eChapters

Introduction

India’s policy in agriculture sector began in 1950 with a conscious effort to meet out the food needs of Indian population in view of famines but later on shifted to develop the agriculture education and research system for enhancing the productivity of staple crops and develop competent human resource to build skilled man power to strengthen agriculture and solve the problem of food & nutritional security at the nation level (1960,s to 1990,s) to the solution of global problems in agriculture through global solutions (2000,s onward) by forging the regional and global international corporation at different levels.

The closing years of the second decade of 21st century brought one of the most remarkable transitions in the international cooperation for strengthening the agriculture research and education in the history of agriculture in India. In most of the world the transition from a resource-based to a science-based system of agriculture is occurring within a single century.

Science, Technology and Skill Development in 21st Century

In the twenty first century, science and technology are viewed as the drivers of Indian economic growth; and agricultural R&D is expected to play a significant role in the process. Agriculture research and development is being affected by research and development at international level.

1.1 Introduction

Water scarcity is seen as a major constraint to intensify agriculture in a sustainable manner as an attempt to meet the food requirements of a rapidly growing human population. The ever-increasing human population, climate change due to increased emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and intensification of agriculture, are putting severe pressure on the world’s two major non-renewable resources of soil and water, and thus pose a big challenge to produce sufficient food to meet the current food demand. The present world population of 7.3 billion people is predicted to grow to over 9 billion by 2050, with the majority of this population increase occurring in developing countries, most of which already face food shortages. A 70% increase in current agricultural productivity will be required to produce sufficient food if these human population growth predictions prove to be correct. In this context, concerted efforts are being made globally to improve the effectiveness of water which will be used for enhancing the production of irrigated crops. Additionally, efforts are also being made to improve water harvesting and water conservation in rain-fed agriculture.

The injudicious use of saline/brackish water is all too often associated with the development of soil salinity, sodicity, ion toxicity, and groundwater pollution. Because of these negative effects, it is important to have a better understanding of exactly how the quality of water influences the management of irrigated agriculture, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.

6.1 Introduction

Water deficit stress is a serious and frequently encountered abiotic stress in the terrestrial surface. Its deleterious effects on plant growth and productivity are well documented. Plant responses to water stress are believed to be complex as these operate at various levels of plant organization. Several in built physiological and biochemical mechanisms provide resistance to plants against stress. An understanding of the processes linked to these mechanisms is vital for optimizing crop growth and productivity under stress. Plants respond and adapt to water stress by altering cellular metabolism, thus invoking stress tolerance. Alteration in endogenous concentrations of growth regulators along with accumulation of osmolytes, modifications in antioxidant cascade, changes in protein profiles and induction of gene expression in plants under stress are important characteristic metabolic changes that invoke stress tolerance at the cellular level. Alteration in endogenous concentrations of plant bio-regulators under stress helps plants through better turgor maintenance and efficient water usage by influencing stomatal functioning, hydraulic conductivity and morphological adaptation. Progress made in plant adaptation to water stress is an outcome of advances made in analytical techniques on endogenous growth regulator analysis and powerful and reliable molecular and genetic techniques.

7.1 Introduction

Water is one of the most essential natural resources of the planet. Water is also the most critical resource for sustainable development in most of the developing countries. The quantities that are needed for drinking and sanitation purpose of humans are relatively small, and much larger quantities of water are required for many other purposes. It is essential not only for agriculture, industry and economic growth of a country, but also it is the most important component of the environment and ecosystem, with significant impact on overall wealth and nature conservation. Agricultural and industrial activities critically depend on a sufficient amount of fresh water that is withdrawn from rivers, lakes and groundwater aquifers. Currently, the rapid growth of world population along with the extension of irrigation dependent agriculture, development of industrial sector and climate change are stressing the quantity and quality of the natural water systems. Due to the increasing problems, human have begun to realize that they can no longer follow “use and discard” methodology either with water resources or any other natural resources. As a result, the need for water management has become evident. Climate change has already started to affect the hydrological cycle and the availability of freshwater for agriculture. So, proper water management practices play crucial roles in the food production and the management of ecosystems. Over the last century global irrigated area has increased more than sixfold from approximately 40 million hectares in 1900 to more than 260 million hectares in 2000. Today more than 40% of the world’s food comes from the irrigated cropland which is 18% of the total cultivated crop land. Irrigated area is increased by almost 1% every year and the demand for irrigation water will increase by 13.6% by 2025 (Jensen, 1993). On the other hand about 8-15% of fresh water supply will be diverted from agricultural sector to meet the increased demand of domestic and industrial use. On the other hand the efficiency of irrigation is very low, only 65% of the applied water is used by the crop (Fig. 1). So, to overcome shortage of irrigation water for agriculture, it is essential to increase the water use efficiency in the crop field and to use marginal water for irrigation.

Introduction

Soil is a silent foundation and a dynamic part of Earth’s complex ecosystem. It sustains life, influences plant growth and is involved in various environmental processes. However, the balance of this vital resource is increasingly threatened by the pervasive effects of climate change, manifested by rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and changes in atmospheric conditions. As global temperatures rise and weather patterns change, the relationship between soil and climate poses transformative challenges with far-reaching consequences. This research addresses the complexity of this interaction and examines how climate change affects agriculture, soil health, composition and functionality. Soil health, a holistic concept that includes physical, chemical and biological aspects of soils, is closely linked to climate change. A notable consequence of climate change is the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. These events disrupt the delicate balance of soil ecosystems and lead to erosion, loss of topsoil and reduced fertility. Additionally, increased temperatures contribute to soil moisture depletion, reducing water availability for plants and microorganisms and further compromising soil health. A central issue at the interface between soil science and climate change is the role of soil as a carbon sink. Soils store large amounts of carbon in the form of organic material, thereby influencing the environment.

Introduction

The world’s food and nutritional security are under serious threat from climate change. Climate changes have significant effects on agriculture by affecting insect pests, their natural enemies, and pollinators as illustrated in Fig 1 (Eigenbrode and Adhikari, 2023). According to Benedict (2003), 13.6% of annual crop loss worldwide is attributed to insect pest attack. Crops, crop pests, natural enemies and pollinators are directly and indirectly impacted by erratic climate. The continuous and anticipated alterations in these insects vary across species, systems, and geographical areas, impeding the development of strong generalizations and forecasts. Moreover, the implementation of “climate-smart” agricultural methods, may have additional effects on ideal management of these insects.

Direct effects on insect pests

Temperature: The most reliable, well-researched, and easily modelled component of climate change is warming. Warming affects physiology, phenology, dispersal, reproduction, development, and survival of insect pests (Bale et al., 2002) as illustrated in Fig 2 (Skendži? et al., 2021). It can be inferred that increased herbivory would be associated with rising temperatures in many cases. High temperature and high humidity are key reasons for whitefly population increase (Pathania et al., 2020). Warming can alter the number of insect generations in Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in China (Huang and Hao, 2020).

In this chapter, the importance of seafood in terms of their nutrition, and different methods of processing are dealt. Seafood quality and safety terminologies are explained briefly. The quality parameters affected by rigor mortis in raw, iced and cooked fish are given. Phenomenon of gaping described with reference to rigor mortis. Quality dimension of seafood is explained with intrinsic and extrinsic parameters. Various intrinsic factors affecting seafood quality such as f ish species, seasonal changes, parasite infestation and capture conditions are discussed in detail. The next part elucidates the sensory parameters affecting the seafood quality describing the objective and subjective method of quality assessments. Objective method covers both descriptive and discriminative tests. The final part mentions the Codex guidelines available for the conduction of seafood sensory assessment. At the end, the reader gains the knowledge on the basic information about seafood, role of rigor mortis in affecting seafood quality and the sensory quality assessment methods.

