eChapters

ABSTRACT

Presence of mangrove ecosystems on coastline, save lives and property during natural hazards such as cyclones, storm surges and erosion. This study is undertaken to assess the distribution of mangroves in Tamil Nadu. Geographical Information System, Remote Sensing and GPS (Global Positioning System) were used for mapping the mangrove forests. Mangrove wetland map and species zonation maps have been done using didital analysis of Remote Sensing data and ground truth information. The total area of mangroves found in Tamil Nadu and in Puducherry is around 4100ha.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mangroves are typical, tropical specialized trees growing in the saline and brackish water system. Mangrove plants live in muddy and wet saline soils. They are trees associated with shrubs, growing both on the sheltered coast and inland, lining the bank of estuaries and rivers. They are an ecological group of evergreen plant species, belonging to different families, but possessing marked similarities in their physiological characteristics and structural adaptations. Mangrove areas are associated with high leaf production and leaf fall and rapid decomposition of the litter.

Mangrove forests perform multiple ecological functions: They produce woody trees, provide habitat and detritus food for fish and shellfish and act as spawning ground for a variety of fishes, prawns and shellfishes. They harbour a variety of valuable fauna, including migratory birds. They also protect the coasts from storms and tidal waves and help in the formation of land by trapping sediments brought by the coastal community.There are many threats to mangroves. Deforestation is one of the major threats.

ABSTRACT

Coastal resources represents highly productive ecosystems and are under pressure on account of increased anthropogenic activity on the coast. There is an urgent need to protect coastal resources aiming at sustainable development. Management of coastal resources requires spatial information on land and water resources, processes, water quality in a repetitive basis. Availability of high resolution and very high resolution data made the spatial tools indispensable in planning and management of resources such as mangroves and coral reefs. Monitoring mangrove degradation and aquaculture development, land use pattern, site selection for developmental activities adhering to coastal regulation zone notification requires highly accurate spatial information that can be extracted from IRS, IKONOS data. Extensive applications of remote sensing were hindered by cost, lack of familiarity and expertise in the developing countries. A national frame work must be established involving all available spatial datasets to build up the technical capabilities and ensure sustained support.

ABSTRACT

This work presents the results of multispectral analysis of TM (Thematic Mapper) sensor images on board the satellite LANDSAT 5 for discrimination of selected features of a Nainarmalai region of part of Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu using hyperspectral tools. The spectral classification was carried out using hyperspectral tools namely, a) spectral reduction by the Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) transformation, b) spatial reduction by the Pixel Purity Index (PPI) and c) manual identification of the end members using the N-dimensional visualizer. The results of study shows that the kinds of features such as magnetite quartzite, sand, harvested land and vegetation area are discriminated well (as given in the figure) and show a strong correlation with landscape.

Keywords: Landsat TM Multispectral Images, MNF transformation, PPI, endmembers, Reflectance spectrum, ENVI software.

1. INTRODUCTION

With a multispectral analysis of an images collected by radiometers and detectors embarked on a satellite, one can make: “spectroscopy by satellite imagery”. Imaging spectrometers or “multispectral sensors” are remote sensing instruments that combine the spatial presentation of an imaging sensor with the analytical capabilities of a spectrometer. With a radiometer such as AVIRIS ”Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer” where the number of spectral bands exceeds the 200, and with a spectral resolution of the order of 10 nm or narrow, it can produce a complete spectrum for each pixel of the image. The case of this radiometer enters on the “Hyperspectral” field. In the case of our study, we are using the radiometer TM (Thematic Mapper), which is on board for the satellite Landsat 5, and which only has 7 multispectral bands, with a spectral resolution of the order of 100 nm. Like finale result, one using the spectroscopy by satellite imagery, we can identify the spectra of various materials which are on various terrestrial surfaces.

ABSTRACT

Soil is the medium in which the plant growth and development occurs. Soil type might change with genesis of the parent material and with prevailing weather conditions. Dominant soils of Tamil Nadu are Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil and Hill soils. Each soil type has an inherent potential to retain and release nutrients to plants. The availability of nutrients varies from place to place and hence spatial distribution of nutrients, quantity of nutrients along with plant available water determines phenological development of crops. Nutrients are broadly classified as Macro and Micro nutrients that are required for crops in large and small quantities respectively. Availability of both macro and micro nutrients and its spatial distribution has not been attempted so far at a regional level. Such regional level approach of nutrients would suffice the researchers and policy planners to employ these data as inputs to Crop Simulation Models (CSM) in forecasting productivity of crops.

Thiruvannamalai district in Tamil Nadu is divided into 6 taluks, 18 blocks covering an area of 6,31,205 haof land. The district lies between 12⁰ 00’ to 12⁰ 55’ N latitude and 78⁰ 37'to 79⁰ 45’ E longitude. Red loamy soil is predominantly prevalent followed by black loamy soils. Generally paddy, groundnut, sugarcane, millets and pulses are cultivated during fasli season. This district was chosen as our study area.

A study has been attempted to map micro nutrients of Thiruvannamalai district. Geo-referenced surface soil samples from eighteen blocks of Thiruvananmalai district covering maximum soil units of soil map were collected randomly as per procedure adopted by soil survey manual. Global Positioning System (GPS) were used to collect corresponding geographic coordinates from each soil sampling point covering the entire Thiruvananmalai district by using Rikaline Bluetooth GPS 6031- X7 model. Approximately one thousand five hundred surface soil samples were collected, air dried, powered and sieved as per standard conditions. Soil samples were analyzed for its physical, chemical and fertility properties. Fertility maps for Micro nutrients such as Zinc, Iron, Manganese, Copper and Boron were plotted in ARCGIS Desktop. Micronutrients maps form a part of base map in analyzing and preparing an aggregated fertility map of Thiruvannamalai district.

