eChapters

Introduction
Fungi are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that play a significant role in ecosystems, including their function as pathogens in plants. They can cause a wide range of diseases that affect plant health and agricultural productivity. Understanding the characteristics, life cycles, and impact of phytopathogenic fungi is crucial for effective disease management.
General Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are distinguished from plants and animals by several key features:
Cell Structure: Fungi have a complex cell structure with a rigid cell wall made primarily of chitin, which differs from the cellulose found in plant cell walls.
Nutritional Mode: Fungi are heterotrophic organisms that obtain nutrients through external digestion. They secrete enzymes into their environment to break down complex organic matter into simpler compounds, which are then absorbed.

9.1. Fungi useful against plant disease pathogen

9.1.1. Trichoderma viride

Trichoderma viride (Fig. 231) fungus is used as a bio-fungicide. It is used for seed and soil treatment for suppression of various diseases caused by fungal pathogens. It is also a pathogen in its own right,causing green mould rot of onion.

The fungicidal activity makes T. viride useful as a biological control agent against plant pathogenic fungi. It has been shown to provide protection against pathogens like Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Armillaria.

It is found naturally in soil and is effective as a seed dressing bioinoculant in the control of seed and soil-borne diseases including Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomina phaseolina and Fusarium species. When it is applied to the seed, it colonizes the seed surface and kills not only the pathogens present on the cuticle, but also provides protection against soil-borne pathogens.

3.1. Plant diseases caused by soil borne fungi

3.1.1. Clubroot Disease causing fungi

Plasmodiophora brassicae (Fig. 125)

It infects Crucifers host species.

Infected plants in the begening shows pale green to yellowish leaves, which later on show wilting in the middle of hot, sunny days, and recovering during the night. Young plants may be killed by the disease soon after infection, whereas older plants may remain alive but become stunted and fail to produce marketable heads.

The most characteristic symptoms of the disease appear on the roots as spindle-like, spherical, knobby, or club-shaped swellings. The swellings may be few and isolated or they may coalesce and cover the entire root system. The older and usually the larger clubbed roots disintegrate before the end of the season because of invasion by bacteria and other fungi.

5.1 Ringworm (in Cattle) causing fungi

Trichophyton verrucosum

Ringworm is one of the commonest skin diseases in cattle. Ringworm is a transmissible skin infectious disease caused most often by Trichophyton verrucosum, a spore forming fungi. The spores can remain alive for years in a dry environment. Although unsightly, fungal infections cause little permanent damage or economic loss. Direct contact with infected animals is the most common method of spreading the infection.

The symptoms of Ringworm include Lesions with greywhite areas with an ash like surface usually circular in outline and slightly raised that appears on skin. Size of lesions vary and can become very extensive. In calves the infection is most commonly found around eyes, on ears and on back. In adult cattle infection on chest and legs are more common (Fig. 183)

7.1. Black Gill Disease (in Shrimps) causing fungi

Fusarium spp

The affected prawns show brown to black spots on the gills. In acute cases gills may completely become brown or black with atrophy and necrosis (Fig. 192).

7.2. Saprolegniasis disease causing fungi

Saprolegnia

Saprolegniasis is a fungal disease of fish and fish eggs, most commonly caused by the Saprolegnia species called “water molds.” They are common in fresh or brackish water. Saprolegnia can grow at temperatures ranging from 0° to 35°C but seem to prefer temperatures of 15° to 30°C. The disease fungus attack an existing injury on the fish and spread to healthy tissue. Poor water quality (for example, water with low circulation, low dissolved oxygen, or high ammonia) and high organic loads, including the presence of dead eggs, are often associated with Saprolegnia infections.

6.1. Aspergillosis disease causing fungi

Aspergillus fumigatus

Aspergillosis is a fungal infection that commonly causes respiratory disease in pet birds. It can infect both upper (nose, sinuses, eye, and trachea) and lower (lung and air sacs-a specialized part of the respiratory tract that birds have) respiratory organs or more broadly distributed systemic infections (Fig. 187).

The Symptoms includes Weight loss, Open-mouth breathing or gasping for breath, Tracheal movement or in-out-in movements in the region of the neck, Tail-bobbing or movement of the bird’s tail up and down while breathing in and out, heavy breathing after flight or exercise, Change in voice and persistent itching or rubbing of cerenares.

4.1. Aspergillosis disease causing fungi Aspergillus

Aspergillosis is usually caused by the fungus Aspergillus (Fig. 161) and usually occurs in people with lung diseases or weakened immune system

The different types of aspergillosis can cause different symptoms. The symptoms are similar to asthma symptoms, and include:

4.1.1. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA)

The symptoms of ABPA includes Wheezing, Shortness of breath, Cough and Fever (in rare cases).

4.1.2. Allergic Aspergillus sinusitis

The symptoms of Alleric Aspergillus Sinusitis include stuffiness, Runny nose, Headache and Reduced ability to smell.

Abstract

Many airborne fungal spores are important as allergens, human and plant pathogens, in the bio-deterioration of stored materials like paper, leather, textile, paintings, historical monuments and spoilage of food stuffs. Surveys have been conducted to elucidate the magnitude of the problem. Indoor environment also plays an important role in the precipitation of allergic symptoms caused by fungal spores. The present review briefly highlights some of the qualitative investigations carried out on indoor environments like bakery, building, cold storage, cow shed, dormitory, educational institutions, garbage disposal plant, ware house, hospital, library, food grain godown, leather godown, house dust, poultry house, chick hatcheries, plastic industries and textile industries.

10.1. Phosphate Solubilisers

10.1.1. Aspergillus spp.

Several species of Aspergillus (Fig. 249) have been reported to be involved in the solubilization of inorganic phosphates such as A. flavus, A. fumigates, A. awamori. A. niger and A. terreus.

