eChapters

Random variable: A random variable is a variable that assumes numerical values associated with the events of a random experiment whose outcomes cannot be predicted with certainty. For example, Height of rice plants in a field; seed weight; No. of tillers per rice plant.

A random variable is of two types:-

1. Discrete random variable: The random variable which takes only countable values i.e., integral values. For Example, Number of tillers per rice plant. Here there can be finite no. of values between any two values.
2. Continuous random variables: The random variable which takes values within intervals. These values cannot be counted but can only be measured. Here there can be infinite no. of values between any two values for example, Height of rice plants in field; seed weight.

Concept of correlation was given by Karl Pearson in 1890.

The study of strength and nature of relationship between two variables is called correlation. Two variables are said to be correlated, if the change in one variable affects the other variable. Correlation is also known as covariation.

Bivariate Distribution: Distribution involving two variables is known as bivariate distribution. For example, Height and weight of persons, yield and production of a crop in.

On basis of type of association between variables, correlation is of two types:

The aggregate of data forming a subject of investigation is known as population. Example, All the crop plants grown in a plot; all the fruit plants in an orchard, etc. The population may be:

1. Finite: No. of observations are definite. e.g., number of farms in a village, no. of house in a locality, no. of trees in an orchard are all finite population.
2. Infinite: Number of observation are indefinite e.g., (a) Number of insects in a region, number of grasses in a field etc. are all infinite population.

The Population may be:

1. hypothetical or theoretical

   Hypothetical population consists of unit that has no physical existence. This population exists only in imagination. For example, Result of tossing coin, throwing die,

2. Existent or real population consists of units that are physically present. This population actually exists. For example, Number of employees in a factory, Number of farms in a village.

A sample is said to be small sample if the sample size(n) is less than 30. Various small sample tests are: (i) t-test (ii) F-test

t-test performs the following tests for small sample(s).

1. To test the equality between a single sample mean and the assumed population mean.
2. To test the equality of two independent sample means.
3. To test the equality of two paired sample means.
4. To test the equality between sample correlation coefficient and the assumed population correlation coefficient

Samples having size, n - 30 are known as large sample. For large values of n (i.e., for n - 30), almost all the distributions are very closely approximated by normal distribution. Thus in this case we apply the normal test, which is based upon the area property of the normal probability curve. Large Sample Test is also known as Z-test or SND (Standard Normal Deviate) test.

Chi-square test is a non-parametric test as the null hypothesis does not contain any assumption regarding the population parameter. Chi-square is also written as c₂. In this chapter two uses of chi-square test will be dealt with. They are the following :

An experiment is a systematic process or activity which leads to collection of information on certain objects to give an answer to the objectives of the researcher.

The experiment in which certain absolute values like average, correlation coefficient, median, mode, etc are worked out to describe the population is known as absolute experiment.

The experiment in which the effects of different objects under consideration are compared is known as comparative experiment.

The variable whose change we wish to study is called as Response variable. For example- yield, mortality rate of insects etc.

The variable whose effect on the response variable we wish to study is termed as Factor. For example - variety, fertilizer, insecticide etc.

Here factor is the independent variable and response variable is the dependent variable.

The various levels of a factor whose effect on the response variable we wish to study are known as Treatment.

Agriculture

The term agriculture is derived from Latin word ager or agri meaning soil and cultura meaning cultivation. Agriculture is a broad term encompassing all aspects of crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, forestry etc. Agriculture is a branch of applied science and is the art of farming including the of cultivating the soil for producing crops and raising livestock. There are three main spheres of agriculture-geoponic meaning cultivation in soil, hydroponic meaning cultivation in water and aeroponic meaning cultivation in air.

Agriculture is a productive unit where the gifts of nature like land, light, water and temperature are integrated into a single primary unit that is crop plant which is indispensable for human beings. The secondary productive units of agriculture are animals including livestock, birds and insects which feed on the primary units and provide concentrated products such as meat, milk, wool, eggs, honey, silk and lac.

Agronomy is a branch of applied science deals with the principles and practices of field crops production and management of soil for higher productivity. The term Agronomy is derived from Greek word agros meaning field and nomos meaning to manage.

Norman (1980) defined Agronomy as the science of manipulating the crop environmental complex with dual aims of improving Agricultural productivity and gaining a degree of understanding of the process involved.

In recent times, Agronomy has assumed newer dimensions and can be defined as ‘A branch of Agricultural science that deals with the methods which provide favourable environment to the crops for higher productivity’.