ABSTRACT

The present study reports shoreline changes at Gopalpur along east coast of India for 30 years during 1973-2003. In order to understand the trend of sediment transport, shoreline changes at the vicinity areas viz. Rushikulya and Bahuda estuaries are also discussed. Geomorphological investigation is also carried out to understand the processes acting on this system. One Landsat image (1973) and two IRS 1C/1D images (1993 and 2003) were used for the study. The data were subjected to digital analysis using ERDAS Imagine and management of information layers using ARC/INFO GIS software. The results of the study show that the changes occurred differently in three distinct spatial features namely, i) sand spit ii) beach and, (iii) channel zone. Changes documented in these imageries reveal that the lengths of NE spit and SW spit are increased and decreased respectively in thirty years. Areas of NE and SW spits are also showing the similar pattern. Beach is almost stabilised and a slight decrease of 0.28 km in length is observed. However, area has been increased in the southern beach. Towards north, the beach area is also increased over a period of thirty years. The change of width of the beach is not found to be significant. The mouth near channel zone is reduced to 70 meter from 135 meter during the period of study.

ABSTRACT

The study was aimed to identify and delineate the groundwater potable zone in and around Madurai region. The study area is composed of Charnockites and Khondalites of Archaean age. The information of lithology, geomorphology and land use/land cover was generated using the Resourcesat (IRS P6 LISS IV data) and Survey of India (SoI) toposheets of scale 1:50,000 and integrated them with GIS to identify the groundwater potable zones of the study area. On the basis of hydrogeomorphology, groundwater potential zones was identified and delineated. From the overlay analyses landuse and EC, it is inferred that, poor category groundwater is found in the scrub forest, current fallow, canal and scrub with land areas.

ABSTRACT

Groundwater geochemistry is largely a function of mineral composition of aquifer through which water flows thus, differences in aquifer composition are reflected as differences in groundwater chemistry. To understand water quality and flow pattern multivariate statistical analysis are used due to its relative importance in combining chemical variables and organize voluminous data and group into variables of similar characters. R-mode factor analysis is used in the field of hydrogeochemistry to interpret complex hydrogeological process. A total of 216 samples representing complete lithology like peninsular gneiss, Charnockite and calc gneiss for four different seasons was collected and analyzed for major ions like Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO₃, Cl, SO₄, NO₃, PO₄, F and H₄SiO₄. Correlation analysis reveals Mg, Cl and Na are spinal and others seasonal. Factor analysis indicates ascendancy of anthropogenic basis followed by lithological weight. Factor score superimpose indicate governing hydrogeochemical regimes spread in western and eastern part. In southern part the same has superior influence than northern part.

Every garden has got specific purpose and utility. Specialized gardens are planned gardens according to various locations and fulfilling specific needs. Therefore, these should be designed envisaging primary requirements depending upon the types. Features of these are specific including plants and planting pattern. So, these gardens need to be dealt separately so that planning and execution is done in more systematic way focusing utilitarian and ornamental purposes.

Home Garden

Basically it is a piece of land attached to the home, beautified with different features, ornamental and flowering plants. The main purpose of this type of garden is beautification round the year and utility for relaxation of the family. Accordingly, design and features should be selected to fulfill the same.

This is a special kind of garden made with help of vertical structures and plants are grown / trained in special manner. Besides, roofs can also be converted into green roof. Restricted availability of ground space, modification of residential places and quest for growing plants have given birth of vertical gardening. Practically, this type of gardening has widened the scope of growing plants. Small spaces can also be converted into a lively place with proper design. Even bare walls can be converted into an attractive green wall with proper structure and designing with plants.

Advantages

Vertical gardening is ideal for urban areas especially for people living in the apartments. Following advantages have been recorded.

Wide hybridization (interspecific/intergeneric) is basically attemped to introduce new genetic variability from wild or distantly related species into cultivated ones or to synthesize new plant type/s like Triticale and Raphanobrassica. Majority of the commercial crop plants are usually deficient for one or the other desirable traits which are usually available in their wild relatives. However, crossability between commercial varieties and their wild relatives is very limited which is naturally imposed by certain genetically controlled reproductive barriers. These reproductive barrier/s usually operate either at pre or post fertilization stage/s in plant species (Stebbins1958). Since a species is constituted of individuals who share a common gene pool, reproduce among themselves only / exchange genes and share a common habitat. Hence at natural level gene flow remains strictly confined only among members of a particular species otherwise among the members of unrelated species a genetic barrier exists to create reproductive isolation. Therefore, wide crossing basically requires the overcoming of such barriers whch are imposed by temporal and spatial isolation of parents. The reproductive isolation consists of premating and post mating isolation mechanisms like habitat isolation or geographical isolation, sexual isolation and mechanical barrier depending upon incompatibility or mismatching of ganitalia (animals). Sexual isolation in animal kingdom is usually enforced by type of sexual displays and mating calls which are attractivce only to particular members of a species , however other potential intermating species also do exist in the same habitat or locality at that particular period of time.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

3.1 Determination of Bulk Density of Soil

3.1.1 Determination of Bulk Density of an undisturbed Soil

Bulk density of soil is expressed as the ratio of the mass (weight) of soil particle to their total volume including the pore space between the soil particles. Alternately, it is the weight of unit volume of dry soil. It is usually expressed in the unit of gram per cubic centimeter (g/cc) or mega gram per cubic meter (Mg/m³). In fine textured soil bulk density varies from 1.00 to 1.60 g/cc, whereas in coarse textured soil from 1.20 to 1.80 g/cc.