These fungi are able to solubilize inorganic phosphate through the production of acids viz. citric, gluconic, glycolic, oxalic acids and succinic acid.

Aspergillus fumigates isolated from compost has been reported to be potassium releasing fungus.

11.1. Pleurotus ostreatus

Researchers in Mexico have shown that oyster mushrooms can break down/ decompose disposable diapers

11.2. Chaetomium globsum

It is a saprophytic fungus that primarily resides on plants, soil, straw, and dung. They are found in habitats ranging from forest plants to mountain soils across various biomes. C. globosum colonies can also be found indoors and on wooden products

C. globosum assists in cellulose decomposition of plant cells.

12.1. Penicillium chrysogenum

Penicillium chrysogenum (Fig. 255) (previously known as Penicillium notatum), produces the antibiotic penicillin, known as WONDER DRUG.

The antibiotics produced from fungus Penicillium is listed in table.

8.1. Fungi useful in food processing

8.1.1. Aspergillus sojae and Aspergillus oryzae

Aspergillus sojae and Aspergillus oryzae (Fig. 198) is a mold species in the genus Aspergillus. Its use was originated in China in the 2nd century AD and spread throughout East Asia where it is used in cooking and as a condiment.

Uses

• It is used to prepare Soy sauce (also called soya sauce) a condiment made from a fermented paste of boiled soybeans, roasted grain and brine,
• In Japan it is used to make the ferment (K?ji) of soy sauce, the mirin and other lacto-fermented condiments like tsukemono. Soy sauce is a condiment produced by fermenting soybeans with Aspergillus sojae, along with water and salt.

a) Definition

Fungus is Latin word meaning ‘mushroom’

Alexopoulus and Mims 1979 defined fungus as eukaryotic, achlorophyllous organism generally produced by sexual or asexual method and whose filamentous branched somatic structure is typically covered by cell wall.

Eukaryotic, spore – producing, achlorophyllous organisms with absorptive nutrition that generally reproduce both sexually and asexually and whose thallus is usually filamentous, branched somatic structures known as hyphae, typically surrounded with cell wall.

Mycology – Study of fungi

The fungi can be divided into two groups namely

True fungi: Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota

Additional phyla: Myxomycota, Dictyosteliomycota, Acrasiomycota, Plasmodiophoromycota, Oomycota, Labyrinthulomycota, Hypochitridomycoya.

1.1 Introduction

Fungi are chlorophyll-less thallophytic plant. Due to absence of chlorophyll, they are heterophytes which depend on other form of life for food. They grow in various habitats and show much diversity in their structure, physiology and reproduction. They evoloved long back from the ancient time.

Their existence was recorded from Pre-cambrian period. Information from ancient literature indicates that the fungi were used as food by men. At present, the fungi are used in medicine as well as food in addition to other aspects. The fungi cause diseases in crop plants (spots, rusts, smuts etc.) and on human beings (Aspergillosis, Blastomycosis etc.).

At present biologists use the term fungus (fungus mushroom, from Greek, sponagos = sponge) to include eukaryotic, spore bearing, achlorophyllous organism that generally reproduce sexually and asexually and whose usually filamentous, branched somatic structure are typically surrounded by cell wall containing chitin or cellulose or both of these substances, togather with many other complex molecules

More than 1.5 million species (Hawksworth 2001; Kirk et al., 2001) of fungi have been recorded, but their number may be much more than the actual record. The subject which deals with fungi is known as Mycology (mykes — mushroom; logos—study) and the concerned scientist is called mycologist. The various definitions of fungi as proposed by mycologists are:

Alexopoulos (1962) defined fungi as “nucleated, spore-bearing, achlorophyllous organisms which generally reproduce sexually and asexually and whose usually filamentous, branched somatic structures are typically surrounded by cell walls containing cellulose or chitin or both”.

Alexopoulos and Mims (1979) defined fungi as eukaryotic spore bearing, achlorophyllous organisms that generally reproduce sexually and asexually, and whose usually filamentous, branched somatic structures are typically surrounded by cell walls containing chitin or cellulose, or both of these substances, together with many other complex organic molecules.

Fungi are a diverse group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms with wide variation in vegetative and reproductive morphologies and diverse life cycles. They are more abundant, on a mass basis, in soils than any other group of microorganisms; their biomass ranges from 500 to 5000 wet kg ha^-1 (Metting, 1993). Fungi inhabit almost any niche containing organic substrates, so that they are active participants in ecosystems as -

• degraders of organic matter
• agents of disease as well as beneficial symbionts - lichen (algae and fungi), mycorrhizal association

Introduction

Plant pathogens can cause significant crop loss both pre- and post-harvest. Fungicides continue to plays an important role in controlling plant diseases caused by fungal pathogens. In the last 100 years, fungicides have evolved from a few simple inorganic compounds to multiple groups of organic compounds, from contact and multisite fungicides to systemic and site specific fungicides with curative properties have evolved. The introduction of new fungicides is an integral part of sustainable disease control in staple crops. The need for new and innovative fungicides is driven by resistance management, regulatory hurdles and changing farmer needs.

A same active ingredient are available in the market with different trade name and are the product of different companies. These may also differ in their formulation and hazard class (table 7), the knowledge of which is necessary in the plant disease management in view of their effect on the pathogen, ecosystem and environment.

Fungicides are chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit the growth of fungi and their spores. They are essential tools in agriculture and horticulture for protecting crops and plants from fungal diseases, which can cause significant yield losses and economic damage.