Objective

To learn the nutritional importance of seafood and their processing; rigor mortis and their role in seafood quality, intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting seafood quality and sensory quality assessment methods.

1.1. Importance of Seafood

Seafood has been traditionally a part of diet in many parts of the world. In some countries like India, it constitutes the main supply of animal protein among coastal population. Seafood is a low-calorie food and easily digestible compared to other protein-rich meat and poultry products and hence, it is a good choice for elderly persons to obtain their daily protein requirements. Seafood has high-quality quality enriched with all the essential amino acids required for human health. It provides about 1/3rd of the average recommended daily allowance (RDA) of protein.

Introduction

This chapter is intended to throw light on some statistical and econometric methods used for analysing time series data with specific emphasis on basic concepts related to time series analysis, co-integration techniques as well as forecasting techniques such as ARIMA model. Time series analysis is often helpful in revealing the broad patterns associated with longitudinal data, which in turn would aid in important economic and policy decisions. In fisheries sector too, economic variables such as market demand and supply, prices, etc. are of prime importance and often come in longitudinal format. There are a number of alternative methodologies available in the time series literature to determine relevant parameters pertaining to longitudinal data and the ensuing sections are set apart to delve deeper into this realm.

Some Key Concepts

Stationary Stochastic Process

A random or stochastic process is a collection of random variables ordered in time. A stochastic process is said to be stationary if its mean and variance are constant over time and the value of covariance between two time periods depend only on the distance or the gap between the two time periods and not the actual time at which the covariance is computed. In the time series literature, such a stochastic process is known as a weekly stationary or second order stationarity or covariance stationarity.

Setting

The basic difference which dovetails most of the animal breeding experiments is the unbalancedness of the data collated with respect to factorial classes thereby making non-orthogonal nature of the effects involved ubiquitous. Henderson, C.R. (1953), through a series of seminal works dealt with these types of data and came out with three distinct methods to estimate the variance components emanating out of such non-orthogonal animal experiment data. Before discussing those methods, let us delve a bit on the challenges in estimating the variance components in animal breeding data. There are two major reasons, first, several methods of estimation are available (most of which are reduced to the analysis of variance method for balanced data), but not one of them has yet been clearly established as superior to the others. Second, all the methods involve relatively cumbersome algebra; discussion of unbalanced data can therefore easily deteriorate into a welter of symbols, a situation which functions as the anti-appetizer to applied researchers.

A safe starting point towards understanding the nuances of dealing with unbalanced data could be the paper by Henderson (1953) which is quite seminal in nature. The methods described have been often referred to as the gold standard in the area of estimating variance components from unbalanced data for many years to come. Of the three, method 1 is simply an analogue of the analysis of variance method used with balanced data and method 2 is used to correct a deficiency of method 1 that arises out of mixed models and the last one is quite different and involves the method of fitting constants so often used in fixed effects models. Let us see these methods in a bit more detail in the ensuing passages.

Introduction

Regression analysis is one of the most widely used techniques for studying relationships involving multiple variables for analysing data by expressing a relationship between a variable of interest (the response) and a set of related predictor variables. The regression models include linear and non linear approaches assuming appropriate functional forms. A good account on regression analysis and related topics can be found in Draper and Smith (1998), Montgomery et al. (2001), Chatterjee and Hadi (2006) etc. In this write-up, regression model fitting, some of the detection techniques which are useful in detecting the problem of multicollinearity between the so-called ‘independent variables’ and also outlier detection in data are discussed. Linear regression with qualitative regressor variables is also discussed. Moreover, variable selection procedures, goodness of fit measures for model adequacy and validation are also discussed. In addition, non-linear regressions viz., logistic (both binary and multinomial) when the response variable is qualitative are also covered.

Multiple Linear Regression Modeling

Let the response variable (variable to be forecasted) be denoted by Y and the set of predictor variables, by X1 , X2 , …, Xp , where p denotes the number of predictor variables. The true relationship between Y and (X1 , X2 ,…,Xp ) can be approximated by a multiple linear regression model given by

Introduction

Trout farming is considered as one of the oldest forms of commercial fish production and dates back to 400 years in Europe and about 150 years in US (Hinshaw, 1990). In India, the upper Himalayan region and Western Ghats are the areas where trout culture and farming are restricted due to suitable climatic conditions. The UT of J&K, especially Kashmir region plays a major role towards trout culture, thus being major contributor of trout as well. In Kashmir, the introduction of trout started in the year 1899 with the arrival of first batch of Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario) ova of 10,000 eyed eggs from England (UK). This introduction of trout eggs to Kashmir was assisted by the Duke of Bedford. Woefully, this batch of 10,000 eggs expired on the way due to the unavailability of air transport. Then, the second batch of trout ova arrived in the year 1900 in a magnificent condition from Howeiton in Scotland, assisted by Mr. J.S. Macdonall consisting of 1800 fry. Out of these 1000 swim-up fry were successfully reared up to the adulthood and the first spawning or eggtaking of Salmo trutta fario, was done in December 1905 at Harwan near Srinagar (Kashmir) by F. J. Mitchell and rest of 800 fry were reared at his personal residence in Bhag - i - Dilawar Khan in the heart of city near Khankah-i-Moula. In 1905-1906, Mitchell succeeded in establishing a regular Trout Hatchery at Harwan Srinagar Kashmir, having a capacity of 100,000 green eggs. Since then brown trout has established itself throughout the Kashmir and parts of Jammu notably in Baderwah and Poonch providing f ly and spoon fishing year after year to thousands of anglers visiting the state.It was from Kashmir that brown trout spread to other sections of the Himalayas. In 1912, Mitchell succeeded in hatching and rearing rainbow trout eggs from a consignment presented to him by the Bristol Water Works England. Today J&K Fisheries Department has achieved remarkable success in trout culture (Hassan and Pandey 2012). In the year 1984, Trout Fish Farming Project was established at Kokernag under cold water fisheries by the assistance of European Economic Community, serving as mother unit for the production of quality seed of Rainbow trout and Brown trout.This project provided a major thrust to the trout fisheries in the UT of J&K from last two decades.Besides this, there is another trout hatchery at Laribal Srinagar where quality trout seed of rainbow trout and brown trout is being produced (Hassan and Pandey 2012).

Fisheries: A glance

The fisheries sector is a complex enterprise that includes capture and culture based fisheries, including mariculture, coastal aquaculture, freshwater aquaculture, and cold-water fish culture that contribute to the country’s food, health, economy, exports, employment, and tourism. Fisheries and aquaculture continue to provide millions of people with food, nutrition, revenue, and a means of subsistence. Fish is an inexpensive and high-quality source of animal protein, making it an excellent choice for reducing hunger and malnutrition in the country. In 2020, global aquaculture production reached a new high of 122.6 million tonnes, including 87.5 million tonnes of aquatic animals valued at USD 264.8 billion. Inland aquaculture produced 54.4 million tonnes, while marine and coastal aquaculture made 68.1 million tonnes. Over time, the Indian fishing industry evolved and became a significant socioeconomic asset for the country (FAO, SOFIA, 2022) India is the world’s third-largest producer of fish and aquaculture, accounting around 16% of total inland and 5% of total marine fish production. In 2021 22. The overall marine and inland fish production in India was 162. 48 lakh tonnes, with 121.21 lakh tonnes and 41.27 lakh tonnes coming from the inland and marine sectors, respectively. The fishing industry is vital to the national economy and is a major contributor to the country’s foreign exchange gains. India’s fish production has risen from 56.56 lakh tonnes in 2000-01 to 162.48 lakh tonnes in 2021-22.The majority of fish produced is for human consumption, and this proportion is predicted to increase from 89% in the base year (2016-18) to 91% by 2028 (OECD/FAO, 2019). In 2021-22, frozen f ish, cuttlefish, and squid contributed 6%, 3%, and 5% of total marine product export value, respectively.