In agroforestry systems the various components like tree, crop and pasture exist in different proportions and orientations. It is difficult to find out which agroforestry system is the best suited for a given land situation. Similarly, it is to be decided which technologies are required for refinement and improvement of the existing agroforestry practices. But without sufficient knowledge of the existing system in a particular land situation, it is very difficult to set the research priorities for modification and development of this system.

Diagnosis and Design (D & D) is a systematic and objective methodology developed by International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) to initiate, monitor and evaluate agroforestry programmes. D & D is based on the philosophy that knowledge of the existing situation (diagnosis) is essential to plan and evaluate (design) meaningful and effective programmes in agroforestry research for development. The methodology plays a strategic role in all the phases of the agroforestry research process. D & D in agroforestry is unique and it has been specially developed for the following purposes.

Algae are a large and diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that contain chlorophyll and carry out the oxygenic photosynthesis.

Study of algae is referred as phycology or algalogy

They vary from cyanobacteria or blue green algae by their eukaryotic nature.

India ranks third after China and Canada in the world in production of edible oilseed crops. Average yield of rapeseed-mustard in the world is 2043 kg/ha. Average yield of European Union, Canada and China is higher than India. Higher yield in these countries is due to cultivation of long duration varieties suitable for their local climatic conditions. Duration of favorable climatic condition to grow rapeseed-mustard is shorter in India as compared to EU, Canada and China, which enforces cultivation of short duration varieties (130-145days). Rapeseed-mustard contribute one third in the production of edible oils in India. These crops ranks second in area and production after soybean. Total area and production under these crops is 5.80mh and 6.28mt respectively. It is necessary to mention that total water requirement of these crop is 80-240mm, which is very low as compared to other crops. These crops pay higher return by utilizing low inputs, thus, are highly remunerative for the farmers.

Rapeseed-mustard group of crops are mainly cultivated in irrigated areas where at least one irrigation facility is available and only 24.0% of area is under rain-fed situation. Five states of India namely, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal contribute 82.00% and 85.67% in total area and production, respectively, under these crops. In Madhya Pradesh 53.2% of total area is irrigated with average yield of 1006 kg/ha, however, 76.6% of total area of country is irrigated even then average yield is only 1083 kg/ha. The lower average seed yield can be attributed to (i) cultivation of very short duration and low yielding B. rapa genotypes in Eastern and North-Eastern states; (ii) susceptibility of varieties to different pests; and (iii) high temperature stress at seedling and reproductive stage. Out of total area under these crops, Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) is grown over more than 80% area. Cultivation of Indian mustard has also been taken up in non-traditional areas of southern states of India viz., Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh, recently. This has become possible due to its higher average yield, tolerance against different biotic and abiotic stresses, availability of varieties with 100-152 days maturity, and non-shattering behaviour.

India has emerged as the second largest producer of vegetables 176.17 mt after China 573.93 mt in the world and is gradually striding towards achieving food and nutritional security at national level. The average productivity of vegetable crops is 17.6 t/ha (NHB, 2015) which is comparatively lower than the productivity of China (23.4t/ha), Spain (39.3t/ha) and USA (32.5t/ha). The lower productivity could be attributed to limited use of quality seeds, inefficient production management, impact of biotic stress and climatic factors during crop production. Among the limiting factors limited availability of quality seed is one of the important factors. Since, the performance of other inputs is also depend on the quality of seed. At present the seed replacement rate among vegetable crops is around 25%, whereas highest in cabbage (>90%) followed by tomato, capsicum, bitter gourd, muskmelon, bottle gourd etc.The use of hybrid seed is in increasing due to higher productivity, tolerance to biotic and a biotic stresses and better market value than the open pollinated varieties but the higher price of the hybrid and their availability is still a constraint in adopting the use of hybrid seeds among small and marginal farmers.

Crop diversification has been well recognized as an effective strategy for achieving the objectives of food and nutritional security, income growth, poverty alleviation, employment generation, judicious use of land, water and other natural resources, sustaining agricultural development and environmental improvement. Vegetable crops being rich sources of various health building substances, especially vitamins and minerals, offer unique advantage for food and nutritional security, tackle malnutrition and dietary deficiency diseases. Besides, their high yield potential per unit area and time, diverse varietal wealth, labour intensiveness, high market price and prospects of processing, value addition and export, they play an important role in employment generation, and livelihood improvement. Since India is endowed with diverse agro-climatic conditions, almost all kinds of vegetable crops are grown in one or other corner of our country. More than 200 different vegetables are grown in India, of which, about 70 types are cultivated commercially. Vegetable production scenario in India has made a remarkable progress since independence from a meagre production of 17.5 million tonnes to 146 million tones, with a productivity of 17.3 t/ha. India is the second largest vegetable producer in the world after China. However, it needs to be doubled by 2020 in order to meet the nutritional requirement of burgeoning population in the country. With increasing purchasing power of people, the demand for vegetables has increased enormously, as a result the prices of vegetables have increased and it has been the dominant factor for high inflationary pressure in Indian economy during recent years. Inclusion of different vegetable crops with shorter maturity period in the prevailing cropping system will enhance the total system productivity, which may go a long way in improving the economic as well as physical health of small and marginal farmers.