Fungistat: Some chemicals do not kill the fungal pathogens. But they simply arrest the growth of the fungus temporarily. These chemicals are called fungistat and the phenomenon of temporarily inhibiting the fungal growth is termed as fungistatis. Antisporulant Some other chemicals may inhibit the spore production without affecting the growth of vegetative hyphas and are called as ‘Antisporulant’. Eventhough, the antisporulant and fungistatic compounds do not kill the fungi, they are included under the broad term fungicide because by common usage, the fungicide has been defined as a chemical agent which has the ability to reduce or prevent the damage caused to plants and their products

1. Introduction

As dealt in earlier chapters, fruits and vegetables represent the most essential of horticultural component for acreage of production, yield, nutritional and nutraceutical values, of definite taste, texture, flavor and colour, involving defined health and medicinal benefits. Every year and over the course of every ten years, significant quantum of research data accumulates on the various facets of fruit and vegetable technologies, and also trends in production, processing and marketing, may also tend to change. At every stage, more thinking has gone to improve the technology, product quality and cost economics to suit wider markets, both domestic and foreign. It is a continuous endeavor to record newer and newer problems emerging and to set the strategies to solve them. Several relevant references, fitting to the various aspects representing the cross section of the fruit and vegetable technologies are dealt here, to conclude the subject and spell out the future.
Consumer demand for healthy convenience meals with ‘near fresh’ properties challenges researchers and industry to develop new or improved conservation procedures for processed products. Development of a dehydration process based on electromagnetic energy (EME) may bring about a major breakthrough with respect to retention of product quality and improved rehydration characteristics (Nijhuis et. al., 1996). Economic potential and current limitations of fruit and vegetable processing in India included improvements in preliminary treatment (harvesting, washing/cooling) precooling (including refrigerated transport/storage) and processing of juices and pulps. Establishment of a National Horticulture Board has aided to provide market information and so aid growers to get remunerative prices (Anon, 1993). The use of food irradiation as a quarantine method for treatment of food and agriculture commodities was organized by the joint Food and Agriculture Organization/International Atomic Energy Agency Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on 27-31 Aug., 1990. (FAO,1992). This has been experimented with various commodities, particularly for export trade of fruits like mango, as stipulated by the importing country like U.S.A.

Intelligent irrigation requires systems capable of responding dynamically to crop, soil and environmental conditions. This chapter explores fusion-driven reinforcement learning for precision irrigation, with particular attention to rice alternate wetting and drying and drip farming systems. It introduces the overall framework and methodology used to combine information from different sources for irrigation decision-making. Kalman filter fusion is considered for integrating relevant data, while reinforcement learning provides an adaptive environment in which irrigation strategies can be optimized. The chapter presents results and discussions associated with the proposed approach and considers its potential contribution to efficient water management. Future research directions focus on improving intelligent irrigation systems and their agricultural applicability.

Introduction
 
The future of functional foods is bright and there are several reasons for the growing interest in “functional” foods, such as awareness of personal health deterioration, led by busy lifestyles with poor choices of convenience foods and insufficient exercise; increased incidence of self-medication; increased level of information from health authorities and media on nutrition and the link between diet and health; scientific developments in nutrition research; and a crowded and competitive food market, characterized by pressurized margins. Now, the consumer is well aware of the relationship between diet and health. Consumers understand that the risk for chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, colon cancer, and type II diabetes is possibly preventable by modification in their diet pattern. This scientific progress in understanding the relationship of diet to disease, along with increasing health care costs and the consumer’s desire to initiate healthy eating and lifestyle habits, makes this a potentially fertile ground for the development of food products that meet these demands.

INTRODUCTION

Functional genomics is the science where genes are employed to determine their function. The gene expression is an approach to analyze the functional changes in the genes. The expression level for a gene across different experimental conditions are cumulatively called the gene expression profile and the expression levels for all the genes under an experimental condition are cumulatively called the sample expression profile. Different techniques for gene expression analysis have been used so far. cDNA-AFLP (Bachem et al., 1996), SAGE (Serial Analysis of Gene Expression) (Neto, Neto & Costa, 2012) and MPSS (Massive Parallel Signature Sequencing) (Brenner et al., 2000) are the techniques for expression analysis where the genomic or transcriptome sequence of the organism is not needed. Some advanced and largely used techniques are Microarrays (Schena et al., 1995) and Real-time PCR (Higuchi et al., 1993) where the previous knowledge of the sequence is required. These two techniques are most frequently used for gene expression analysis (Perez-Torres et al., 2009). DNA microarray technology has made it possible to simultaneously monitor the expression levels of thousands of genes during important biological processes and across collections of related samples (Jiang, Tang & Zhang, 2004).

Computational intelligence is central to the development of proactive, personalized and connected healthcare systems. This chapter examines artificial intelligence, machine learning, expert systems, medical-image analysis, IoT, big-data analytics, cloud computing and blockchain as key enabling technologies. It presents intelligent architectures for diagnosis, monitoring, treatment support and secure health-data management. Privacy, cybersecurity, explainability, bias, fairness, scalability and deployment challenges are discussed in relation to practical healthcare implementation. The chapter proposes a research roadmap involving trustworthy AI, advanced privacy-preserving mechanisms, edge-cloud intelligence, digital twins, multi-omics integration and personalized health models. It also emphasizes accessible computational-intelligence solutions for rural and resource-constrained healthcare environments

This chapter explores how ergonomics is evolving in response to technological innovation, demographic change, globalization and sustainability. It traces the discipline’s progression from classical physical ergonomics to cognitive, organizational, integrated and smart ergonomics. Emerging applications of artificial intelligence, machine learning, robotics, wearable sensors, virtual systems and real-time data analytics are examined. The chapter also considers adaptive workspaces, human–robot collaboration, remote work and inclusive design for an ageing and increasingly diverse workforce. Future ergonomists are presented as strategic contributors to human–technology integration rather than only assessors of posture and physical risk. Ethical, economic and accessibility challenges accompanying technological transformation are also considered