Introduction

Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics are interrelated terms. Probiotic is discussed in detail in previous chapter. In this chapter, prebiotics and its effect on gut along with probiotics are emphasized. Prebiotics can be defined as non digestible food ingredients that stimulate the growth and/or activity of bacteria in the digestive system in ways claimed to be beneficial to health. They were f irst identified and named by Marcel Roberfroid in 1995. He defined prebiotic as a selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes, both in the composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora that confers benefits upon host well-being and health. Further, FAO defined prebiotic as “a non-viable food component that confers a health benefit on the host associated with modulation of the microbiota.”Whereas the term synbiotics refers to a product that contains both probiotics and prebiotics in the form of synergism. A synbiotic has been defined as “a mixture of prebiotics and probiotics that beneficially affect the host by improving the survival and implantation of live microbial dietary supplements in the gastrointestinal tract, by selectively stimulating the growth and activating the metabolism of one or a limited number of health promoting bacteria, and thus improving host welfare”. As described above, the combined use of prebiotics and probiotics is often described as synbiotic, but the United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO) recommends that the term “synbiotic” be used only if the net health benefit is synergistic.

Introduction

Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food- the age-old quote by Hippocrates, is certainly the tenet of today. Microbial cultures have been used for millenniums in food and alcoholic fermentations and in the past century have undergone scientific scrutiny for their ability to prevent and cure a variety of diseases. Later it became popular in improving human and farm animal nutritive values and recently in aquaculture also. The growing interest in the understanding the role of food in human health has moved from its primary role as a source of energy to the subtle action of biologically active food components on human health. Henceforth functional foods or nutraceuticals are of great demand in present time. The growing scientific evidence suggests that the food supplements containing beneficial bacteria can provide an array of benefits to the host. Now a day’s probiotic fermented foods are in great demand due to the awareness of beneficial aspects of probiotics among people. Several industries focused on the improvement of conventional fermented foods scientifically in order to fetch good market for their products. Particularly, animal feed companies and researchers have been looking for alternative products and strategies that can help to maintain animal gut health in order to prevent or reduce the prevalence of pathogens in the food chain. After understanding the mechanism and beneficial aspects of probiotics in detail at molecular level in earlier chapters, now it is relevant to discuss the applied part of probiotics. In this chapter, commercial importance of probiotics and probiotics derived products at industrial level are emphasized.

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy derivatives of aldehydes or ketones and undergo all the organic reactions common to the carbonyl groups and hydroxyl groups. The principal milk carbohydrate is lactose. It is a disaccharide. Hydrolysis of lactose with enzyme β-galactosidase yields glucose and galactose.

Lactose is the major carbohydrate present in all types of milk. The first record of isolation of lactose was in 1663, by Bartolettus by evaporation of whey. Milk contains only trace amounts of other sugars, including glucose, fructose, glucosamine, galactosamine, neuraminic acid, and neutral and acidic oligosaccharides.

Lactose plays a significant role in milk and milk products that are

• It plays a major role in the production of fermented dairy products.

• It contributes to the nutritive value of milk and milk products

• It affects the texture of certain concentrated and frozen products;

• It is involved in heat-induced changes in the color and flavor of highly heated milk products.

Status of Lactose

Lactose content varies extensively in the milk of different species. Breed of animal, individuality factors, udder infection, and especially the stage of lactation regulates the lactose content in milk. The lactose concentration in milk decreases gradually and significantly during lactation; this behavior contrasts with the lactational trends for lipids and proteins, which, after a decrease during early lactation, increase significantly during the second half of lactation. Lactose synthesis is hampered during mastitis. Lactose, along with sodium, potassium, and chloride ions, plays the principal role in controlling the osmotic pressure of the mammary system. Thus, any change in lactose content is compensated by a change in the soluble salt constituents. The osmotic relationship between lactose and soluble salts during the secretion of milk partly explains the presence of high lactose in milk with a reduced ash content and vice versa (Table 1).

Being an essential component of the rich Indian past, traditional dairy products and a sophisticated classification of confections have played a significant role in the Indian economy. Depending on how it is processed, it has significant social, cultural, and economic significance. These products have been developed over a long period using a combination of experience, traditional wisdom, and culinary skills. India is emerging as the highest milk- producing country in the world with an annual production of 221.1 million tons in the year 2021–22 (Source: Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, MoFAHD, DAHD, GoI). An estimated 50% of the milk produced in India is used to make a range of traditional dairy products, including paneer, dahi, ghee, khoa, and shrikhand. The product is not only well- established in the Indian market, but it also has significant export potential due to the large Indian diaspora living all over the world.

All native milk products that have developed over time using locally accessible technologies are referred to as traditional Indian dairy products or Indian indigenous milk products. The Indian masses’ economic, social, religious, and nutritional well- being are greatly influenced by traditional dairy products.

Classification of Traditional Indian Dairy Products

Traditional dairy products in India are typically made, packaged, and/or sold using time- honored methods without the use of machinery or meticulous documentation of the procedure. These products do, however, have several technological advantages, including their widespread appeal, reduced cost of production, straightforward manufacturing process, adoption at the rural level or collection center, large profit margin, and abundance of employment opportunities. These products are categorized according to the manufacturing principle.

Vitamins are naturally occurring, vital nutrients that are needed in small amounts. They are important for bone and tissue health, wound healing, growth and development, immune system function, and other biological processes. These vital organic substances serve a variety of biochemical purposes. Vitamins, like minerals, are not biosynthesized by the body. Consequently, in order to maintain our health, we must obtain them from the food we eat or, in rare circumstances, supplements.

Vitamins in Milk

Together with water- soluble vitamins like vitamin C and B complex and provitamins, milk also contains a variety of fat- soluble vitamins like A, D, E, and K. Some of these vitamins do, however, have very low concentrations.

Vitamin A (Retinol)

Plant foods contain carotenoids, which are the precursors of vitamin A, whereas animal foods provide preformed vitamin A in the form of retinyl esters.

A key challenge for the years to come is feeding a rapidly growing human population while lowering the impact of food production on the environment. This is particularly true for low and middle-income countries where the demand for animal protein is likely to rise and further increase several folds in existing environmental changes (e.g., droughts, floods, extensive wildfires) have in recent years led to major food crises. To achieve these goals, food production not only needs to be increased, but most of all, good husbandry practices must be followed to reduce its negative impacts on the environment. Several studies have suggested that shifting the human diet towards increased consumption of f ish and seafood could be a solution to the need for protein that would sustain human and environmental health. In fact, fish and seafood consumption is forecast to increase by 27% on the horizon of 2030, mostly sustained by the aquaculture sector, which is expected to grow by 62% during the same period. The aquaculture industry contributes significantly to livelihood, food security, and poverty alleviation, with over 100 million people estimated to rely on aquaculture for their living. Fish is a cheap source of animal protein, and the current per capita consumption of fish in India is around 9 kg per annum, which is compared to the 11 kg recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Presently, the contribution of the fisheries sector to the gross domestic product (GDP) and agriculture GDP has been estimated to be 1.2 and 4.2%, respectively.

Clinical Symptoms

• Gasping for air

• Discoloured gills with trapped materials

• Swollen gills with enhanced mucous secretion

• White to grey spots on the gills

• Diseased fish gather near the outlet of the pond

• Fish become lethargic and remain on the surface waters

Causative Agent: Flavobacterium branchiophilum, Cytophaga spp., Flexibacter spp.