It is supposed that man was evolved on earth about 15 lakh years ago. This man started to move by standing erect on his feet and called Homo erectus L. Later the modern man was evolved called Homo sapiens L. (Sapiens means learning habit) due to his continuous learning habit. It is difficult to trace the exact period of beginning of agriculture. Archeological evidences indicated that, Agriculture started about 50,000 years ago.

Hunting was the primary source of food in olden days and was prevailed for long time. They obtained his food through domestication of some animals like dogs, horse, cow, buffalo etc. They live in the periphery of the forest and migrate from one place to another in search of food. It was not comfortable and they started enjoying by settling at one place near the river and started agricultural system.

Higher plants demand certain basic things for their growth. As many as 52 factors (basic things) influencing crop growth have been identified :

• 100 per cent of the land has sufficient CO₂ in the atmosphere and sunlight
• 83 per cent have favourable temperature
• 64 per cent have favourable topography
• 46 per cent have reliable rainfall
• 40 per cent have satisfactory fertile land

Agriculture plays a key role in the overall economic and social well being of the country. Though the share of Agriculture in both GDP and employment has declined overtime, Agriculture still forms the backbone and occupies a pride of place :

1. Agriculture contributes 24 per cent to the Gross Domestic Product. GDP was declined from 39 per cent in 1983 to 25 per cent during 1999-2000 and now it 17.32 per cent.
2. Provides livelihood support for more than half of the population in the country. The sector provides employment to 56.7 per cent of the India’s work force.
3. Agriculture has been the source of raw material for industries. Majority of the industries depending on agriculture for their raw materials. Ex: Textile (Cotton, Jute), Sugar (Sugarcane, Sugar beet), Small & medium scale industries like soaps, dyes, medicines, vitamins, preservation of fruits and vegetables, dhal milling, rice husking, Jaggery making, oil crushing, handlooms etc.
4. It provides large part of market for industrial goods viz., seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, implements, machines like pump sets, trucks, tractors, power tillers, sprayers etc.
5. Support roadways, railways, airways and shipways for transport of inputs & produce.

Crops: Is a cultivated plant that is grown on large scale commercially, especially cereal, pulses, fruits or vegetables.

Classification of crops : Several crop plants are alike with respect to ontogeny (Development), morphology, anatomy, physiology and requirement of environment. Classification is done to generalize similar crop plants as a class for attaining better understanding of them. Field crops are classified in several ways.

Seed is the living link between plant and progeny and biologically seed is ripe fertilized ovule and a unit of reproduction of flowering plant. Agronomically, a seed material or propagule is the living organ of crop in rudimentary form used for propogation.

Propagation Asexual Sexual Seed Stem cutting Ex: Sugarcane Grafting Rooted slips Ex: Grasses Tubers Ex: Potato Budding Corms Rhizomes Layering

Plants perpetuate / multiply either sexually or asexually. Sexual methods are through seeds and asexually through vegetative parts. Most of the crop plants produce viable seeds which are used for sowing. Those used for multiplication are called seeds and those which used for human consumption are called grains.

Seed consisting of intact embryo, stored food and seed coat which is viable and has got a capacity to germinate. Embryo has two parts:

Soil is defined as a thin layer of earth’s crust which serves as a natural basic medium for the plant growth. Soil is a dynamic natural body composed of minerals, organic materials and living forms on which plants grow. Soil are formed by the weathering of rocks and minerals in presence of soil forming factors like climate, organisms, relief or topography, parent material and time (cl,o,r,p,t).The weathering of rocks and minerals are associated with physical and chemical phenomenon. The principal agents of physical weathering are temperature, water, wind, plant and animals. Chemical weathering is affected through the process of hydrolysis, hydration, carbonation, oxidation and reduction.

Each soil is characterized by a given sequence of horizons. Combining of this sequence is known as soil profile. Soil profile is a vertical section of the soil through its horizons. The layers or horizons in the soil profile vary in thickness and have different characteristics like colour, texture, structure etc. The horizons are designated by O, A, E, B, C and R.

Horizon: The layers seen in the vertical section of the soil profile are called horizons.

Cultivation involves management of physical environment to produce a favourable habitat for successful crop production. Primitive man used tools to disturb the soil for placing the seeds. The word tillage is derived from the Anglo-Saxon words tilian and teolian means to plough and prepare soil for seed sowing, to cultivate and to raise crops. Jethrotull who is considered as father of tillage suggested that ploughing is necessary so as to make the soil into fine particles.

Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of the soil either with tools and implements for obtaining conditions ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment and growth of crops.