Insect pests, diseases and weeds are major biotic bottlenecks in the production of crops, inflicting on an average about 30% yield loss. Monetary value of these losses has been estimated to be exceeding Rs 1,00, 000 crores. There is thus ample scope to enhance our food production by curtailing losses due to pests to certain extent. Only option to boost our production remains in growing improved crop cultivars with better pest management options. Mainly synthetic pesticides have been used to combat pest menace in agriculture and public health. Pesticides have, of course, played a commendable role in increasing our food production and protecting us against disease vectors. However sole reliance on pesticides has created several problems such as development of resistant pests, pest outbreaks, mortality of useful organisms, adverse effect on human health and environmental degradation. Adverse effects of pesticides prompted scientists to look for safer and environment friendly methods of pest control and consequently concept of pest management came in to being.

Pest management is known as an ecological approach to tackle pest problems, because here emphasis is on containing pests in such a way that other biotic components of the system such as natural enemies, human beings and wildlife etc are not harmed and environment is preserved in general. Pest management works on the premise that all pest population levels are not injurious to crops and crops can always compensate for certain injury due to pests. Moreover, some pest population is always required for the survival of natural enemies of the pests. This has given rise to the concept of economic injury level (EIL), which helps to avoid unwarranted application of pesticides. The EIL based pesticide application ensures favourable cost-benefit ratio to farmers. Pest management also underlines that pest control tactics should be socially acceptable and within the reach of farmers. It is a holistic approach to pest problems in which we aim to protect our commodities against all the pests and ensure production of healthy crops.

Agriculture shapes the foundation of Indian economy and despite the fact that there has been vast industrialization in most 60 years; horticulture still occupies a place of significance. In India, approximately 20-25% of the horticulture produce goes waste due to improper post harvest operations which reduces the growers share in the present marketing arrangements. The grower is getting hardly 25-35 paisa of a consumer rupee. The Value addition activities where the fruits and vegetables are processed, that fetches higher remunerative prices of the produce. Such opportunities are presently not available in rural areas but could be created through selective mechanization of agriculture and appropriate post harvest management and value addition to the harvested biomass in the production catchments.The agricultural produce involves operations like cleaning, grading, drying, storage, milling, packaging, transport, marketing and utilization. At the end of each operation, value is added to the product. The lowest and the highest monetary values of a food commodity are, respectively, when it is in raw and fresh form and when it is in processed and ready to consume/eat form. Post harvest and food processing technology are commodity and location specific. It prevent avoidable post harvest losses and adding value to the fresh agro-produces. It also creates opportunities for employment and income generation. Integration of production agriculture with on-farm primary processing is needed to have higher and sustainable production, productivity and better quality end products for domestic and export markets. It would help in reducing rural- urban disparity and ensuring household food and nutritional security for all at an affordable cost. The technology is available and a wide range of tools, machines and equipment are used in post-production of agriculture. The globalization of trade may compel many agro processing industries to rely on an imported technology at a high cost and the advantage of such technology may be availed by a few who have an exclusive business interest. Majority of agriculture-based enterprises will continue to depend upon indigenous technology and, therefore, R&D through public support has to be strengthened to become globally competitive and serve small-scale food processing sector of the country.

Most of the horticultural produce is of perishable nature and must be protected from postharvest losses, which start from the field itself. Therefore, adoption of proper packing house operation plays a very crucial role in minimizing postharvest losses

Although, we have reached new heights in the production of fruits comparable to China, Brazil and USA and in vegetables to China, yet we are far behind in postharvest management of these perishables, primarily due to lack of appropriate infrastructure. Test studies conducted in Australia have indicated that the distribution cost of perishable horticultural produce is assumed 5 to 9 times, the production cost. Further, packaging accounted for 25-50% of the wholesale price of fruits and vegetables. In India, huge losses of horticultural produce (25-30%) after harvest are encountered mainly due to non-existence of packing house concept.

Packing house operations essentially begins with the use of proper field containers, field transport, temperature protection of harvest produce, sorting, sizing, grading, packing, which are essential preparatory steps to storage, shipment and subsequent marketing. Depending on the kind of produce, additional activities viz. degreening, curing, washing, ripening, waxing, precooling etc. are done. The sequence of activities varies with the crops. A considerable quantity of postharvest losses of horticultural produce could be minimized by adoption of various packing house operations described below:

Livestock wealth is very precious for a developing country like India. In India, animal husbandry is no longer a subsidiary to agriculture or a backyard vocation. Animal husbandry has metamorphosed into an industry and the latest reports suggest that the contribution of animal husbandry sector to the GDP of the nation is substantially higher despite the meager input. Animal husbandry offers a better scope for marginal farmers whose income from agriculture is dwindling fast due to vagaries of monsoon, fragmentation of landholdings, pest problems, poor pricing etc. Though the growth of livestock industry is very promising, in order to make India a global leader in animal husbandry, it is imperative to integrate it with developments in other fields. The developments in Information Technology over the past few decades are tremendous and offer great potential in improving animal health through various measures like effective disease forecasting, rapid and accurate disease diagnosis, modern therapeutic measures etc.

Veterinary Informatics is the discipline concerned with the application of information science, engineering, and computer technology to support veterinary health care. Veterinary informatics and the larger field of medical informatics is often called health care informatics or biomedical informatics and forms part of the wider domain of e-health. Applications of Information Technology in different aspects of animal health are discussed below.

Introduction

Decision making is the most important aspect of any business and industry. Farming is a business and agriculture is also an industry. Hence, decision making plays an important role with regard to the problems concerning production of commodities. The main questions before the producer or the production manager are: (i) What to produce, (ii) How to produce, and (iii) How much to produce.