Introduction
Over the past few decades, fisheries nutrition has undergone a remarkable transformation, driven by the rapid expansion of global aquaculture and the increasing need for sustainable seafood production. As wild fish stocks have become overexploited and the demand for protein-rich aquatic food sources continues to rise, aquaculture has emerged as a vital solution for meeting the growing global need for fish and seafood. By 2014, aquaculture production had surpassed wild-caught fisheries in providing fish for human consumption, marking a significant shift in how we obtain seafood. This growth, however, brings with it numerous challenges, particularly regarding the nutrition of farmed fish.
Fisheries nutrition, as a specialized field, plays a pivotal role in supporting aquaculture’s ability to provide healthy, high-quality fish for human consumption while maintaining environmental balance. As aquaculture intensifies, the demand for high-quality, cost-effective feed ingredients has surged. Traditional reliance on marine-derived ingredients like fishmeal and fish oil is becoming increasingly unsustainable, as these resources are finite and face depletion due to overfishing. This has resulted in rising costs for these inputs, placing economic pressures on aquaculture producers. Additionally, marine-derived ingredients contribute to ecological imbalances, prompting the need for alternative solutions in feed formulation.
At the same time, the environmental impacts of aquafeeds have garnered increased scrutiny. The production of feed ingredients such as soybeans, corn, and other crops can contribute to deforestation, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions, undermining efforts to achieve environmental sustainability in aquaculture. Nutrient waste from uneaten feed and fish excreta can also lead to eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems, damaging water quality and biodiversity. Therefore, fisheries nutrition must address not only the nutritional requirements of fish but also the broader ecological footprint of aquafeed production and usage.

The Anthropocene epoch underscores an era of interconnected crises, where climate change, biodiversity collapse, and socioeconomic inequities amplify systemic vulnerabilities. Traditional siloed approaches—scientific research detached from policymaking, and policies divorced from community engagement—have proven inadequate in addressing these complex challenges. This chapter posits that systemic resilience necessitates the integration of science, policy, and community efforts through adaptive governance frameworks. By synthesizing transdisciplinary research, participatory policymaking, and grassroots innovation, the analysis highlights how evidence-based strategies, grounded in local realities, can bridge institutional and societal divides. Case studies, such as Costa Rica’s Payment for Ecosystem Services and Bangladesh’s Cyclone Preparedness Program, demonstrate the efficacy of co-produced solutions that align scientific rigor with equitable implementation. Challenges, including communication disparities, power imbalances, and funding misalignments, are critically examined to identify barriers to integration. The chapter concludes that dismantling sectoral silos, prioritizing marginalized voices, and fostering iterative collaboration are imperative for navigating Anthropocene uncertainties. These insights advocate for institutional innovations that embed inclusivity and adaptability into global sustainability agendas, offering a roadmap for transformative action across science, policy, and community domains.

As he looks to the future, Dr. Chauhan envisions several key goals to further the field of veterinary medicine: Expanding the scope of Veterinary Science :
Future goals of Dr. Chauhan
1. Advancing Research in Veterinary Pathology: Building upon his extensive research background, which includes authoring 120 books, contributing 101 chapters, and publishing 239 research papers, Dr. Chauhan aims to delve deeper into emerging diseases affecting livestock and companion animals. He plans to focus on molecular pathology to better understand disease mechanisms at the genetic level, facilitating the development of targeted treatments and preventive measures.
2. Promoting ‘Cowpathy’ and Indigenous Practices: Known as the “Cowpathy Man,” Dr. Chauhan has been a proponent of integrating traditional knowledge with modern veterinary practices. He intends to conduct rigorous scientific studies to validate and promote the use of indigenous products in animal healthcare, aiming to offer sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives to conventional treatments.
3. Enhancing Veterinary Education: With a passion for veterinary education, Dr. Chauhan plans to develop comprehensive curricula that incorporate the latest advancements in veterinary science. He seeks to mentor the next generation of veterinarians, emphasizing the importance of ethical practices, continuous learning, and adaptability in the face of evolving challenges in animal health.

In spite of the problems with dosage and viability of probiotic strains, a lot more work is required for industry standardization and safety issues. However, it is noted that probiotics have considerable potential against many pathogenic and other diseases. A wide range of clinical trials are still needed to standardize and optimize the conditions. Ongoing basic research will continue to identify and characterize existing strains of probiotics, identifying strain-specific outcomes, determine optimal doses needed for certain results and assess their stability through processing and digestion.

India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world. Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi recommends intake of 125g leaf vegetables, 100g roots and 75g other vegetables/ day / adult for a balanced diet. Green leaf vegetables occupy an important place among the food crops as these provide adequate amounts of many vitamins and minerals for humans. Besides this, leaf vegetables are easy to grow and readily fit in any cropping system owing to its short duration. They are rich sources of carotene, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, folic acid and minerals like calcium, iron and phosphorus (Ramdasmurthy and Mohanram, 1984).
 
In nature, there are many greens of promising nutritive value, which can nourish the ever increasing human population. In spite of their nutritional importance, in India, leaf vegetable production is limited to kitchen gardens and market gardens due to various reasons. Although they can be raised comparatively at lower management costs even on poor marginal lands, they have remained underutilized due to lack of awareness and popularization of technologies for utilization.