Host (Common sp.)

• Goldfish • Koi carp

• Cichlids • Fighter fish

• Gourami fish

Lipids are a class of organic compounds composed of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and oxygen (O) atoms. These classes of biomolecules come together to create the fundamental building blocks that shape and govern the structure and functionality of living cells. The term lipid was used by the German biochemist Wilhem Bloor in 1943. Lipids are heterogeneous groups of substances that are insoluble in polar (water) and soluble in non-polar (ether, benzene, and chloroform) solvents. Lipids are the esters of fatty acids and their derivatives. Lipids play a crucial role in both the plant and animal domains. They are widely distributed in plants, but lipids are primarily stored in animal adipose tissues.

Classification of lipids

Lipids are classified into four different groups, as shown below:

1. Simple lipids

2. Complex lipids

3. Derived lipids and

4. Miscellaneous lipids

Amino acids are organic molecules made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). However, sulfur (S) and selenium (Se) are also found in some cases. Amino acids are essential organic compounds that come together to create proteins, thus making them the fundamental building blocks of proteins. These biomolecules play vital roles in various biological and chemical processes within the human body and are essential for the growth and development of an individual.

Amino acids consist of an acidic group (-COOH), a basic group (-NH2 ), and a side chain (R) or a hydrogen (H) atom, all bonded to the carbon atom. The features of amino acids are due to the side chain because they differ only in their side chain. All amino acids have the same basic structure except proline, which has a cyclic structure.

Various forms of amino acids like alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ) or delta (σ) form are found. The position of the amino group (-NH2 ) determines the form of the amino acid, i.e., if the NH2 group is attached to the α-carbon, it is called α-amino acid; if β-carbon, it is called β-amino acid, and so on. Mostly, α-Amino acids are found as the numbering of amino acids is done from the carboxylic group (-COOH).

Nucleic acids are complex, chain-like polymers consisting of nucleotides as their monomers. Due to this characteristic, they are often referred to as polynucleotides. The largest molecules present in the biological system are nucleic acids. The two main types of nucleic acids are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). The bulk of DNA is confined to the nucleus and some cell organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast. RNA is found in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. In 1869, Johannes Friedrich Miescher isolated a substance from the nuclei of the pus cell (leukocytes). The extracted material was named nuclein, which contained an unusually large amount of phosphorus; in addition to proteins, and devoid of sulfur. Richard Altman later named the nuclein as nucleic acid. These organic molecules are found in living cells and play a crucial role in transmitting genetic information from one generation to another.

Nucleotides

Nucleotides serve as the fundamental constituents of nucleic acids. Nucleotides have flat planar and heterocyclic origin. Nucleotides are small molecules composed of three components:

1. Nitrogenous base,

2. Pentose sugar and

3. Phosphate group.

Ultrasound is important tool for diagnosis and research that can be compared with other tools like radio-immunoassays. This has become an important tool applicable to farm and pet animals. Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images of soft tissues and internal organs. Electric current is applied to crystals in the transducer, producing vibrations characteristic of the crystals and resulting in sound waves. The sound beams that pass through the tissues are quite thin and a thin “slice” of tissue is sampled. The two dimensional image produced by ultrasound resemble to histological section. The sound waves are propagated or reflected by various tissues in different ways depending on their thickness and composition. The transducer receives those reflections and converts into electric signals and produces an echo on the ultrasound screen. Grey - scale is the term used for monochrome monitors on which a number of grey shades are distinguishable between black and white and constitute the image of reflected portion of tissue. Non-ecogenic (non echoic) tissues like fluids do not reflect sound waves and appear black on the screen. The echogenic tissues, having dense consistency, appear white as they reflect most portion of sound beam. Sometimes the artifacts create problem in the real image of the organ. These artifacts are created by certain tissues that cause bending or back and forth bouncing or blocking of sound beams. For imaging the reproductive tract of the domestic animals, B-mode (brightness modality), real time scanners are used. The amplitude of returning beams is reflected in the brightness of the dots on the screen. B-mode modulates brightness of the dots or pixels on the screen of echo displayer. The echo signals are presented as brightness of pixel corresponding to the amplitude of signal. The picture should be adjusted for clear display. In B-mode display the time-base brightness should be reduced just below the threshold of visibility so that even the smallest echoes could be visible.

Body Segmentation

In general, insect body is divided in to a series of segments, which in primitive arthropods are known as “somites” or “metameres”. During the process of evolution, these somites gets fused with each other in different ways forming the body parts of the existing arthropods. The type of arrangement of these body segments in embryonic stage is known as primary segmentation while in adult insects is known as the secondary segmentation which differ from primary in having a sclerotized membranous intersegmental region.

In adult and nymphal insects, and hexapods in general, one of the most striking external features is the amalgamation of segments into functional units. This process of tagmosis has given rise to the familiar tagmata (regions) of head, thorax, and abdomen. In this process the 20 original segments have been divided into an embryologically detectable six-segmented head, three-segmented thorax, and 11-segmented abdomen (plus primitively the telson), although varying degrees of fusion mean that the full complement is never visible.

Types of body segmentation.

(a) Primary segmentation, as seen in soft-bodied larvae of some insects. (b) Simple secondary segmentation. (c) More derived secondary segmentation. (d) Longitudinal section of dorsum of the thorax of winged insects, in which the acrotergites of the second and third segments have enlarged to become the postnota. (After Snodgrass 1935)

• It is the posterior most and largest region of the insect-body. It is The abdomen is the metabolic and reproductive centre, where digestion, excretion, and the sexual functions take place.

• All the definitive number of segments differentiate in embryo (Epimorphic condition) except protura (Anamorphosis)

• In general more segments are visible in more generalised hemimetabolus insects than in more specialised holometabolus insects. For example in Acridids all 11 segments are visible whereas in muscidae only 2-5 segments are visible

• The basic number of abdominal segments in insect is eleven plus a telson/ tail (Protura) which bears anus. Abdominal segments are called uromeres.

• The undivided tergel plates overlap the sternal ones and the membranous pleura are enclosed in between them.

• The posterior part of each segment overlaps the anterior part of the segment behind it and the two segments are joined by the inter-segmental membrane.

• There are eight pairs of abdominal spiracles. The first pair lies just in front of each tympanum and the other lie dorso-laterally on each of the tergites of the segment to eighth abdominal segments.

• The terga and sterna bear antecostal ridges. The internal dorsal and ventral longitudinal muscles run one antecostal ridge to the other and act as retractors. The contraction of these muscles helps the segments to be retracted. The external muscles originate from the posterior part of the segment and attach to the anterior part of the acrotergite of the next segment. Thus, protraction of these muscles help in the extension of abdomen. Hence, musculature running longitudinally between helps in the contraction and extension of the abdomen.

• The abdominal segments are conveniently divided into three subregions i.e. pregenital, genital and postgenital segments.

The sense organs in an insect body are distributed on different parts and respond to a given stimulus such as light, sound, touch, chemicals etc. The sense organs may be classified as • Visual organs (or) photoreceptors • Auditory organs (or) organs of hearing

• Chemoreceptors which respond to chemicals

• Tacticle receptors which respond to touch

• Gustatory receptors which respond to taste.

Photoreceptors

Light is perceived by insects through a number of different sense organs and these are the organs that react with light and useful for vision. These are of different types, but most important are the compound eyes.

Compound eyes

Introduction

• India is the second largest producer of fruits in the world after China

• India is rich in fruit diversity starting from tropical, subtropical to temperate region.

• Some of the fruits like Guava, pomegranate, lemon, mandarin etc., if left without any treatment, give several light harvests of the variable quantities and qualities from the various flowering flushes throughout the year.