Linear programming (LP) is a modeling tool that can assist in the solution of many problems in agriculture. It is useful in selecting the best alternative from a number of available course of actions.

LP models are designed to “optimize” a specific objective criterion subject to a set of constraints. The quality of the resulting solution depends on the completeness of the model in representing the real system.

I. MANDATE OF COPYRIGHT LAW

The importance of intellectual property rights has arisen in recent years to a great extent. The law of copyrights protects original forms of expression i.e. Novels, Movies, Musical compositions and computer software etc. Earlier it was mainly confined to the -published Work and owner of it could prevent others from getting it published in the form of books or articles in order to get benefit in terms of money or goodwill or reputation. In case of such undue enrichment, the owner had a valid cause of action. The owner of the copyright has a valid cause of action against the violator. At present even in case of its adoption and translation or abridgement, it is obligatory to have consent of author. The main purpose and object of copyright law is to protect the expression in any other form from unauthorized use. Since 1847, the copyrights law is in developing stage so, many legislations has been enacted.1 With the changing of times, the meaning of expression also changes and the style of exhibit the things also changed. The right of author who gives expression in any form is protected from unauthorized use.

Directing is concerned with telling subordinates what to do and ensuring that they do it as best as they can. It includes assigning tasks and duties, explaining procedures, issuing orders, providing on-the-job instructions, monitoring performance, and correcting deviations.

Directing must have two dimensions, namely, i) magnitude and ii) aim or direction.

The directing function includes the following:

1. Supervising
2. Guiding
3. Leading
4. Motivating, and
5. Communicating

Materials Management deals with purchasing and controlling of the materials used in the production process.

Materials (Goods) Planning and Control

Decisions to be taken in this are:

• Amount of materials needed for output desired
• Amount of inventory and its storage and reordering
• Vendor relations
• Quality materials and price per unit
• Quantity and time of order
• Methods of receiving and transporting
• Handling of defective materials and stock

Policies and procedures should be established so that most of these decisions become routine in nature. When exceptions occur, the concerned authority should correct them.

The most of the animal population of the world?s lies in regions where frequent seasonal stressors adversely influence the health and productivity. The adaptation of animals to thermal stress is a physiological; biochemical process under endocrine control opens new opportunities to use of endocrine regulation as means of improving thermal tolerance. The animals raised in the semi-arid tropics, usually exhibit low productivity because of shortages of feed and harsh climatic conditions (Maurya et al., 2004). Heat stress can impact animal production and profitability in dairy cattle by lowering feed intake, milk production and reproduction. The animal production is affected by elevated ambient temperature which intern affects the availability of quality feed fodder and water. The indirect effects of climate driven changes in animal performance result mainly from alterations in the nutritional environment of the grazing livestock (Topp and Doyle , 1996). In tropical region most of the time is being spent by animals in the search of feed and fodder. The excess walking stress in the livestock reduces their body condition score and oftenly animal exposed to negative energy balance (Maurya et al., 2010). Under present climate conditions, the lack of ability of animals to dissipate the environmental heat determines that, in many areas in the world, animals suffer heat stress during, at least, part of the year. Heat stress has a variety of detrimental effects on livestock (Fuquay, 1981), with significant effects on milk production and reproduction in dairy cows (Johnson, 1987). The severity of stress and milk production by a cow depends on THI, length of heat stress period, air flow, size of cow, dry matter intake, water availability and coat colour.

At the moment India is world leader in milk production, closely followed by the USA, with a production volume of 84 million tons. More than half of the milk is produced by buffaloes. India has about three times as many ?dairy? animals as the USA, the vast majority (over 80 percent) being kept in herds of 2 to 8 animals. Annual milk yield per dairy animal is about one tenth of that achieved in the USA and about one fifth of the yield of a New Zealand dairy cow. As per India?s National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), the country produced 121 mt of milk in 2010-11 fiscal, which comprised about 17% of global production.

Livestock are homeotherms and has to maintain their body temperature at a fairly constant level through various means of heat gain and heat loss mechanisms. In order to survive in an environment for longer period the energy gain must equal to energy loss. The remarkable interaction has occurred between climate, soil, plants and animals during course of evolution. The maintenance of high level of production in hot regions is difficult as the large amount of heat has to be dissipated besides heat imposed by the environment. Similarly in cold regions, the animal has to produce extra heat to meet the thermoregulatory demand. Considerable variations occur between different species, and between different individual within a species in their capacity to adjust to environmental stress. The farm animals prefer an internal body temperature range from 36-40°C. Normal body temperature of livestock species are:

Cattle: 101-102^oF, Buffalo: 100.5-102°F, Sheep: 102-103°F and Goat: 102.5-103^oF

All the metabolic reactions are under control of various enzymes. The optimum ranges of temperature for activities of these enzymes incidentally fall in the range of normal body temperature. The body keeps its core temperature constant at about 37°C by physiological adjustments controlled by the hypothalamus. A group of neurons, located in anterior hypothalamus, are sensitive to change in skin as well as blood temperature. This hypothalamic centre acts as a “thermostat”. When core body temperature deviated from the thermostat temperature, numerous thermoregulatory mechanisms are initiated to bring back the core body temperature normal. However, in certain instance eg. fever the set point temperature of thermoregulatory control centre is raised. The hypothalamic thermostat works in conjunction with other hypothalamic, autonomic and higher nervous thermoregulatory centers to keep the core temperature constant. Some of these thermoregulatory responses are involuntary, mediated by the autonomic nervous system, some are neurohormonal and others are semi-voluntary or voluntary behavioral responses.