Tillage includes all operations and practices that are used for the purpose of modifying soil physical characters. Tillage is the most difficult and time consuming operation in crop production. About 30 per cent of the total cost of cultivation goes for tillage operations.

Crop density is nothing but number of plants or seedling per unit area. Crop density per unit area depends on the soil, climate and type of crop being planted. For example under extreme conditions, in poor soils and in semiarid regions with no irrigation planting at low density is best. Otherwise crop plants will be thin and weak. In such conditions not only produces low yield but also is the ideal condition for pest and diseases. Crop unit area depends on :

1. Soil fertility: In poor soils, plant density should be lower than in fertile soils.
2. Availability of water: In areas where water is a limiting factor, planting should be done at a lower density.
3. Tillering capacity of the crop: Small grains and other cereals are planted at lower densities due to tillering capacity and elasticity of the crops.

Crop nutrition / plant nutrition refers to the inter relationships of mineral elements in the soil and their role in plant growth and development. This inter relationship involves a complex balance of mineral elements essential and beneficial for optimum plant growth.

Plants require certain element for their growth and development. There are about 60 chemical elements present in the plant and it doesn’t mean that all are essential for normal growth and development.

Arnon and Stout (1939) proposed criterion of essentiality. Which were refined by Arnon (1954) and are popularly known as Arnon’s criteria of essentiality. They are:

Growth is defined as an irreversible change in the size of a cell, organ or whole organism. Commonly, growth is the increase in the amount of living material (protoplasm) which leads to an increase in cell size and ultimately cell division. Growth occurs only in living cells by metabolic process involved in the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and CHO at the expense of metabolic energy provided by photosynthesis and respiration.

Cropping systems are designed to mimic nature and bring diversity into our farming system. The cropping system should provide enough food for the family, fodder for cattle and generate sufficient cash income for domestic and cultivation expenses.

The objective of any cropping system is efficient utilization of all resources viz., land, water and solar radiation, maintaining stability in production and obtaining higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time. The objective of traditional agriculture was to increase the production by two means:

a) By increasing area under cultivation.

b) By increasing the productivity per unit area of the crop.

Crop adaption is closely related to genetics and plant physiology. Knowledge of basic of biological evolution and genetics is essential for an understanding of crop adaptation. Natural selection, the fundamental basis of adaptation has been atmost importance in determining the characteristic of present day crops and its still of great significance in modern plant breeding.

Ecology and ecosystem: Ecology and ecosystem influences adaption and distribution of crops. As such basic knowledge of ecology and ecosystem is necessary to understand adaptation and distribution of crops for maximum economic yields through efficient use of natural and applied inputs.

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of living and non living components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem frame work. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plant and animals.

Ecology is the scientific study of relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. Under ecology we study various ecosystems which are part of the biosphere. An ecosystem includes all the organisms and the non living environment that are found in particular place.

Problem soils are an important ecological entity of arid, semiarid or humid climate of our country. In India saline and sodic soils are serious threat to produce enough food grains for growing population. The other main problem is acid and acid sulphate soil, spread in one third of cultivated land.

Problem soils are either deficient in plant nutrients or the nutrient availability is inhibited by the antagonistic effect of the nutrient element present in excessive amounts as soluble or exchangeable ions.

Harvesting is the act of removing crop from where it was growing and moving it to a more secure location for processing and storage. Some root crops and fruits trees can be left in the field or orchard and harvested as needed, but most crops reach a period of maximum quality that is they ripen or mature and will deteriorate if left exposed to the elements. While the major factor determining the time of harvest is the maturity of the crops and other factors such as weather, availability of harvest equipments, packing, drying, transport and storage facilities.

Economic and marketing issues are often even more important to consider when to harvest commodity. Before harvesting of crop, grower must be sure about demand of the produce.

Harvesting the crop at optimum maturity is critical for reaping the benefits of season long efforts on crop production. After final decision on crop maturity, care must be taken to avoid losses during harvest, threshing, transport and storage. Processing is equally important to keep the produce in good condition for realizing good price.

Crop maturity: There are different types of maturity namely physiological maturity, harvest maturity and storage maturity.

Physiological maturity: It is the stage of development in the life cycle of plant when the plant reaches maximum dry weight. At this stage any further increase in inputs does not produce any gain in yield. There is cessation in growth and grain filling at this stage. Grain at this stage has 40 per cent moisture and 90 per cent produce is matured and this remaining 10 per cent still immature. So farmers should harvest at stage to get maximum benefit.