7.1 Introduction

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the imitation of human intellect in machines designed to emulate human activities and cognitive functions. These machines are designed to accomplish tasks that normally require human intellect, such as learning, problem solving, perception, and decision-making (Zhang et al., 2022). Horticultural crops, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and ornamental plants, are of paramount importance in global agriculture, as they contribute significantly to food security, economic prosperity, and environmental sustainability. Nevertheless, the cultivation of these crops poses numerous challenges for growers, such as fluctuating market demand, insufficient resources, unpredictable climate conditions, and the constant threat of pests and diseases (Nowak & Grant, 2018). In recent years, the agricultural sector has experienced a significant shift owing to advancements in Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies (Liakos et al., 2018). AI has emerged as a powerful tool for the cultivation of horticultural crops, providing solutions for boosting productivity, sustainability, and efficiency (Shrivastava & Kumar, 2021). By utilizing AI, horticulturists can overcome the traditional challenges associated with crop management, resource allocation, and environmental sustainability, paving the way for a more resilient and productive agricultural sector (Garg et al., 2019). The integration of AI into horticultural crop production encompasses a diverse range of applications, including precision agriculture, crop monitoring and management, predictive analytics, automated harvesting, and genetic improvement (Golhani et al., 2018). These applications leverage machine learning algorithms, remote sensing technologies, and data analytics to analyze vast amounts of agricultural data ranging from soil composition and weather patterns to crop health and market trends (Araus& Cairns, 2014). Through intelligent data-driven insights, AI enables farmers to make informed decisions in real-time, optimize resource utilization, minimize waste, and maximize yields (Kamilaris et al., 2017). This technological convergence offers promising prospects for food production, enabling stakeholders to explore new avenues for growth, resilience, and sustainability in horticultural crop cultivation (Mohanty et al., 2016).

The future of biodynamic farming is intricately linked to emerging trends and technologies that are transforming the landscape of agriculture. As the world grapples with environmental challenges, the demand for sustainable farming practices is intensifying. Biodynamic farming, rooted in ecological principles and holistic management, is gaining prominence as a viable solution for sustainable food production. This article explores the future of biodynamic farming, focusing on the emerging trends and technologies that are poised to shape its development. From advances in digital agriculture and precision farming to the integration of renewable energy and sustainable practices, the article examines how these innovations can enhance the effectiveness and scalability of biodynamic farming. Additionally, it highlights the role of research, education, and policy support in driving the adoption of biodynamic practices worldwide. By embracing these trends and technologies, biodynamic farming can contribute to a more resilient and sustainable global food system.

Biodynamic farming, an agricultural approach founded on Rudolf Steiner’s principles, has evolved significantly since its inception. As the global agricultural landscape continues to shift towards sustainability, the future of biodynamic farming is increasingly influenced by emerging trends and technologies. This article explores the future trajectory of biodynamic farming, focusing on key trends such as the integration of digital technologies, advancements in soil health management, and the growing emphasis on climate resilience. Additionally, the article examines how biodynamic practices are adapting to meet contemporary challenges and opportunities. By analyzing these developments, the article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the future potential of biodynamic farming and its role in shaping sustainable agriculture.

With recent work it has become clear that bacterial societies are very complex. Gene expression in bacterial communities are heterogenous. The heterogeneous gene expression contributes towards the biofilms in fluctuating environments which needs to be understood.Technique like single-cell analysis can help in the investigation of more complex communities. Recently, Jahid and Ha, (2012) have written a review on microbial biofilms of produce and the future challenges to food safety many outbreaks have been observed involving food- borne pathogens. Therefore, there is an urdent need for the safety of foods especially against microbial attacks and biofilm formation as they cause a risk to public health. Medically, the pathogenic microorganisms form biofilm- associated with the epithelial or endothelial lining which are embedded in the lungs, intestinal or vaginal mucus layer, the teeth or other medical implant surfaces or formed intracellularly (Dewasthale et al., 2018). Teichoic acids are characteristic major components of the cell surface in Gram-positive bacteria.

Introduction

The successful combination of technology and finance, commonly referred to as Financial Technology (henceforth, FinTech), can be understood as “technology enabled financial innovation” that may result in new business applications, models, products and/or processes, that create manifold material impact on f inancial markets and provision of financial services (Schueffel, 2016).

FinTech presents a promising prospective of bettering the situation of financial inclusion in developing countries like India by leveraging on technology in an innovative manner. Inclusive growth can be achieved through FinTech by means of broad-based prosperity, reduction in transaction costs and better access to financial services to the underserved (Sahay et al., 2020). In this context, Fintech companies are institutions applying technological innovations to increase efficiency and create enhanced access to the finance industry. There has been tremendous growth of such companies in recent years and it has also captured the interest of investors alike.

26.1 Introduction

The green revolution brought dramatic changes in productivity of rice and wheat and the production increased tremendously using high yielding wheat and rice varieties coupled with fertilizers and pesticide use to meet urgent demands of food. The world population is growing rapidly at an alarming rate. It has crossed 7 billion mark and is expected to become between 8.3 and 10.9 billion by 2050 (United States Census Bureau (USCB). India is second largest populous country of the world with 17.4 % of world population. Such an enormous overpopulation will result in extreme pressure on environment, global food supplies and energy resources. The less arable land and fewer renewable and non-renewable resources, the food production has to come from increases in production rather than expansion of cultivable areas.