The establishment and the longevity of the organisms from one to complex multiple cells are controlled both by climate and weather in a region. Climate(macro level physical factor) of a region permits a particular organism to initiate its establishment, while the prevailing weather (micro level of the climate factor) which is known to occur within that climate controls the growth and multiplication of the selected organisms and thus proving the immense need of both climate and weather to living organisms. Within this science, when the weather is favorable for a particular organism throughout the year in a region, which cause disease to higher organisms then that region is termed as endemic region to a particular disease, where the management is focused towards strategical(long term) and tactical(short term) approaches. When in a year, from few weeks to few months the weather may be highly favorable for the outbreak of a particular disease, then that region is named as epidemic region for that disease and by establishing scientific link between weather and disease causing organism, it is possible to forecast / predict disease initiation in time and practice tactical management. Among the weather factors, temperature(both maximum and minimum), rainfall (amount and its distribution), relative humidity(both maximum and minimum) wind speed, dew, fog and mist would influence the organisms causing disease in livestock both in positive and negative terms. This is the new emerging area in the field of animal climatology and an attempt has been made to integrate animal diseases with climate and weather factors based on the available literature. Scope for research is vast in this new area and is discussed in a sub-head of the conclusion.

In the existing planetary system, life was established and growing over millions of years on earth. If we track down to the history of evolution, beginning with a living unicellular organisms Amoeba, growing to a gigantic size of Dinosaur and stabilizing at well adaptable stage of an Elephant in animal kingdom or to reach the present status of the intelligent human being, throughout these developmental stages the climatic/meteorological factors play a crucial and supportive role. Further the Development of plant/Animal kingdom is making rapid strides in tropical climatic zones where the temperature ambient ranges between 20⁰C to 40⁰C and the rain fall/humidity factors are moderate. We are fortunate enough that India is geographically located in tropical zone. This classic location advantage of the country in the world geographical map helped the country in keeping India as number one milk producer in the world, no 3 producer in poultry egg production, number 5 in horticulture production i.e fruits and vegetables. Climate change affects livestock both directly and indirectly. Direct effects from temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind speed and other climate factors, aggravates the heat stress in dairy animals, and influences animal performance badly: in growth factors, milk production in Dairy animals, mutton production/ wool production in case of sheep. egg and meat production in poultry, and reproductive aspects in all the species. The indirect impact of these factors on livestock may result on economic, nutritional and health aspects of human society and also its contribution to the economy of the country.

Sheep and goats in temperate regions are seasonal breeders with breeding activity mostly restricted to short day seasons of the year (Maule 1962). Endocrine mechanisms regulated by the variations of the day length stimulate reproductive activity to have maximum conceptions during the period of shorter days and correspondingly maximum births during longer day periods after a 5 months gestation (Hafez, 1987). Thus, essence of seasonal breeding is to ensure maximum births during the period congenial for survival of young ones, including availability of feeding materials and favorable climate. In tropical regions with minimum variation of day length and less distinct seasons, feed availability is not much affected by seasons in particular. Hence most species of animals maintains reproductive activity throughout the year (Devendra and Burns 1983). However there found to have influence of various locally relevant factors affecting comfort of living such as feed availability, weather and other environmental factors. Accordingly, there occur seasonal peaks and periods of restricted reproductive activity and pattern of the same can vary according to the local situations prevailing year to year (Goel and Agarwal, 1988 and Wani et al. 1980).

Demand of livestock products is on the rise in India. India?s demand forecast for milk, mutton, egg production is more than the current supply of these products. To meet this demand entrepreneurship initiatives are need of the hour .Further, younger generation of India seems more interested in commercial dairy farming rather than subsistence based farming. Therefore, entrepreneurial training to farmers is essential. An average entrepreneur faces several barriers to start a new enterprise. Some of them are as under

Setting up livestock enterprise be it a small dairy unit, goat unit, milk and meat processing plant, selling parlor requires capital. Lack of access to credit to expand the herd is a critical problem for farmers. There is little access to formal credit through the cooperatives or banks. Informal credit is available from private traders and agents of private companies, but the interest rate is very high. Keeping this situation in mind and to provide financial support from banks few major dairy entrepreneurship schemes have been developed and implemented by banks with the support of state animal husbandry departments across different parts of the country. National Bank on Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the lead bank for financial support of such schemes.

Expectations from Veterinarian as Extension Officer to Promote Entrepreneurship

The veterinarian has to act as facilitators to exchange experiences, share knowledge and information and participate in joint problem-solving. This requires linking farmers with the right support institutions and individuals who have expertise to deal with their specific concerns. Therefore, extension workers need to understand the training needs of the farmers and to identify the best trainers or training institutions to meet those needs. Part of this involves creating awareness about the training programme and explaining the objectives and content to potential trainees.

Extension workers should also assess the impact of the training on the behaviour of the participants and on the farm business Impact assessment is essential because it is the true indicator of the relevance and effectiveness of the training programme.

Extension workers can also provide more general support in the form of study visits, study tours. Farmers observe ?good entrepreneurial practices?, and learn from the practices of others. Farmers are taken on a tour. See markets first-hand, visit input suppliers and buyers, and make contacts. Farmers also visit farmers in other areas to exchange experiences and see new techniques. Such visits can transform a farmer?s view on production and marketing. Visits should be followed up with periodic evaluations to assess the impact of the visit and the use of new practices and techniques. They can also arrange seminars with possible topics like entrepreneurship, farm business management, market possibilities, successful case studies, new technologies, price assessments and market-oriented production techniques. Extension workers can also facilitate farmers working with producer organizations. Producer organizations can make useful contributions to developing entrepreneurship among farmers.