Origin of weeds : Weeds originated together with crop plants. They have been there since the man started cultivating crops about 10,000 BC. Man during his stage of development, explored certain crop plant to suit his own taste and fancy and cultivated them as ‘crops’. The unexplored / unwanted / troublesome plants which are interfering with his activities are considered as weeds. About 30,000 plants species have been identified as definite weeds in the World. Which are infesting crop lands, water bodies, gardens, orchards, road sides, railway lines, irrigation channels etc.

Plants are differentiated into

a) Crops: Which meet the needs of human being.

b) Weeds: Which compete or interfere in human affairs.

Jethrotull is the first person to use the word weed.

India is bestowed with a wide range of agro-climatic and soil conditions. Therefore, almost all types of fruits can be grown in one or the other parts of the country. India is the second largest producer of fruits next to China. In India, fruit crops occupied 6.5 million hectares and it produces 96.75 million metric tonnes of fruits. India has exported fruits worth Rs. 4817.35 crores (692.01 USD Millions) (National Horticulture Board).

Improvement of fruit crops is difficult because of long gestation period, high heterozygosity, scanty information on inheritance pattern, often cross pollination, excessive fruit drop, parthenocarpy and less number of seeds restricting the availability of hybrid seedlings for evaluation. Even though, planned hybridization and clonal selections have been attempted in a number of fruit crops and these efforts have resulted in the development of promising varieties (mango, grape, guava, papaya, sapota, banana, etc). However, systematic and dedicated efforts are still required for the development of ideal varieties through modern tools in fruit crops.

In future, search for desired gene, critical study of inheritance pattern and use of biotechnological tools require due attention in combining ideal characteristics in varietal improvement programme of fruit crops.

A plant is said to be healthy or normal when it carries out its physiological functions to the best of its genetic potential. These normal functions include division, differentiation, development, absorption of water and mineral from soil and translocation of these throughout the plants, photosynthesis and translocation of photosynthetic product to areas of utilization or storage, the metabolism of synthesized compounds, reproduction and storage of food supplies.

A plant becomes diseased when it is disturbed by pathogen under certain environmental conditions which interfere with one or more of its essential functions. Diseased plant refers to any disturbance brought about by living organism under environmental factors, which interfere with normal function of plant or in other words when any organ and part of plant is not doing their work properly and when either the growth or reproduction is not going forward in natural or regular manner.

Plant growth regulators are organic substances other than nutrient, which is required in minute quantity to modify the plant growth processes. PGR has very important role in fruit breeding which is used in every facet of crop improvement e.g. multiplication of hybrids/selection through asexual means or by micro propagation, breaking of seed dormancy, growth control, regulation of flowering, fruiting and induction of sterility in reproductive organs etc (Dhatt, 1985). Details of the various uses of plant growth regulators are given as under.

Mango is one of the choicest fruits of India, grown over an area of 1.23 million hectares in the country. Mango occupies the same position in India as occupied by the apple in temperate and grape in subtropical areas. In India mango is acclaimed as king of fruits. The name Mangifera was given for the first time by Bontius in 1658, when he referred to this plant as arbor Mangifera (The tree producing mango). Linnaeus also referred to it as Mangifera arbor in 1747, prior to changing the name to its present form (Mangifera indica) in 1753. Mango is good source of vitamin A and C apart from the usual content of minerals and other vitamins. Mango is also considered to have some medicinal properties. Ripe fruits of mango is fattening, diuretic and laxative. Smoke of burning is supposed to cure hiccups and some throat troubles and the kernal is effective against diarrhoea and asthma. Besides table purpose, fruits of mango can be used for the preparation of pickles, preserves, jam, amchur (mango powder), mango leather (ampapad) and mango fool (mango+milk+sugar)

Banana is one of the oldest fruits and second largest growing fruit crop in the world. It is also known as the Adam’s Fig and Apple of Paradise. Unlike other fruits banana is an herbaceous fruit plant. Banana breeding started in Trinidad, West Indies in 1922 and in Jamaica in 1924 (Shepherd, 1994). The driving force for this breeding programme was to develop improved Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum F. sp. Cubense) resistant banana for export trade (Buddenhagen, 1990). In 1960 both the programmes were combined under the Jamaica Banana Board. United Fruit Company also started a small breeding programme in Panama in 1920s. In India hybridization work was started at Central Banana Research Station, Aduthurai, Tamil Nadu in 1949. Important banana growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. Now a days in some districts of Uttar Pradesh, Harichal cultivar of banana is cultivated at commercial scale. In South India banana is extensively used in all auspicious occasions such as wedding, festival and worship. Banana is a good table fruit, besides, the cultivar Nendran is used for cooking, it is also used for preparation of halwa, sweet and chips etc. Main bud or heart of banana bunches is also used as vegetable in India, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. Musa textiles is known for strong fibre quality.