Introduction

The contribution of agrochemicals in improving food security and human health cannot be undermined. They are, however, like a double-edged weapon; their indiscriminate use could result in a serious threat to the sustainability of the agricultural production system and human health. Though their long-term effects on environment and human health are yet to be fully understood, the short-term adverse effects of their indiscriminate use became apparent soon after their invention during the World War II. Many insect pests have developed resistance to chemical pesticides, and a number of beneficial insects that are natural enemies of the pests have disappeared. Realizing these threats, the scientific community has been proactive and developed safer alternatives using flora and fauna as substitutes for chemical pesticides. These alternatives are claimed to be as effective as chemical pesticides. Experimental evidences indicate that these provide effective protection against pests when used in conjunction with other methods of pest control, including chemical pesticides. The strategy is often referred to as Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Since the adoption of IPM as a cardinal principle of plant protection in 1985, India has devised and implemented many IPM programmes encompassing research, extension and education with the objective to reduce the use of chemical pesticides, improve farm profitability, conserve environment and reduce adverse effect of pesticides on human health. Their effect is revealed in considerable reduction in pesticide-use, particularly during 1990s. The purpose of this paper is to provide a perspective on the IPM with emphasis on food security and safety.

Benjamin et al., (2016) have focused on the small-scale food processing enterprises (SSFPEs) as one of the important measures for national development and addressing food security challenges, particularly in Nigeria. The authors have explained the need for food processing as there has been tremendous food losses and wastages in the country. Enhancing the food processing and productivity for mechanization of food processing unit operations, development of new and existing technologies, design and development of machinery, systems for processing and preservation of different agricultural produce of high target have been undertaken. SSFPEs have played an important role in the economy of a developing country, particularly in terms of employment creation, income generation, post-harvest losses reduction, food preservation, value addition, improvement of food safety, nutritional quality, increase in shelf-life of a product and to act as training grounds for entrepreneurs before they invest in large scale enterprises. SSFPE’s around the world and especially in Nigeria are faced with significant challenges that compromise their ability to function and contribute optimally to the economy. Financial constraints and lack of management skills are the major constraints. It is important that governments and non-governmental organizations must encourage and facilitate the development of SSFPE’s. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO or GAIN in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. FAO’s Nutrition and Food Systems Division (ESN), in collaboration with the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) 2018,

“I think that there is far too much work done in the world,” writes Bertrand Russell in In Praise of Idleness. Rightly so, a workaholic is not necessarily a valued employee. Why we work, asks Barry Schwartz. Why for most of us work is monotonous and meaningless? Why we have twice as many “actively disengaged” workers in the world as there are “engaged” workers?

Do we work only for money? Some think, work is about pay and nothing more. It is true, people work for money, but not always. Many people work for the challenge, meaning, and engagement it brings. “The lesson here is that just how important material incentives are to people will depend on how the human workplace is structured. And if we structure it in keeping with the false idea that people work only for pay, we’ll create workplaces that make this false idea true,” writes Schwartz.

Ornamentals are beautiful plants used in home and urban landscaping to enhance quality of our lives. Ornamental crops are widely cultivated worldwide and appreciated for their characteristics and unique appreciable qualities such as attractive color, impressive shape and size of flower and for fragrance of flowers and foliage. Earlier ornamental plants were largely associated with our social life. Of late trends has changed towards commercialization and now they are used for decoration, personal adornment and value added products viz. dry flowers, extraction of essential oils, perfumes and dyes and in landscaping. Further, it helps in creating more job opportunities for youth and women.

The growing demands for quality flowers, introduction of new ornamental plants and diversification needs more attention in ornamental floriculture industry. Novelty is the key to success in ornamental horticulture. Introduction of exotic ornamentals and the domestication and release of new genotypes of wild ornamentals is always welcome in this connection. Some exotic ornamentals hitherto not widely grown in Indian gardens as well as a few native ornamentals with capability to bring in a color revolution and having the potential for exploitation are discussed below.

The rapid pace of technological innovation, coupled with mounting environmental challenges and shifting societal expectations, is fundamentally reshaping the landscape of sustainable food production. In this chapter, we explore the future outlook of this dynamic field by examining emerging trends in weather intelligence, the transformative potential of innovations in artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and data integration, as well as the evolving policy and ethical considerations that underpin sustainable agriculture. The integration of advanced technologies with traditional agronomic practices has led to the development of data-driven systems that not only forecast weather with greater accuracy but also optimize crop management, resource utilization, and risk mitigation. As we look toward the future, the convergence of these disciplines promises to usher in a new era of resilient, efficient, and environmentally conscious food production systems. We begin by outlining the current landscape and identifying key trends that are driving change. The discussion then transitions into an exploration of cuttingedge innovations in AI, IoT, and data integration that are revolutionizing weather intelligence. Subsequent sections address the policy frameworks and ethical dilemmas accompanying rapid technological adoption in agriculture, before concluding with a vision for future research directions and strategic planning. Finally, the chapter suggests additional topics—such as blockchain for supply chain transparency and urban vertical farming—to ensure a holistic view of sustainable food production in a rapidly changing world.
12.1 Emerging Trends in Weather Intelligence and Food Production
Over the past decade, advancements in sensor technologies, communication networks, and computational algorithms have revolutionized weather forecasting and climate monitoring. These breakthroughs are not only critical for predicting weather events but also serve as the foundation for proactive decision-making in agricultural management. High-resolution satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques now provide granular data about atmospheric conditions, soil moisture levels, and crop health (Fig.12.1).

8.1 Introduction

Considering increased awareness and interest in using herbal products because of their safer nature, the world market of traditional medicinal and aromatic plants is growing at a very fast pace. The global herbal industry is projected to be worth 5 trillion US$ by 2050 (the world bank report, 2000). These resources not only provide primary health care, but also nutraceutical support for wellness. Also, it has been experienced that they may help in curing some of the deadly and painful diseases such as cancer, HIV, AIDS, rheumatism, arthritis etc. India, due to its rich heritage in use of medicinal and aromatic plants under various traditional medicinal systems, which are important source of information about plant properties and use, can become a major player in the global context and can increase its market share substantially. To achieve this, an effective, efficient, and vibrant program is required to cover various aspects of management, research, and development.