Project Appraisal : Assessing Project Benefits

Project appraisal helps to determine which among various projects one is to accept and which to reject. This is however possible only when costs and benefits have been identified, priced, and valued. A number of techniques of project appraisal can be discussed under two heads :

Abstract

The article briefly narrates the initiatives taken by the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi in providing solutions to rapidly growing Landslide Disasters in India. Duly considering the importance of the issue, the DST has embarked on a National Landslide Programme more than two decades ago and brought voluminous information on Landslide Vulnerability Mapping, Site Specific Landslide Investigations, Landslide Kinematics, Instrument Based Forewarning etc. by funding large number of research projects to various Academic/Research institutions in the country. In addition, the bilateral collaborative programme launched on Geohazards between India & Norway, resulted in bilateral flow of knowledge and capacity building amongst various tiers of the Academic, Research and the Planning Hierarchy, yielding tangible benefits.

Keywords: Landslides in India, DST’s Initiatives.

INTRODUCTION

Landslides cause extensive damages to roads, bridges, human dwellings, agricultural lands, forests and other establishments year after year resulting in immense losses of life and properties. The entire Himalayan region has been the target of intense development activities for the last few decades. Hence the instabilities along the natural slopes are accentuated by the human activities since the development schemes are often not properly planned and implemented (Valdiya 1980; Thakur 2001). This has become the case in most of the mountains in India. Keeping in view of the stability of the slopes, the need of the hour is to achieve sustainable development of the hilly regions while implementing various developmental schemes. So there has to be a major S&T role to play to minimize the landslide problems. This should include all possible corrective and preventive measures to minimize the losses due to this disaster.

Abstract

The Rawana landslide, located in Sirmuar district of the Shimla Himalayas, Himachal Pradesh is repeatedly active in the recent years. It is a NE-SW oriented slide with the crown in the southwest and the wider toe in the northeast resting in Giri River. During some of the sliding events emanations of heat and gases were also inferred. In order to understand the landslide phenomenon and the causative factors, and there from to evolve mitigation measures, detailed studies of the slides were under taken. The Landslide hazard zonation mapping carried out in Rawana landslide using LHEF rating based BIS method indicates that it is located in high hazard zone. The detailed studies show the complex geological, structural, morphotectonic and hydrological setting. From the studies it is surmised that the toe erosion by Giri river and the rainfall infiltration in the mid slope region are responsible for the slide. Remedial measures have been accordingly evolved.

Abstract

The landslides that swallowed the whole of Malin village, Maharashtra on the early morning hours of 30 July, 2014 is one of the major disasters, next only to Kedarnath episode in the recent years. Consequently, the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, constituted an expert committee comprising the authors of the article which made a visit and took the on the spot assessment of the disaster. Their observations show that the area is covered by the Deccan basalts, which are layered with compact and vesicular basalts; fractured and jointed basalts due to tectonics and the cooling of the basalts; and have also undergone extensive geomorphic evolution. Due to such geologic/geomorphic setting, the flow layered basaltic hillock in which Malin is located is naturally benched, which is further being leveled for the agriculture purposes. The deforestation, leveling of the hills, excessive usage of water for irrigation and the lack of drainages outlet in such benched and leveled slopes have assigned high degree of landslide vulnerability to the area. Over this, when torrential rainfall occurred in the last week of July, the landslide was triggered. On the basis such inferences, some mitigation measures have been evolved after the visit.

2.1 Introduction

Farm ponds are the most commonly used source of ex-situ water harvesting structures. It has wide adaptability in farmers’ fields and used as handy source for water supply to crop fields. It has been used since time immemorial not only as an assured source of water supply to crops but also to meet demands in other sectors. However, these ponds have wide variations in shape and size as per the method of construction and their suitability for different topographic conditions. Most of the ponds, initially constructed in fields have regular shape. However, as time progresses and because of the poor or no repair and maintenance, these ponds loose their regular shape and become irregular.

12.1 Introduction

Farm ponds are used for multipurpose including as a viable source for supplemental irrigation to rainfed crops, a good place of entertainment, a vital place for wild life habitats, livestock and fish and aquatic plants. Like any other structure, the farm pond needs regular repair and maintenance for effective operation. The purpose of construction of the pond will be fruitful and the life span of the pond will be enhanced if proper care and maintenance are taken. In this chapter some salient discussions on care and maintenance of the pond are mentioned.

12.2 Maintenance Against Silting

The farm ponds constructed in medium to deep black soils are subjected to getting silted up. Hence, periodic desilting to restore the original storage capacity is required. If the pond is used for supplemental irrigation to crops, then desilting may be done once in every 5 to 10 years depending on the amount of silt getting deposited in the pond.

The breaches and rill formed in the spoil bank and shoulder bunds should be immediately repaired. The inlet and outlet structures should be maintained periodically. The silt deposited in the silt trap should be removed periodically. In areas where silt carried by the runoff is more, a vegetative filter near the inlet structure may be used. The pond may be desilted manually if it is small in size otherwise mechanical measures may be used to desilt. It is easy to desilt the pond when it is dry. A Simple and inexpensive method to desilt the pond is to stir the water of the pond and then allow the desilted water move away from the pond through the outlet (Belgaumi, et. al., 1997). Fig. 12.1shows a badly maintained pond with excess silting and weed infestation causing severe reduction of its storage capacity.