Papaya is an ideal fruit crop for growing in kitchen garden, backyards of home as well as orchards, especially those places nearer to cities or big town. It is also grown as a filler plant in orchard. The ripe fruits of papaya are consumed throughout the tropics and sub tropics. Fruits are also used in preparation of jam, soft drinks, ice cream flavour, crystalized fruits and syrups. Unripe fruits are commonly used as vegetables. Papain is prepared from the latex of immature fruits. It is proteolytic enzyme used for tendering of the meat, preparation of chewing gum and cosmetics etc. The ripe fresh fruit is rich source of vitamin-A (2500 I.U.), carbohydrates and minerals (Singh, 1969). Papaya on account of producing fruit in a short period after planting has attracted the attention of fruit growers to be cultivated on a large scale in the country. It is known as wholesome fruit which is valued for its nutritional and medicinal properties. Due to its nutritional, industrial and export demand, papaya is recognized the most potential fruit crop for its economic cultivation. The variable sex forms, propagational problems, susceptibility to frost and water logging, fungal and viral diseases are well identified problems in its cultivation. Economically the production life of papaya is 3 years and every time new plantation has to be raised. Papaya being transplanted at closer spacing is highly suitable for high density planting. Now high yielding variety with better fruit quality are needed to boost the production under varied agro edaphological situation.

Citrus constitutes a major group of fruits comprising of mandarins, oranges, lemon, pummelo, grape fruits, tangelo, trifoliate orange, citron, citranges etc. Despite of inter-specific and inter-generic hybrids, Poncirus and Fortunella also belong to genus Citrus. During its long history, citrus has given the world numerous varieties both by open pollination, bud sports and of recently by controlled pollination and artificial induction of bud variation. Citrus fruit cultivation lies between latitude 40 0N also 40 0S where conditions are neither cold nor moist and dry. India is considered to be the home of several citrus species and they are found growing wild in some parts of the country. Many types of citrus still remain unexploited by man and such types are considered as semi wild. The productivity of citrus plant in our country is very low which is 7.65 tonnes/ha as acompared to Spain, Italy and Japan where it lies between 17-35 tonnes/ha. Sweet oranges cover an area of 42.4 thousand ha with an annual production of 510.8 thousand tonnes (Ghosh, 1985).

Grapes are being grown commercially in the tropics. The region between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, which was once considered to be unsuitable for growing quality grapes (Winkler, 1962) is producing good quality grapes. Tropical countries, where grapes are grown are South–East Asia (India, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, South China and Australia), Central and South America (Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela and West Indies) and Africa (Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe). In India, about 90% of grapes are being produced in the tropical region of the peninsular states i.e. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. However, now-a-days grape is becoming popular in North India due to good income. The vines of tropical region grape are evergreen in nature and do not shed their leaves. In this condition, pruning is done twice in a year during April and September–October. But under North Indian conditions, grapes shed their leaves during winter and pruning is done in the month of February.

Guava is also known as the “Apple of the Tropics”. It is very rich and cheap source of vitamin C and also contains a fair amount of calcium. Important guava growing states in the country are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh has the reputation of growing the best quality of guava fruits in the world (Mitra and Bose, 1990). The importance of guava is due to the fact that it is the hardy fruit which can be grown in alkaline and poorly drained soil.

Ber (chinese date, chinese fig or bore) is an important minor fruit of India. It is hardy fruit tree cultivated all over India and also known as poor man’s fruit. It is most widely cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pardesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra etc. Ber can do well even under marginal growing conditions and provides quality yields at low cost (Shukla, 1996). Fruits are mostly eaten fresh but the other forms, such as dried, candied, squash etc can also be prepared from ber. Stem bark, root and leaves have some medicinal values. Leaves of ber are used as fodder in dry regions. Ber tree (Ziziphus xylopyrus) is a host plant for rearing the Tachardia laccad a lac insect (Sharma and Kore, 1990).