• Some of the fruit crops bloom throughout the year without any resting period and produces two or three crops (bahar) in a year but yield and quality is not so good in all crop harvest. So, it is very essential to understand the flowering and fruiting behavior of crops and which bahar will give good crop with considering all the factors associated with a particular bahar.

7.1 What is crop regulation?

• Crop regulation means to force the tree for its rest and to produce blossom and fruits during any one of two or three flushes”

• Crops in which flowering is continuous throughout the year; economic yield cannot be achieved in any of the season.

• Therefore, by analyzing market demand flowering can be forced in particular one season, which gives the economic yield.

• Through various techniques like cultural practices and chemical treatments, trees are thrown to rest prior to flowering and then practices are done to trigger flowering.

• Thus, crop regulation is a method to regulate flowering by altering natural tendency of the tree by artificial means.

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture is a technology driven industry which relies a lot on research to develop species diversification in culture system as well as in the appropriate technology for commercial production. The rapid development of aquaculture in the world depends largely on the availability of fish feed; which are traditionally based on fish meal as the main protein source (Hardy & Tacon, 2002; Krishnankutty, 2005; Yigit et al., 2006) but the major challenge is its availability, quality and cost (Ghazala et al., 2011; Tabinda and Butt, 2012). In the aqua feed formulation, protein is the main but expensive ingredient and its quality and quantity in fish feeds formulation plays a vital role in promoting fish growth (Pandian, 2001). Dietary protein provides essential and non essential amino acids to synthesize body protein and energy for maintenance. According to fish species, fish size, dietary protein sources and environmental conditions protein requirements ranges from 300 to 550 g /kg (NRC 1993).

In India there is a significant development in fresh water aquaculture in last few decades contributing greatly to overall fish production of the country. The fresh water aquaculture is crossing the traditional boundary of concentration on farming of major carp and entered the arena of diversification to the culture of other species like catfishes. So far in India majority of research works were concentrated on development of commercial fish feed mainly for carps and shrimps. To fulfill the objectives of large scale culture of cat fishes and development as an economic proposition, it is necessary to take up induced breeding and larval rearing of commercially important catfishes in controlled conditions and develop easily adoptable package of practices of the same to cater to the needs of interested fish entrepreneurs. Among the catfishes, Clarias magur, an air breathing species and popularly known as ‘magur’ or ‘walking catfish’ is a high valued fish in the Indian subcontinent and fetches higher price than many other fishes including major carps and it is highly revered for its nutritious flesh which is therapeutic in nature, hence, better prospects are there for developing its culture (Hussain et al., 2016). Vishwanath (2010) reported that this species is very much popular in Bangladesh due to use as important part of the diet for children and lactating mothers and also prescribed as diet for the convalescent of the patients. This fish is highly regarded for food due to its high protein (15.0%), low fat (1.0%) and high iron content (710mg/100g tissue). Paul et al. (2015) in their studies on Indian catfish namely magur (Clarias batrachus) and singhi (Heteropneustes fossilis) for proximate composition and mineral content concluded that both the fishes are rich in protein, fat and minerals content irrespective of their size and season.

INTRODUCTION

The aquatic ecosystem is highly dependent on water quality and biodiversity. The water quality parameters play an important role in the biology and physiology of fish (Dhawan and Kaur, 2002). Fish communities are an important aspect of the aquatic ecosystem. Moreover, they also serve as an indicator of the quality of the aquatic ecosystem (Sharma et al., 2014). Ramsar Convention on wetlands in 1971, characterized wetlands as "Areas of Marsh, fen, peatland, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary with water that is static or flowing, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide should not exceed". At the surface, freshwater serves as a habitat for numerous species and comprises a substantial portion of Earth's biological diversity. Wetlands cover approximately 6.4% of the Earth's total surface area. Being a large biodiverse region, India accounts for 11.72% of the world's fish diversity and 40% of fish live in freshwater ecosystems (Kar et al., 2006, Balasubramanium, 2017). Fish are key species that determine the distribution and abundance of other organisms and have a significant impact on the ecosystem and are considered good indicators of water quality in the ecosystem (Moyle and Leidy, 1992). Assam, located in the northeastern region, possesses extensive and diverse freshwater resources, earning it recognition as one of the richest biodiversity sites in India. There are 2,500 species of fish in India; 930 of them live in fresh water and 1570 in the sea (Kar, 2003). The entire northeastern region, including Assam, has large and diverse freshwater resources and is considered one of the richest biodiversity hotspots of India. The NE region has unique topographic conditions and is blessed with large and varied water resources in the form of rivers (19,150 km); swimming pools (23,792ha); lakes and marshes (143,740 ha); ponds and mini-dams (40,808 ha) and shallow spawning systems paddy with fish farming systems (2780 ha) (Mahanta et al., 2003). This region of the country is very diverse in terms of fish. So far, 267 freshwater fish species belonging to 114 genera 38 families and 10 orders have been reported from the region (Mahanta et al., 2003). A total of 266 species belonging to 114 genera under 38 genera and 10 orders have been reported from the Northeast including Assam (Sen, 2010). A survey of the fish fauna of the Brahmaputra in Assam revealed 41 commercially important species (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Assam has 1,392 beels in over 100,000 hectares, which constitutes 61 percent of the state's lentic water supply. Water is one of the most important compounds in the ecosystem. Better water quality is characterized by its physical, chemical and biological characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

Heterotrophic organisms, such as zooplankton, use phytoplankton as food, regenerating nutrients through metabolic processes and transferring energy to higher trophic levels. Zooplankton are involved in the conversion of waste matter into animal food that may be consumed, in addition to helping to shift food from the primary to the secondary level. These species act as a bridge in the food chain, carrying energy from the primary producers, planktonic algae, to the larger predatory invertebrates and fish that eat them (Kumari et al., 2008). Macróplankton (200–2000 μm), microplankton (20–200 μm), nanoplankton (2–20 μm), picoplankton (0.2-2 μm), and femtoplankton (0.02 0.2 μm) are the different sizes of plankton (Kumar et al., 2023).

The sensitivity of zooplankton to alterations in aquatic environments is significant. Differences in species composition, abundance, and distribution of body size can be used to identify the consequences of environmental disturbances(Joshi & Joshi, 2011). A number of variables, including temperature, sunlight, ocean currents, and nutrition availability, affect plankton populations. They are vital to ecosystems because they support carbon cycling, global biodiversity, and the general health of the oceans (Cottenie et al., 2001). An evaluation of the pollution state heavily depends on the interaction between phytoplankton diversity and environmental conditions. The diversity of algae found in the Chlorophyceae family is a key sign of the quality of the water. The differences in water quality can be attributed to a combination of natural and human-caused factors. Owing to extensive human activity, anthropogenic inputs from various sources are typically the main variables influencing the water quality of the majority of rivers, lakes, estuaries, and seas, particularly those that are next to densely populated areas(Jeyaraj et al., 2016). Living things, including plants, plankton, animals, and bacteria, are known as bioindicators, and they are used to monitor the state of the environment's natural ecosystem. They are known across the world as aquatic pollution indicator species. Every organic entity in a biological system gives information about the state of its surroundings. For example, plankton responds quickly to changes in the environment and is a valuable biomarker for determining the quality of water as well as a sign of pollution. Plankton is the best indicator of the health of aquatic flora and serves as an early warning system(Wadjikar et al., 2017). An ecosystem that is in balance is one in which beneficial interactions occur between the environment and living organisms. Since water quality is essential to maintaining an environment in balance, it is evident that it plays a crucial role in this relationship(Jeyaraj et al., 2016).

