing.

Benefits of value added products over raw spices

1. Easy to carry
2. Long lasting flavours
3. More volume can be handled / per unit area
4. Easy to store, free from bacterial contamination.
5. Increases foreign exchange as they are used in food industry, preservatives and pharmaceutical industry.

Objectives

1. To know the methods of essential oil extraction of spices and condiments.
2. To know the various chemicals present in the essential oil of different spices and condiments.

Essential oil: Essential oils are the liquids that are isolated from plants when introduced to solvents. They are liquefied versions of the plants.

Extraction methods of essential oil

1. Steam Distillation
2. Solvent Extraction
   1. CO₂ Extraction
   2. Maceration
   3. Enfleurage
3. Water Distillation
4. Water and Steam Distillation

Objectives

1. To know the various steps involved in the processing of various spices and condiments.
2. To know the grade of some spices and condiments.

Processing: Perform a series of mechanical or chemical operations on (something) in order to change or preserve it.

Processing of some spices and condiments are given below

1. Black pepper

Processing involves the following steps:

1. The fresh berries are dipped in hot water for a minute which results in an attractive black colour and also reduces the drying time.
2. The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for 7-10 days.
3. When dried, the berries retain the characteristic wrinkled appearance of black pepper of commerce.

Objectives

1. To study the maturity indices of various spices and condiments.
2. To study the harvesting time and yield of various spices and condiments.

Maturity: A stage of attainment of final state of biological function beyond which growth and development ceases.

Maturity indices: An indication of appropriate stage of harvesting of the produce.

Harvesting: It is deliberate action to separate the plant product from its source of attachment.

Why harvesting at right stage for spices and condiments?

1. To avoid loss of flavour and volatile oils
2. Reduction in yield due to shattering
3. To get the higher yield
4. Recovery of more essential oil
5. Chances of attack of mycotoxigenic and storage pest

Objectives

1. To study the objectives and principles of training and pruning.
2. To study the methods of training and pruning.

Training: It refers to judicious removal of part to develop a proper shape of plant capable of bearing heavy crop load.

Objectives of Training

1. To admit more light and air to the centre of the tree to expose maximum leaf surface to the sun
2. To direct the growth of the tree so that various cultural operations such as spraying, ploughing, harvesting can be performed easily and at lower cost.
3. To protect the tree from sun burn and wind damage.
4. To secure a balanced distribution of fruit bearing parts of the tree.

Objectives

1. To study the weeds and its control.
2. To study the herbicides, their types, timing and methods of application.

Weed: A wild plant growing where it is not wanted and in competition with cultivated plants.

Or

Weed is such undesirable plant grown in association with crop which snatches major parts of nutrients, water, light, place and CO₂ available to the crop.

Due to tough competition crop suffers adversely and the production is reduced.

Objective

1. To know the different types of fertilizer application methods applied in spices and condiments.

Methods of fertilizer application: The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:

a) Broadcasting

1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.
2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil, large doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are used.

Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types

1. Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application): The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.

Objective

To know about the production practices used in spices and condiments.

1. Mulching: Mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil.

Benefits of Mulching

1. Conservation of soil moisture
2. Improving fertility and health of the soil
3. Reducing weed growth
4. Enhancing the visual appeal of the area

Types of Mulching

1. Organic mulching: Organic mulches include bark nuggets, grass clippings, straw or salt marsh hay, compost and chopped leaves.
2. Inorganic mulching: Inorganic mulches include gravel, polythene and landscape fabric

Objectives

1. To know the layout methods.
2. To know the planting techniques of various spices and condiments.

Layout: Systematic arrangements of plants

Some spices and condiments just like clove, cardamom is perennial in nature. Being perennial in nature any mistake committed during initial year, on the part of planning, is hard to rectify. Hence, all the factors having bearing on growth, production and overall performance of the plant should be given top priority.

Systems of planting

1. Square system: In this system row to row distance and plant to plant distance is kept similar.

Objectives

1. To know about the seed treatment of spices and condiments.
2. To know the sowing method and time of spices and condiments.

Seed treatments or seed dressing: Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide, or a combination of both, to seeds so as to disinfect and disinfect them from seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in conditioned water, etc. The seed treatment is done to achieve the following benefits.

Advantages of seed treatment

1. Protects germinating seeds and seedlings against soil and seed borne pathogens/insects.
2. Seed germination enhancement.
3. Early and uniform establishment and growth
4. Enhances nodulation in legume crop.
5. Better than soil and foliar application.
6. Uniform crop stand, even in adverse conditions (less/high moisture)

Objectives

1. To know the propagation and its methods.
2. To know the propagation methods of various spices and condiments.

Propagation of plants

The process of increasing plant numbers is called propagation

Or

Multiplication of plants is known as propagation

Plants are propagated either by

1. Sexual (Seed) or
2. Asexual (vegetative) methods.

Objective

1. To know the morphology of different spices and condiments.

Materials: The crop of spices and condiments available at Horticulture research farm

Method of observation: Identification of various spices and condiments plants by carefully observing the root, stem, leaves, inflorescence, flower, fruit and seeds of the plants.

General

1. Habitat: A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of plant. The term typically refers to the zone in which the plant lives and where it can find food, shelter, protection and mates for reproduction It is the natural home of a plant. Each habitat has its own particular type of climate like:
   1. Tropical Spices: These are grown at 1800 m - 3500 m height from ground level eg. clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, konkam, galangal, small cardamom, vanilla, black pepper, ginger, turmeric.
   2. Subtropical Spices: These are grown at 300 m - 900 m height from ground level eg. cumin, dill, fennel, coriander, fenugreek, onion, garlic
   3. Temperate Spices: These are grown at 900 m - 1800 m height from ground level eg. saffron, asafetida, caraway seed, celery seed, savoy, caper, balm, origanum, calamus, thyme etc.

Objective

To study the salient features of important varieties of spices and condiments.

1. Cardamom

Table 3.1: Released/Recommended Cardamom Selections- Estimated Yield and Source of Variability.

2. Black pepper

Table 3.2: Improved varieties of black pepper and their character

Objectives

1. To know the botanical and other names of spices and condiments.
2. To identify the family, plant habit and plant part used of spices and condiments.

Objective

1. To classify the various spices and condiments.

Types of classification: spices and condiments are classified on the following basis:

1. Classification on the basis of economic importance
2. Classification on the basis of parts used
3. Classification on the basis of climatic requirements
4. Classification on the basis of life cycle
5. Classification on the basis of taxonomy
6. Botanical classification

Objectives of book keeping

How much have we earned this year?

How much during the past year?

Is our business improving?

Also, how much cash do we have?

How much our customers owe us?