Aonla has been regarded as a sacred tree in India. The tree is worshipped as mother earth and is believed to nurture humankind because the fruits are very nourishing. It is also known as Amrit phal. Aonla is mainly recognized due to its high nutritive, medicinal and therapeutic properties. It contains high amount of vitamin C (500-1500 mg/100 g), it is also rich in pectin, iron, calcium and phosphorous. Dried fruits of aonla can be is used in curing hemorrhage, diarrhea, chronic dysentery, diabetes, jaundice, dyspepsia, cough etc. Recently, aonla has gained more popularity in arid and semi-arid region of the country because of its hardy nature, prolific bearing capacity and ability to grow under various adversities as a remunerative crop (Shukla et al.2002). It may be an important fruit in future due to its high productivity, suitability in wasteland particularly salt affected soil and sandy soil of arid ecosystem. Aonla is the main ingredient of Chavanprash and Triphala powder which is used for curing different abnormalities. The fruit contains a chemical substance gallic acid and leucoanthocyanin which have antioxidant property.

Pomegranate is an ancient and important fruit. It is grown for its delicious and juicy pink arils (outer growth of seed) which are eaten fresh (Keskar et al., 1993). Fresh fruit is of exquisite quality while its processed products like bottled juice, syrups and jelly are highly appreciated. The juice is considered useful for patients suffering from leprosy. Fruit juice easily fermented and may be used for the production of wine. Juice of wild pomegranate is used in the manufacture of citric acid and sodium citrate for medicinal purpose. Pomegranate is known best for curing the chronic stomach ailment. Seeds of pomegranate contain oil which has a potential for industrial use. Sour aril of the wild types can be utilized for the preparation of anardana.

Date palm is one of the oldest fruits and was known to man many thousand years before Christ. It is staple food of the Arabs. Large quantities of date are imported by India from the Arabian countries. Wild date palm are seen growing even up to an altitude of 1500 M (Pareek, 1990), of course they do not fruit at this altitude every year. Raw sugar and a fermented drink ‘toddy’ are prepared from the sap of this palm. In the Indians valley, date palm is believed to have been introduced by the soldiers of Alexander the great in the fourth century B.C. and some wild groves of seedling date palm are found in the coastal belt in the Kachchh district of Gujarat. Investigations to develop indigenous production of dates in India were initiated during the 1950 by the ICAR at Regional Fruit Research Station, Abohar (Punjab). Some commercial varieties of date palm were introduced from USA, Pakistan and Middle East countries during 1955-1962. The extremely dry areas comprising Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner and Jodhpur in Rajasthan, Abohar in Punjab and Kachchh in Gujarat are the potential regions for the date growing in India.

Litchi is a delicious fruit and generally consumed as a table fruit. It is one of the most popular fruits of India which is commonly taken as fresh or in dried forms. Litchi is also recognized as “Queen of the fruits”. Dried litchi commonly known as ‘Litchi nut’ is very popular among the Chinese living all over the world. This subtropical fruit cannot tolerate frost in winter and dry heat in summer. An interesting feature of the litchi plant is the symbiotic growth of Mycorrhiza fungi on roots of the tree. These fungi form nodules on the roots of litchi. The trees and the fungus live together to benefit each other. Litchi makes an excellent canned fruit and highly flavoured squash is prepared from inferior fruits. Besides, fruit, other parts of the plant like leaves, bark and roots are also used for various purposes. In China leaves are used for making poultices, bark and roots for making decoctions for throat gargle.

Coconut is a monocotyledonous woody plant belonging to the family Arecaceae or Palmae. It is presumed that the generic name Cocos and popular name coconut are derieved from Spanish word ‘Coco’ meaning “Monkey face” a probable reference to the three scars on the base of the shell resembling two eyes and a nose of monkey face. Coconut is valued most for its nut, the other components are coconut water, kernel, shell and husk. Coconut water is one of the most refreshing drinks which is also known for its medicinal value. It increases blood circulation in kidneys, causes profuse diuresis and eliminates mineral poisoning. It is a good substitute for saline glucose under gastroenteritis conditions. The coconut has been regarded as Kalpavriksha (tree of heaven) because all the parts of the palm is useful to mankind in one way or the other.

The dried kernels commonly called as copra is richest source of vegetable fat i.e. 60 to 67% oil. Coconut is major source of edible oil and it is propagated through seeds. India is largest producer of coir and its product. The coconut plant has about 4-6 years of juvenile phase with 60 years of productive life.

Cashewnut is an important delicious and dollar earning cash crop of India. This crop was remained neglected due to its poor yield potential and prolonged harvesting season. Cashew was introduced mostly for soil conservation purposes. In the beginning of the 20^th century cashew kernels gained importance in the international trade as edible nut and the crop began to be considered as having commercial value. Cashew is commercially grown for its kernels although cashewnut shell liquid (CNSL) and apples are also valuable by - products. It is considered to be the most important edible nut in the world trade (Ascenso, 1986). India is the largest producer and exporter of cashewnut in the world. Cashew kernel is the rich source of protein, carbohydrate, unsaturated fats and minerals like calcium, phosphorus and iron. Cashew proteins are complete with all essential amino acids. Fats of cashewnut are considered as complete, attractive, easily digestible and non fattening, it can be used by both olds and infants. The cashew apple juice is rich in vitamin C and it has some medicinal properties.