INTRODUCTION

Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) represents the treasure trove of wisdom held by indigenous communities, often overlooked yet immensely valuable. Its impact spans various domains, notably aquaculture, where it has been pivotal. Local fisher communities, drawing from their indigenous knowledge, have been crucial in safeguarding wild fish genetics and improving aquaculture yields. Moreover, their Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) contributes multifaceted insights to fisheries and aquatic ecosystems science, underscoring the need to preserve and honor this invaluable heritage. Additionally, traditional indigenous systems like aub-anbars have historically demonstrated their effectiveness in practical applications such as passive cooling and water storage, further highlighting the relevance and efficacy of ITK.

Importance of ITK in Aquaculture

Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) is essential in aquaculture, providing valuable methods for pond preparation, water quality management, disease control, and post-harvest operations. These traditional practices, backed by scientific validation, can greatly improve fish production sustainability while being environmentally friendly. Moreover, modern biotechnological tools are increasingly used in aquaculture to enhance fish quality, disease resistance, growth rates, and genetic diversity. Additionally, the concept of intelligent fish farms, employing technologies like IoT and artificial intelligence, aims to optimize aquaculture processes for precise feeding, disease control, and harvesting, promoting green and sustainable practices. Combining ITK with modern biotechnology and intelligent technologies is crucial for advancing aquaculture practices towards efficiency, sustainability, and increased productivity.

INTRODUCTION

The aquaculture sector expands and environmental regulations become stricter, waste management has emerged as a significant responsibility for managers of aquaculture farms. Waste generated by aquaculture facilities usually comes in the form of either effluent or sludge. Effective management and disposal of wastewater in aquaculture are becoming progressively crucial due to the strict regulations concerning the discharge of waste into natural water systems. The worldwide expansion of aquaculture industries has led to a rise in adverse environmental effects due to the release of significant quantities of polluting effluents containing uneaten feed and fecal matter (Chávez Crooker and Obreque-Contreras, 2010) Efficient management of wastewater in aquaculture is crucial for fostering sustainable practices. A variety of innovative methods have been developed to treat aquaculture wastewater effectively. These encompass eco-sensitive systems such as aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic systems, along with biofilm technologies that exploit the mutual growth of algae and fungi to remove nutrients. Furthermore, the reuse of wastewater via oxidation ponds can both provide natural sustenance for fish and treat household sewage effectively. Technologies like constructed wetlands and recirculation systems have proven highly effective in removing nutrients and recycling water, thus aiding in sustainable aquaculture practices. Additionally, specialized continuous automatic treatment equipment has been devised specifically for aquaculture wastewater, ensuring efficient purification processes. Together, these diverse strategies collectively strive to address the challenges posed by nutrient pollution and resource depletion in managing aquaculture wastewater.

Currently, the milk production of country is 221.06 million tonnes (2021 22) and the target is 300 million tonnes by 2023-24. The livestock sector contributed nearly 5.21% of total gross value added (GVA) and 28.36% of the agriculture and allied sectors GVA. Thus, there is a huge gap between demand and supply, therefore with the requirements of better yield from the dairy animals, we need more better and advanced options. Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of such options which can be exploited in dairy industry. Artificial Intelligence can be a game-changer for the dairy farming in India and it can emerge as a tool that empowers farmers in monitoring, forecasting as well as optimizing the farm animal growth. It can predominantly change the scenario of dairy farmers by maintaining the health, physiological and physical conditions of dairy-cows. This knowledge-based technology has a huge potential and could confront the loopholes in dairy farming and thus indirectly can strengthen the dairy industry. In dairy farming AI has multiple applications like monitoring the activities of the dairy-cows, boosting the milk production and farm productivity, detection of mastitis in dairy-cows and developing the smart cow houses powered by image analysis.

AI enables the dairy farmers to determine whether the cow is ill, ready to breed or has become less productive. The AI also sends alerts to the farmer about the change in the cow’s behavior allowing human intervention where needed. Regular 24x7 monitoring of dairy animals is the key for successful dairy farming, however, traditional methods of monitoring relied on visual observation, but it was not very efficient due to the lack of time and human resources. Without AI, it would be almost impossible for the farmer to keep a watchful eye on every cow in the herd. Artificial Intelligence components of the dairy automation system process the collected data to provide insights on the heat stress, change in feeding efficiency and the estrus of the cow. Diseases like sub-clinical mastitis, one of the more common diseases in the dairy industry, cost the Indian dairy industry one billion dollars annually. Eventually, it provides new hope and open prospects for the overall quality and progress in the dairy industry through a profitable business approach in dairy farming

Reproductive problems in bovine dairy farms can significantly impact the productivity and sustainability of the cattle and buffalo industry. Challenges such as diminished conception rates, delayed age at first calving, prolonged calving intervals, and higher embryonic losses have comprehensive implications, resulting in economic setbacks and impeding genetic advancements. These intricate problems are attributed to a combination of factors encompassing deficient reproductive management strategies, inadequate nutritional provisions, suboptimal breeding methodologies, the prevalence of infectious diseases, and the impact of environmental stressors. Inadequate management of the estrus cycle and mistimed insemination practices underscore the significance of effective reproductive management. Poor nutritional support can detrimentally affect the onset of puberty, compromise the quality of oocytes and embryos, and usher in an overall decline in reproductive performance. The presence of infectious diseases not only intensifies difficulties in achieving successful conception but also amplifies the rates of embryonic as well as pregnancy loss.

Additionally, environmental stressors, particularly heat stress, can disrupt estrus patterns, impede oocyte development, and hinder embryo growth. Consequently, addressing these complex reproductive issues necessitates a comprehensive and multifaceted approach. This approach entails the implementation of sound reproductive management protocols to ensure precise monitoring of estrus cycles and timely insemination practices through proper record-keeping. Furthermore, optimizing nutritional provisions tailored to distinct reproductive stages enhances ovarian function, augments oocyte quality, and promotes healthy embryo development. Rigorous biosecurity measures, including strict quarantine practices and adherence to vaccination regimens, play a pivotal role in disease prevention and control within the farm environment. Moreover, the integration of advanced reproductive technologies, such as ultrasonography and embryo transfer, offers avenues for early pregnancy detection and facilitates selective breeding to enhance genetic progress. By amalgamating these strategies, a concerted effort can be made to enhance reproductive efficiency, safeguard herd health, and ultimately support the overall productivity and sustainability of the cattle and buffalo industries.

Mastitis is a consequence of interplay between the infectious agents and managerial practices. The mammary glands of cows are frequently exposed to potential pathogens, but on most of the occasion, cows get mastitis because their immune systems are not adequate to prevent infection. Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland in response to injury for the purpose of destroying or neutralizing the infectious agents and to prepare the way for healing and return to normal function. The average incidence of subclinical mastitis has been found to be 49% in cows and 28% in buffaloes. Similarly, clinical mastitis is prevalent in 7% of cows and 4% buffaloes. Besides this, 17% of the cows and 8% of buffaloes have been suffering from various udder and teat lesions such as udder/teat warts, bovine ulcerative mammilitis, udder impetigo and teat chaps etc. These lesions pre-dispose the animal to mastitis and cause a great discomfort at milking and hence markedly decrease the milk yield. The economic losses due to mastitis worldwide have been estimated at $35 billion. Current annual economic losses due to mastitis in India have been estimated to be Rs. 7165.51 crore that include Rs. 4151.16 crore and Rs. 3014.35 crore due to subclinical and clinical mastitis, respectively. Mastitis causes a reduced milk production, not only at its occurrence but throughout the rest of the lactation, increases the risk of new cases of mastitis and increases the risk of culling. Besides, mastitis impairs the quality of milk and milk products. Approximately 70-80% of losses are due to subclinical mastitis. Subclinical mastitis is also important due to the fact that it is 15-40 times more prevalent than the clinical form. It usually precedes the clinical form, is of longer duration, difficult to detect and constitutes a reservoir of micro organisms that lead to infection of other animals within the herd.Besides this, presence of mastitis causative organisms and antibiotic residues in milk following therapy of mastitis poses a major threat to the consumer health. Mastitis results in increase in the somatic cell count (SCC) and bacterial load of milk. The European Union has set up a threshold of 400,0000 cells/ml of milk from healthy quarter of a cow. The high SCC in mastitis milk has lipolytic effect on fat and there is increased tendency for rancidity of milk and milk products. Also, the mastitis milk with total bacterial count of more than 100,000 cfu/ml could release hydrolytic enzymes, which spoil the milk and milk products. It has been also observed that mastitis milk inhibits the growth of starter bacteria and results in decreased cheese production.