9.1 Introduction 
Biochemical technology focuses on developing sustainable conversion of renewable materials like lignocellulosic wastes into value-added products with reduced emissions. The utilization of integrated bioprocess engineering for transforming carbon sources into diverse biotechnological products via microbial cells is an emerging field (Pais et al., 2016). Bioprocess engineering is a collection of thermodynamics, process simulation, bio-separations, microbiology, bioprocess kinetics, and systems engineering aiming for biomass conversion, biocatalysis-driven processing methods, and microbial processes. These processes can range from microscale to large-scale designs and systems (Liu et al., 2016) and generate value-added products such as biofuels like bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas (Patel et al., 2022); in pharmaceuticals (Tsopanoglou et al., 2021), probiotics (Lei et al., 2024), textiles (Bahtiyar et al., 2021), bioplastics, and biopolymers (Pathom-aree et al., 2024). Reactor design, fermentation, kinetics, and optimization are integral to bioprocess engineering. Not always but the pretreatment methods for lignocellulosic waste and its improvement should be considered for an optimized bioprocess engineering as they are the carbon source during fermentation. Pretreatment methods are physical, chemical, biological, or hybrid of any three treatments used to acquire desired products. Cost-effective and relatively slow biological pretreatment needs microorganisms to convert lignocellulosic waste into useful desired products (Abo et al., 2019). Chemical pretreatment utilizes harsh chemicals to increase biomass degradation, porosity, and solid separation but unfortunately are rarely used due to the harmful effects (Arora et al., 2018). Physical pretreatment methods utilize mechanical pressure to break down biomass but are expensive and irregular. Pretreatment for source and strain acquisition is the initial step of upstream bioprocessing followed by reaction conditions and bioreactor design (John et al., 2020). The primary part of any upstream process is to produce the desired product like enzyme followed downstream processing such as purification of the value-added product. The value-added products are developed via fermentation in equipment known as Bioreactors. Different bioreactors being utilized recently in bioprocess engineering and biorefinery are membrane bioreactors that offer high productivity, low environmental impact, and high flexibility (Akkoyunlu et al., 2024); airlift bioreactors (Hernández- Acevedo et al., 2024); fixed bed/packed bed and fluidized bed bioreactors are being utilized for their potential of reduced expenses, simpler design, enhanced temperature regulation and homogenous mixing (Srivastava et al., 2022) (Figure 10.1). Despite their high production and safety, the traditional large-scale stainless-steel vessels batch-wise are often expensive, inflexible, and have long construction times. As an alternative to the costly route, single-use equipment was introduced. Since they are pre-sterilized and are readily accessible to purchase as needed, this disposal method offers great flexibility and lower investment costs by eliminating the need for sterilization. However, there is high waste generation leading to a dent in sustainability and circular bioeconomy (Frank, 2018). The transformative step of the production system shifting from batchwise to continuous production has ultimately led to a decreased environmental footprint and prices and increased product quality and yield (Gerstweiler et al., 2021). The cost of bioprocess engineering (upstream and downstream) is dependent on factors such as types of feedstocks, fermentation types like submerged and solid-state, product types, and microbe or enzyme types (Kumar

Introduction

Growth of Science is never ending process. In that, technology development is dynamic in nature. It is applicable to all the fields come under the Science, including Agriculture also. Continuous evaluation of improved technologies had taken place in Agriculture. On the other hand, communication network through Cyber techniques or E-Extension plays a crucial role. By the way, there is a need of innovative approaches for effective technology transfer for which no one is clear like that of deriving new technologies. Starting from the 20^th century, many programmes were launched for development of rural India. As these were official dominated and top-down system, the ‘Panchayati Raj’ -the three-tier system was introduced at village, block and district levels in 1960’s keeping the local leaders as Kingpins with more participation of rural people. This had also not given due dividends owing to political infiltration and less co-operation by the development departments and lack of coordination among all concerned. A panoramic view of extension world over gives varieties of models and experiences. But no single model would suit to our conditions and here we need louder thinking on this line.

Looking forward, it is clear that traditional and western medicine have the potential for rich collaboration that benefits both disciplines. There is growing interest in this partnership, as shown by the number of international journals now dedicated to such research, such as Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Complementary Therapies in Medicine, eCAM, Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, and the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. Even the WHO has taken note of the rich possibilities of the future of TM, having put out such documents as ‘WHO General Guidelines for Methodologies on Research and Evaluation of Traditional Medicine’ and ‘WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants’. Despite this enthusiasm, there are several areas where the international community will need to focus their attention if the goal of integrating botanical medicines for the good of human health is to be reached.