Pineapple is one of the most important commercial fruits of the world. It is good source of vitamin A, B and fairly rich in vitamin C, minerals like calcium phosphorus and iron. Fresh fruit of pineapple is used as dissert fruit in the form of slices. Fruit is also used for juice, squash, jam, mixed jam and in canned form, fruit cone is used for preparing candy. Some cultivars of pineapple are used for extraction of fibre. The important states of pineapple growing are Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh (Bal, 1997).

Bael is one of the oldest and nutritional fruits of India (John and Stevenson, 1979). The tree is very hardy and thrives in almost all types of soil and climate. The ripe fruits of bael are rich in protein, fat, minerals, riboflavin, carotene, thiamine, niacin and vitamin C. The ripe fruit is lucrative while unripe fruit is prescribed for diarrhoea and dysentery (Mitra 1999, Roy, 1996, Singh and Ali, 1992, Singh, 2000). The marmelos in is most probably the therapeutically active principle of bael fruits.

18.1.1 Centre of diversity

The Bael tree has its origin from Eastern Ghats and central India. Its indigenous to Indian subcontinent and mainly found in tropical and subtropical regions. Even though it is native to India, it is found throughout Southeast Asia (Neeraj et al., 2017). The tree is also found as a wild tree, in lower ranges of Himalayas up to an elevation of 500 meters. Bael is also found growing along foothills of Himalayas, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and the Deccan Plateau and along the east coast (Sharma et al., 2007).

Apple (Malus x domestica Borkh) is the most widely grown temperate fruit of the world considered as king of temperate fruit. It is one of the most delicious fruit rich in carbohydrates, minerals like calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, vitamin B6 and low in calories. Apples are extremely rich in important antioxidants, flavanoids, and dietary fiber. Apple is recommended to reduce the incidence of dental caries, and the phytonutrients and antioxidants may help reduce the risk of developing cancer, hypertension, diabetes and heart disease. Apple is chiefly used as table fruit. The various processed product like juices, jelly, preserve, canned slices, wine, concentrated juice, cider and powder are prepared from apple fruit.

Growing fruits can be fun, delightful experience and a challenging hobby. There are several good reasons to grow fruits. Fruits add beautiful colour and variety to your garden. Large amounts of fruit can be grown in a relatively small area.Store-bought fruits are often picked, shipped, and sold before they are fully ripened and generally stock selections that look prettiest but are not necessarily the best tasting. In addition, fresh garden fruits are a good source of vitamins; minerals, carbohydrates, fibre (Table 1) and will provide your family with flavorful, delicious and nutritious food. As an added bonus, the fruits you grow will taste much better than the fruits you find in the grocery store. Establishment of an orchard are a long term investment and require critical planning, selection of proper location and site, planting system and planting distance, varieties and the nursery plants to ensure maximum production.

Even if you have limited space, you can still enjoy growing fresh fruits in your garden by growing fruit plants in containers. You can grow any fruit tree in a container for a few years and then transplant it. You can also choose a dwarf variety, which is well suited to living in a container. If you carefully choose the kind and varieties of a fruit before you plant, you can harvest dessert-quality fruit from early summer through the fall. Many fruit plants are aesthetically pleasing and are good for “edible landscaping.” Some fruits, such as apple, citrus, blueberries and figs, make outstanding ornamental plants. Some people find a natural setting with plants placed throughout the landscape most aesthetically pleasing. But this makes maintenance more challenging.

The damage due to frost in fruit crops has been a problem for farmers since starting from their cultivation. Damage caused by frost is a worldwide problem because if all aspects of crop production are well managed, one night of freezing temperatures can lead to complete crop loss. According to Bagdonaset al. (1978) frost periods in temperate regions are shorter in duration and occur more frequently whereas in subtropical climates it is occurs with slow moving cold air masses. In tropical regions, there is usually no or very less freezing damage except at higher elevations. In subtropical fruits crops, damages occurs mainly during the winter, whereas in deciduous fruit and nut trees, it occur mainly in spring, but sometimes it occurs in autumn as well. The region prone to frost should adjust the date of planting of crop, microclimate, variety and other preventive measure. According to Attaway (1997) in South Carolina, northern Florida and Georgia, orange fruit were commonly grown before 1835, but losses due to frost damage, farmers did not prefer to grow oranges in that regions. The history of frost damage is more sporadic in nature leading to some major losses from time to time. In December 1990 and 1998

Californiacitrus industry suffered two major damaging events of frost which ranged from little damage in some regions to severe damage in the other region. The economic losses to fruit crops were high in the frost occurring in 1990 compare to frost in 1998.