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation. This process removes feed and other volatile flavors from cream and to pasteurize it for butter making. This is also called vacuum pasteurization (Plate 623).

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling (Plate 624).

Vacuum drier: A drier used to dry heat sensitive products where low pressure lowers the temperature, helps to retain natural flavour and minimizes oxidation and browning is called vacuum drier (Plate 625).

Introduction

Agriculture forms the bedrock of the Indian economy, employing over half of the country's workforce and contributing significantly to its GDP. Despite the rise of other sectors, agriculture remains vital for ensuring national food security and the livelihood of millions of farmers. However, Indian farmers face several challenges, including volatile market prices, unpredictable weather patterns and high input costs (Chintapalli and Tang, 2021). In this context, the MSP scheme emerges as a crucial government intervention aimed at safeguarding farmers’ incomes and promoting agricultural stability. According to the latest data from the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, the agricultural sector contributes around 15-18% to India's GDP. While this share has decreased somewhat with the expansion of other sectors, agriculture still sustains the livelihoods of over 54% of the workforce, primarily concentrated in rural areas. Furthermore, India ranks as a leading producer of various agricultural commodities, including pulses, cotton, milk, and rice. This highlights the sector's critical role in ensuring domestic food supplies and contributing to global food security (Mahto and Patil, 2023).

Despite its significance, Indian agriculture faces several challenges. One of the most significant concerns is price volatility. Agricultural produce is often subject to fluctuations in market prices, leaving farmers vulnerable to distress sales during periods of surplus production. Additionally, unpredictable weather patterns due to climate change can significantly impact crop yields, leading to income losses for farmers. Furthermore, the rising costs of essential inputs like fertilizers, pesticides and seeds put a strain on farmers' profit margins (Aditya et al?, 2017). These factors combined create a situation of uncertainty and economic hardship for a vast section of the rural population. The MSP scheme was introduced by the Government of India in the 1960s as a critical policy intervention to address the challenges faced by farmers. MSP acts as a f loor price for certain agricultural commodities, below which the government guarantees to procure produce from farmers at pre-determined prices.

Introduction

Since the dawn of agriculture, humans have bartered and traded goods and services. Financial markets represent a sophisticated evolution of this basic need to exchange value. Today, they act as the invisible backbone of economies, playing a critical role in channelling resources, facilitating growth, and enabling price discovery. Financial markets fulfil three key functions that keep economies humming. Firstly, they facilitate capital allocation. Imagine a farmer with surplus earnings (savings) from a bountiful harvest (Schar, 2021). In the absence of financial markets, these savings may sit idle. But financial markets connect this farmer with businesses seeking investment capital to expand operations or develop new technologies. According to a 2023 World Bank report, global gross savings reached a staggering $36 trillion, highlighting the immense pool of resources financial markets can tap. This allocation function goes a step further by matching risk tolerance with investment opportunities. A conservative investor seeking stability might favour government bonds, while a risk-tolerant entrepreneur may invest in a promising startup. Financial markets offer instruments to cater to diverse risk appetites, ensuring a healthy balance between stability and growth (Umar et al?, 2022).

Financial markets don’t just connect savers and investors; they also mobilize capital for economic growth. Businesses seeking to expand can raise funds through stock offerings, allowing them to build new factories, hire additional staff and develop innovative products. A 2022 study by the International Finance Corporation found that small and medium-sized businesses in emerging markets face a financing gap of over $5 trillion. Financial markets play a vital role in bridging this gap, fostering business expansion, and driving long-term economic prosperity. Furthermore, financial markets enable governments to finance critical infrastructure projects like roads, bridges, and public transportation. By issuing bonds, governments can raise vast sums of capital to invest in projects that benefit society (Pagano, 1993).

Introduction

Financial markets play a critical role in the health and stability of a nation's economy. They act as a complex network where individuals, businesses and governments can exchange financial instruments, facilitating the flow of capital and fostering economic growth. According to the World Bank, the global stock market capitalization reached a staggering $93 trillion USD in 2022, highlighting the vast pool of resources circulating within these systems. At the heart of financial markets lies the ability to connect those who possess capital with those who require it (Karpova et al?, 2020). Companies seeking to expand their operations can raise funds by issuing stocks or bonds, essentially selling a piece of ownership or a promise to repay a loan with interest. Investors, on the other hand, can utilize these markets to put their money to work, seeking returns on their investments through dividends, interest payments, or capital appreciation. This efficient allocation of resources fuels economic growth by enabling businesses to invest, innovate and create jobs.

Introduction

Monetary policies are the policies used to regulate the money supply, cost, and availability of credit in the economy. Monetary policy is considered as an important tool of controlling inflation in the economy.

Central banks use monetary policy to guide the economy. They set interest rates, control the amount of money in circulation, and take other actions to affect inflation, encourage economic growth, and ensure financial stability. The ability of monetary policy to influence the economy is not absolute. It is affected by several variables, such as how adaptable the economy can expand or contract (supply and demand) and the link between monetary policy and economic development. It plays a significant role in shaping the effectiveness of monetary policy. For example, when people have more pessimistic expectations of inflation, they tend to hold less money and monetize more debt. Economic growth tends to be positively correlated with certain financial factors. For instance, higher inflation, an increased money supply, and lower interest rates are often associated with stronger economic growth. Plus, people's expectations regarding future inflation can also impact economic growth. A reduction in available money can weaken the impact of monetary policy. To accurately assess the effectiveness of monetary policy, it's important to consider. Flexibility and limitations in economic supply and demand. The relationship between monetary policy and economic growth. Expectations of inflation It's also essential to account for potential drawbacks and unexpected effects of monetary policy. Additionally, monetary policy should consider the interaction between monetary and fiscal policies. In formulating domestic monetary policy, the global economic landscape holds significant sway. Factors such as the global economy, currency exchange rates, and international trade can profoundly influence a country's monetary policy framework. Moreover, in today's interconnected financial system, central banks must be cognizant of the broader implications their monetary actions may have on other economies, highlighting the need for a global perspective in monetary policy decision making.

Pineapple is a wonderful tropical fruit having exceptional juiciness, vibrant tropical flavour and immense health benefits. Pineapple contains considerable calcium, potassium, fibre, and vitamin C. It is low in fat and cholesterol. Vitamin C is the body’s primary water soluble antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage normal cells. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper and dietary fibre. Pineapple is a digestive aid and a natural Anti-Inflammatory fruit. A group of sulfur-containing proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme (bromelain) in pineapple aids digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain used for tenderising meat. Bromelain has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects, reducing swelling in inflammatory conditions such as acute sinusitis, sore throat, arthritis and gout and speedy recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple enzymes have been used with success to treat rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of injuries, diabetic ulcers and general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and helps remove plaque from arterial walls. Studies suggest that pineapple enzymes may improve circulation in those with narrowed arteries, such as angina sufferers. Pineapples are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in the treatment of arterioscleroses and anaemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner; it combats loss of memory, sadness and melancholy. Pineapple fruits are primarily used in three segments, namely, fresh fruit, canning and juice concentrate with characteristic requirements of size, shape, colour, aroma and flavour.