4.1 Soil Moisture Tension

Soil moisture tension is a measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in the soil and shows the force per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from soil. The tenacity is measured in terms of the potential energy of water in the soil measured, usually with respect to free water. It is usually expressed in atmospheres, the average air pressure at sea level. Other pressure units like cm of water or cm or mm of mercury are also often used (1 atmosphere = 1036 cm of water or 76.39 cm of mercury). It is also sometimes expressed in bars (1 bar = 106 dynes / cm² = 1023 cm of water column. 1 millibar = 1/1000- bar).

Soil moisture tension is brought about at the smaller dimensions by surface tension (capillarity) and at the higher dimensions by adhesion. Buckingham (1907) introduced the concept of ‘capillary potential’ to define the energy with which water is held by soil. This term, however, does not apply over the entire moisture range. In a wet soil, as long as there is a continuous column of water, it might be called ‘hydrostatic potential’, in the intermediate range the term ‘capillary potential’ is appropriate. In the dry range the term ‘hygroscopic potential’ would be suitable. However, the term ‘soil moisture potential’, ‘soil moisture suction’ and ‘soil moisture tension’ are often used synonymously to cover the entire range of moisture (Khonke, 1968).

10.1 Evapotranspiration (ET = Evaporation + Transpiration)

Evaporation is a diffusive process by which water from natural surfaces, such as free water surface, bare soil, from live or dead vegetation foliage (intercepted water, dewfall, guttation etc) is lost in the form of vapour to the atmosphere. It is one of the basic components of hydrologic cycle.

Likewise transpiration is a process by which water is lost in the form of vapour through plant surfaces, particularly leaves. In this process water is essentially absorbed by the plant roots due to water potential gradients and it moves upward through the stem and is ultimately lost into the atmosphere through numerous minute stomata in the plant leaves. It is basically an evaporation process. However, unlike evaporation from a water or soil surface, plant structure and stomatal behaviour operating in conjunction with the physical principles governing evaporation modify transpiration.

Thus, evapotranspiration is a combined loss of water from the soil (evaporation) and plant (transpiration) surfaces to the atmosphere through vaporization of liquid water, and is expressed in depth per unit time (for example mm/ day). Quantification of evapotranspiration is required in the context of many issues:

The term growth for bacteria and other microorganism usually refers to changes in the total population rather than an increase in size or mass of an individual organism. As the mechanism of conservation and dissipation of heat generated during metabolism lacks in bacteria, the enzyme system in bacteria gets directly influenced by temperature. The purpose of studying the bacterial growth curve is a) to become familiar with the population growth dynamics of bacterial culture and b) to plot a growth curve and determine the generation time of bacterial culture.

A number of methods are now available for measuring bacterial growth. Some important ones are

1)By colony counting or cell counting

2)By weighing the cells

3)By cell activity (turbidity method)

Antibiotics are produced by some true bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi that destroy or inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. Some antibiotics are synthesized or modified in the laboratory; however, their origins are always in living cells.

9.1 Assay of Antibiotics

Soil serves as the major repository of microorganisms some of which produces antibiotics. Four groups of soil microorganisms viz; Streptomyces, Bacillus, Penicillium and Cephalosporium represent three microbial types, namely, actinomycetes, true bacteria and molds respectively.

Following procedure may be applied to isolate antibiotic-producing microorganisms from soil:

Fermentation

The term fermentation is loosely used to denote any process in which microorganisms are involved, regards of whether or not the organism is growing in the presence of molecular oxygen. Thus, it can be defined as 'an ATP generating metabolic process in which organic compounds serve both as electron donor (becoming oxidized) and electron acceptor(becoming reduced). Energetically, fermentations are poor energy yielding process and products have lower energy content then the substrates. Since there is no net oxidation in fermentation, the number of molecules of C, H and O remain the same in products as in the substrate.

Abstract

An intellectual property infringement is the violation of an intellectual property right of the owner. Infringement is established based on the law governing appropriate IPR in the concerned country. Both civil and criminal remedies are available under the concerned law. The present paper introduces the patent infringement as per Indian Patent Act, 1970. It discusses various modes and types of infringements which can take place. It further discusses a procedure to formulate opinion about product infringing a granted patent. In the end some usual defenses against patent infringements have been discussed. Some case studies have also been presented along with the damages awarded for the patent infringement.

Abstract

The paper discusses patentability aspect of subject matter. Patentable subject matter must satisfy three basic criteria i.e. novelty, inventiveness and industrial applicability, though few subject matter satisfying all the three basic criteria stated above may still be not patentable in specific jurisdiction based on certain circumstances or as stated in the patent act of the specified jurisdiction. Therefore grant of a patent is subject to certain limitations mentioned in the section 3 and 4 of the Indian Patent Act for Indian jurisdiction. The aim of this paper is to study such limitations in detail.

World Intellectual Property Organization

http://www.wipo.int,http://www.wipo.org

The World Intellectual Property Organization - referred to in abbreviated form as WIPO in English, and OMPI in French and Spanish - was established by a convention signed at Stockholm on July 14, 1967, and entitled “Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization.” The WIPO Convention entered into force in 1970. WIPO became a specialized agency in the United Nations system of organizations in 1974 and dedicated to the use of intellectual property (patents, copyright, trademarks, designs, etc.) as a means of stimulating innovation and creativity.

WIPO promote the development and use of the international IP system through Services, Law, Infrastructure and Development.