In nature, plantspecies flowers produce fruits and seeds and the primary objective is to reproduce them. Plant species those are unable to produce viable seeds, reproduce themselves by other means. With a common of these processes they vary in various aspects of flowering and fruiting. The variations may be due to their different growing habits, requirement of different environments, differences in their basic nature etc. Here we are going to discuss different types of bearing habits do exists in fruit crops.

Growth Habit

Growth is quantitative irreversible increase in the existing size of say plant or a shoot or simply a leaf etc. Fruit crops can be classified on the basis of their growth habits in two major classes. One is evergreen and second is deciduous. Evergreens include those plants which bear their leaves throughout the year. Examples are mango, litchi, guava and orange. Whereas, deciduous trees shed their leaves during a part of year (when weather is adverse i.e. during winter). Mostly temperate fruits belong to this category. The presence or absence of leaves makes very big difference in their physiology, their bearing season and pattern etc. These two categories also make a basic group to study them separately with respect to many aspects viz. source and sink relationships, pruning etc.

Growth is the fundamental property of all living organisms. It is an irreversible permanent increase in size, volume or mass of a cell or organ or whole organism accompanied by an increase in dry weight. Where, development is sum total of growth and differentiation. It is governed by both environmental and internal factors. The development of a plant is highly complex phenomena (Table 1).

In the words of Leonardo the vinci, “water is the driver of life”. It is said to be the liquid of life or elixir of life. Water availability is essential to consider as commercial orchards must have reliability of supply and cannot produce optimum yields without irrigation. Water management is one of the largest and most important inputs into an orchard. The single environmental component which determines the type of fruit plants to be selected for a specific ecological situation is the moisture status of the region. Different fruit plants preferring diverse moisture status have wide peculiarity in their anatomical and morphological structures as well as various modifications in their water absorbing organs. They are also seen to have varied capabilities to acquire and utilize water efficiently. In the plant system, the rate of dry matter production has a definite relation with the rate of transpirational loss of water and this transpiration ration is calculated on the basis of unit of water required to produce unit of drymatter. However, while calculating the water requirement of fruit plants, a number of factors, in addition to water use efficiency, are taken in to consideration. Naturally water requirement of a particular fruit plants varies with the agro-ecological condition of different places. Moreover the same cannot be equal in an established orchard and a newly planted one. In established orchard, the trees are grown in community where improved water use efficiency lower down the water requirement of the trees.

Water is one of the most important and critical input for agricultural production system. The demand for food grains is increasing day by day due to increasing population. The irrigated agriculture provides the crop water productivity of about 2.5 tonnes per hectare and the overall irrigation efficiency is only about 30%, which is below the world average level. In the above scenario it is necessary to have the irrigation system in which both the crop water productivity and irrigation efficiency increases considerably. Micro irrigation has become the most viable and efficient technology in such a situation. It provides several advantages in the context of crop agronomy, water and energy conservation. Micro irrigation has the potential to achieve the crop water productivity to a desired level of 4 tonnes per hectare and simultaneously maintain the irrigation efficiency above 80%. The total coverage of micro irrigation in the tenth plan is only about 2 million hectare. The task force on micro irrigation (2004) has indicated a potential of 69 million hectare for our country. So there is a tremendous potential available and the coverage of micro irrigation has to be increased to cover more crop and more new areas.

Introduction

Fruits play a vital role in improving human health which are called as protective foods rich in vitamins, minerals, fats, oils, proteins and improves in economy of producers, exporters and industrialists. Fruit crops can be classified into two broad categories i.e. ever green and deciduous trees.

1. Evergreen fruit trees grow under tropical and subtropical climate and they are not dependent on chilling requirement for floral bud differentiation and flowering. Ex: Mango, Citrus, Guava, Sapota, Papaya etc.,
2. Deciduous fruit trees require dormancy during winter season and chilling units for floral initiation and have specialized modifications to protect sensitive growing tissue from unfavourable conditions. Ex: Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Apricot, Cherry, Grapevine, Walnut, Almonds etc.,