Pineapple is a short-stemmed herbaceous plant that necessitates a significant amount of planting material. For example, depending on the intensity of planting and the cultivar used, one hectare of cultivation needs 35,000 to 70,000 planting parts. Realizing the need for quick multiplication, Ma (1968) devised a method for quick pineapple multiplication using the decapitation technique. Later a technique for rapid in vitro propagation has been developed. Since then, numerous reports on crop micro-propagation using tissue culture techniques have been published. On supplemented MS medium, different types of explants, such as leaf base, shoot base, excised lateral buds and tips from crowns, young-leaf segments, and excised leaf buds, have been used to regenerate plants. Plantlets raised in this manner thrived in the field. In vitro mutation may also be induced using tissue culture techniques. Shoot tips from in vitro grown plantlets may be treated with chemical mutagens (EMS) or irradiated with gamma rays to produce mutants with superior traits such as spineless leaves, larger fruits, improved pulp consistency, or disease resistance. Similarly, somaclonal variants can be screened out early to improve f ield results.

Sexual Propagation in Pineapple

Pineapple occupy a gametophytic self-incompatibility system so that commercial cultivated pineapple rarely produces very few seeds in the field (Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge et al. 1992). However, if two varieties are grown close together and flowering time is same, it is chance for insect-aided crosspollination to set seeds. The vectors for natural cross-pollination vary with the location. Where humming birds are present, they are likely to be a primary pollinator. Where these birds are absent, honeybees and ants would be the main pollinators. The small corolla tube and the fact that pollen is not shed rule out wind as a pollinator. Since seedy fruit is not acceptable for either fresh or processing, it is rare to find more than one cultivar on large plantations. If more than one cultivaris grown in a farm, spatial separation and careful management of time of forcing will prevent seed production. However, cross-pollination between cultivars is used by pineapple breeders to generate new hybrids like “MD-2” and “CO-2” (Williams and Fleisch 1993). Sexual propagation is important for the generation of new varieties and is successfully used in pineapple breeding programs (Reinhardt et al., 2018). Pineapple Seeds are placed in shallow trays on moistened sand beds under controlled environmental conditions for germination(Junghans et al., 2015).Seed germination come up mostly from two weeks after sowing and rates are high, usually 80% or more (Chang et al., 2003). The new growing seedlings have 6 to 8 leaves stage within about three months after sowing and are then transplanted to pots with agricultural substrate and are grown under greenhouse or screen house conditions. After an additional 9 to 15 months of growth stage, during which the seedlings height reach 25 cm, which is considered adequate for planting in the field, the plants are finally acclimatized in an open nursery.

Post-Harvest Losses

A post-harvest loss is defined as the measurable qualitative and quantitative food (including fruits and vegetables) loss along the supply chain, starting at the time of harvest till its consumption or other end uses (Hodges et al., 2011). Pineapple fruits are highly perishable in nature and continuously respired even after harvesting which limited its shelf-life leading to the storage problems (Hossain and Bepary, 2015) and decline in production due to post-harvest losses (Babalola et al., 2008). During the storage for distant marketing, pineapple fruits easily losses its moisture content through transpiration and become more susceptibility to microbial spoilage (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). In India the top five leading pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Meghalaya and Manipur (Anonymous, 2018). The measurable qualitative and quantitative losses of pineapple at post-harvest level are from the various stages of handling from the farm level up to the consumers (Table 1 and 2).

Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is an edible fruit bearing plant native to South America belonging to family Bromeliaceae. Pineapple is grown over an area of 1.06 million hectares with an annual production of 29.36 million metric tonnes (FAO, 2022). Pineapples are rich in vitamin C, minerals, fiber and low in calories. The enzyme bromelain present in pineapple is of considerable importance to the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry (Varilla et al., 2021). The market for pineapples has been expanding significantly because of its appealing aroma compounds and nutritional benefits. The climate and distribution of rainfall in tropical and sub-tropical regions make these areas ideal for pineapple cultivation. Worldwide, Brazil is the leading producer of Pineapple followed by Philippines, Thailand, Costa Rica and India (FAO, 2022). In India the leading pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Northeastern region, Bihar, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra.This ‘Kew’ of Cayenne group and ‘Mauritius’ of the rough leaf Queen group are the two varieties dominating in India (Devi et al., 2013; Joy and Sindhu, 2012).

Botanically, Pineapple is a herbaceous perennial having short stem and tough waxy leaves. It produces a fleshy, edible, yellow fleshed which is a fusion of 100-200 berry like fruitlets. Most of the members of Bromeliaceae family are epiphytes i.e. grown on rocks and living trees though pineapples grow on the soil bearing sensitive adventitious root that cannot regenerate once damage and intolerant to poor soil aeration. The cultivated varieties of pineapple can be categorized into three groups namely, Cayenne, Queen, and Spanish. The Spanish and Cayenne groups can be cultivated for dual purposes viz. fresh fruit and canning. However, the Queen group are only cultivated for fresh fruit markets due to the presence of deep eyes making it unsuitable for canning (Devi et al., 2013).

4.1 Genetic Improvement of Aquaculture Species

1. Introduction

1.1 Importance of Genetic Improvement in Aquaculture

Aquaculture serves as a critical component of global food production, supplying a substantial portion of seafood consumed worldwide. However, the industry faces challenges such as disease outbreaks, environmental changes, and increasing demand for sustainable practices. Genetic improvement plays a crucial role in addressing these challenges by enhancing the traits that contribute to productivity, disease resistance, and environmental adaptability in aquaculture species.

1.2 Role of Genomics and Biotechnology

Advancements in genomics and biotechnology have revolutionized the way aquaculture species are bred and managed. Genomics enables the detailed study of an organism’s genetic makeup, allowing researchers to identify specific genes associated with desirable traits. Biotechnological tools, including genome editing and molecular markers, facilitate precise manipulation of these genetic traits, accelerating the breeding process and improving the efficiency of trait selection.

5.1 Internet of Things (IoT) and Smart Aquaculture Practices

1. Introduction to IoT in Aquaculture

1.1 Definition of IoT in the Context of Aquaculture

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a network of interconnected devices, sensors, actuators, and software applications that collect, exchange, and analyze data to automate processes and provide actionable insights. In aquaculture, IoT integrates digital technologies to monitor, manage, and optimize farming practices in real-time, enhancing efficiency, sustainability, and productivity.

1.2 Importance and Benefits of IoT in Aquaculture

IoT offers numerous benefits to aquaculture operations:

• Real-time Monitoring: IoT sensors continuously monitor critical parameters such as water quality (e.g., pH, dissolved oxygen, ammonia levels), temperature, and salinity. This real-time data allows farmers to maintain optimal conditions for aquatic organisms, ensuring their health and growth.

7.1 Water Quality and Waste Management

Introduction

Water quality and waste management are critical components of environmental management and conservation efforts, particularly in the context of aquatic ecosystems and freshwater resources. Effective management of water quality ensures the health and productivity of aquatic habitats, supports biodiversity, and sustains ecosystem services essential for human well-being. Similarly, proper waste management practices mitigate pollution, reduce environmental impact, and promote sustainable use of natural resources. This article explores key concepts, challenges, strategies, and innovations related to water quality management and waste management in environmental conservation.

Water Quality Management

Water quality management involves monitoring, assessing, and regulating the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water bodies to maintain or improve their suitability for aquatic life, human use, and ecosystem health.