1. Introduction

By 2030, sustainable development must be achieved through cross-sector cooperation, creativity and comprehensive initiatives. Aquaculture has contributed to SDGs; however, its contribution depends on the effectiveness of local and international governance (Farmery et al., 2020). Because it includes all aquatic ecosystems, it is one of the global food-producing industries that does so at one of the fastest rates (Mugimba et al., 2021), accounting for approximately half (46%) of the total global fish production (FAO, 2020). Understanding the various environmental, social, and economic aspects of aquaculture offers a more specialized method for handling opportunities and challenges for future development (Troell et al., 2023). Global seafood consumption has risen from 9.0 kg in 1961 to 20.2 kg in 2020, accounting for over 17% of the world's intake of animal proteins (FAO 2022). Indeed, there are considerable regional differences in the production potential and value of the aquaculture sector (Naylor et al., 2021). Over the past 20 years, China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Egypt have been the major producing countries that have consolidated their share of regional or global production (FAO 2020). Moreover, developing nations account for more than 95% of global aquaculture production, growing at an average annual rate of 6.13 percent (FAO, 2020). As the name aquaculture indicates, it involves farming various aquatic organisms, ranging from the production of unicellular Chlorella algae within indoor bioreactors (Gors et al., 2010) for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) production in outdoor floating net cages (FAO, 2019). The aquaculture production of fish is the largest, accounting for over half (53.4 million tonnes) of all farmed aquatic species. Aquatic plants (31.8 million tonnes), mollusks (17.4 million tonnes), crustaceans (8.4 million tonnes), amphibians and reptiles (471,784 tons), and miscellaneous invertebrate animals (422,124 tons) are among the other important aquatic species farmed (Tacon 2019). Although aquaculture is a fast-expanding industry that provides billions of people with food and is a means of subsistence worldwide, several obstacles could prevent this sector's expansion and sustainability on a global scale.

Current status of researches on VA mycorrhiza and their benefits to the plants carried out by the mycorrhizasts of the country has been described in detail in chapters II to X.

Prior to the establishment of any specific forum, the pace of research on VA mycorrhiza in the country was not of desired level. However, the activities related to research on VA mycorrhiza gained unexpected momemtum when Mycorrhiza network came into exixtence in the year 1989. The network provided not only assistance and guidance of various types to the scientists working on VA mycorrhiza in the country but also offered them periodical platforms to exchange their informations and thoughts on status of researches on VA mycorrhiza and to propose future strategies of research. During the National conferences held in different parts of the country the panel of experts made certain observations regarding future prospects and strategies for research on VA mycorrhiza. They have been mentioned in the present chapter.

1. Genomic selection and CRISPR technology
• The adoption of genomic selection (GS) and CRISPR-Cas9 technology in spice breeding is likely to accelerate. These technologies can significantly improve the precision of breeding programs, enabling the development of varieties with enhanced traits like disease resistance, yield, and quality.
2. Climate-resilient varieties
• With climate change impacting agriculture globally, there is a growing trend towards breeding spices that are resilient to extreme weather conditions. This includes the development of drought-resistant, heat-tolerant, and
flood-tolerant varieties.
3. Biofortification
• Breeding programs are increasingly focusing on biofortification, which involves increasing the nutritional value of spices. This could lead to spices that are richer in essential nutrients like vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.
4. Digital phenotyping and AI
• The integration of digital phenotyping tools and artificial intelligence (AI) is expected to revolutionize spice breeding. These technologies can enhance the efficiency of breeding programs by providing real-time data analysis
and predictive modeling.
5. Sustainable breeding practices
• There is a rising emphasis on sustainability in agriculture. Breeding programs are likely to incorporate practices that reduce environmental impact, such as using less water, reducing pesticide usage, and developing
organic farming-compatible varieties.

Introduction
With advancements in molecular biology, DNA-based technologies have shown great potential in enhancing the efficiency of crop breeding programs, preserving germplasm resources, improving the quality and yield of agricultural products, and protecting the environment. As a result, their role in modern agriculture is becoming increasingly important.
DNA is the main genetic materials of all cellular organisms; preserving DNA itself is one way of preserving germplasm resources (Geptset al.,2006). The advancement of biotechnology and molecular biology has made it possible to regulate or even control plant traits using DNA sequence information, including its structure, function, and mechanisms.DNA technologies based on DNA molecular markers, transgenic technology and gene expression have been widely used in agricultural production which have showed great potential in improving agricultural yields and quality, reducing the loss that various biotic and abiotic stress caused, promoting the utilization of germplasm resource, improving breeding efficiency and strengthening the regulation of plant growth. (Garciaet al.,2005)
These modern DNA technologies, with their high feasibility and necessity, play a crucial role in ensuring the sustainable development of agriculture. Although agriculture encompasses both plant and animal production, DNA technologies in these fields share similar technical purposes and types. Therefore, this study focuses on reviewing the agricultural applications of DNA technologies by exploring their utilization in plant production. Numerous reports have documented the application of various DNA technologies in agricultural production. However, as these technologies continue to evolve and advance, it becomes challenging to cover every DNA technique in detail..DNA technology holds immense promise for the future of crop identification, enabling precise and efficient breeding, accelerating the development of improved varieties, and contributing to sustainable food systems. Here’s a breakdown of the key future prospects:

1. INTRODUCTION

Dielectric-barrier discharges (DBDs) also referred to as barrier discharges or silent discharges. DBDs have for a long time been regarded as the ozonizer discharge. In 1932 Buss observed that in a plane parallel gap with insulated electrodes air breakdown occurs in a number of individual tiny breakdown channels.^1,2 Recently, it was realised that plasma can be influenced, modelled and optimised for a given application through microdischarges. The most important characteristic of dielectric-barrier discharges is that non-equilibrium plasma conditions can be provided in a much simpler way than with other alternatives like low pressure discharges, fast pulsed high pressure discharges or electron beam injection. Moreover, the DBDs can breakdown most of the gases at about atmospheric pressure in a large number of independent current filaments or microdischarges. The dielectric barrier limits the amount of charge and energy deposited in a microdischarge and distributes the microdischarges over the entire electrode surface. When a dielectric-barrier discharge is operated in rare gases or a rare gas halogen mixture plasma conditions in a microdischarge channel are similar to those in pulsed excimer lasers. Consequently, each microdischarge can act as an intense source of ultraviolet (UV) or vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) radiation. The absorption coefficient of most substances increases at shorter wavelengths. So, in many cases the UV radiation is absorbed in a very thin surface layer. The xenon excimer lamp can induce photo-cleavage of water and oxygen.²