eChapters

Soil aeration signifies the ability of a soil to supply oxygen to actively growing roots and soil organisms. Because of constant biological activity causing oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide evolution, the oxygen present in a soil pore or oxygen renewal by mass flow becomes inadequate to meet the plant demand. A continuous diffusion of oxygen from atmosphere to soil and to plant roots through the wetted pores plays an important role. The oxygen reaching plant roots has to diffuse not only through the gaseous phase in the soil pore and wetted pore neck but also through a water film that is present on the hydrated root surface.Lemon and Erickson (1952) suggested a platinum microelectrode method that simulates the field situation. In this method measurement of the rate of oxygen diffusing through the liquid phase to a reducing surface similar to the plant root.

The ratio of soil air-to-soil water permeability indicates the magnitude of breakdown of structure as a result of wetting. A value of one indicates no change in structure and a value greater than one reflects a deterioration of soil structure.

Principle

The permeability of soil to air can be obtained essentially in the same way as the permeability of soil to water. The measurement of permeability of soil to air involves the preparation and placement of the soil in a suitable container with provision for monitoring pressure differential across the sample and the rate of flow of air through it. For steady state case, this involves measurement of inlet and outlet pressures and the volume flux of air. The suitable form of the Darcy’s equation for calculating permeability of soil to air is:

Soil temperature plays an important role in plant growth. Solar radiation received on the earth surface raises the temperature of the soil surface from morning to solar noon followed by a decline until the next morning. Soil temperature gradients established on the surface lead to flow of heat downwards causing a rise in temperature of lower layers. These variations in temperature affect germination, emergence and further growth of plants. Several types of thermometers such as mercury or liquid in glass, bimetallic, bourdon gauge, thermocouples and electrical resistance have been used in soil research but the use of thermocouples and thermistors has been found most useful. A brief description of different types of thermometers used in measurement of soil temperature is given below:

Liquids in Glass Thermometer

A liquid-in-glass thermometer (Figure 20.1) consists of a capillary glass tube with a bulb at one end filled with a thermometric liquid (mercury), vacuumed and sealed. By reading the position of the liquid level on a scale the temperature value can be obtained.

Garden Rakes

1.For use with moving debris.

2.Aids in the cleaning process.

3.Proper use is with two hands.

Classifications and Nomenclature

Plants can be classified according to the following criteria: (1) botanical, (2) descriptive and (3) agricultural. Botanical classification is based on the morphological characteristics of plants as well as on their anatomy, physiology and DNA sequences. Descriptive classification is based on the environmental adaptation, growth habit and other observable features. In agriculture, plants can be broadly classified as either useful or useless. Those which are useful are called crops while those which are not useful are called weeds.

A common, well-defined system of crop classification is important in crop science and agriculture. Grouping of plants following established systems will simplify plant collection initiatives, research and breeding specialized development efforts. Having standardized botanical names will also facilitate efficient communication, dissemination and retrieval of scientific information. Additionally, the grouping of crops will indicate that these crops may have similar uses, adaptation, growth habits and methods of culture. Classifying crops by family is likewise important in intergeneric grafting. To students of crop science, a list of crops under the various agricultural classifications will be a useful reference in crop names and identification and as a review guide. To the farm manager himself, the same list will offer innumerable benefits in finding alternative crops for specific uses.

Despite these advantages, however, classifications of crops in agriculture vary from place to place and from one country to another due to differences in the primary usage of certain crops, intensity of care, extent of cultivation and other criteria under consideration. It is not uncommon to find crops having two or more classifications, used simultaneously, alternatively or sequentially. FAO(2010) in its report entitled “Crops Statistics - Concepts, Definitions and Classifications”, expressed its difficulty in the collection and presentation of statistical data due to differences in the concepts, definitions, coverage and classifications” of crops which are grown in different countries.

Climate and Ornamental Crops

There are many factors which affect the production of the ornamental crops. It may be internal or external factors. Climate and soils are the chief natural factors on which the success or failure of ornamental crops production is dependent. A knowledge of the effect of various soil and climatic conditions on ornamental crops production is very essential for every prospective to grower, climate includes several factors like temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind, hail, light whereas, soil covers such factors as moisture supply texture, pH etc.

Temperature: The rate of development of a plant (the leaf unfolding rate) is a function of temperature. As temperatures increase, the leaf unfolding rate increases. If the temperature exceeds the maximum temperature, plants experience stress and leaf unfolding rate declines. Given the high costs of fuel, many growers are tempted to reduce the greenhouse temperature to save money on fuel. Because the rate of crop development is dependent on temperature, reducing temperatures increases production time of all crops. However, some crops will be more severely delayed than others. Reducing temperatures from 20°C to 16°C increased time to flower of Salvia farinacea by 13 days. This same temperature drop only increased days to flower of pansy by four days. For crops that are severely delayed by lower temperatures, reducing the growing temperature may actually increase total fuel costs for producing that crop. Every plant has fairly well defined range of temperature to which it is tolerant and below which the plants of that variety are liable to be injured to a more or less extent.

Annual flowers are a group of herbaceous plants which grow from seeds, produce flowers, set seeds and complete their life-cycle within one year or one season. They provide a beautiful display of colours in the garden. Whether it is a small home garden or a big public garden, it is incomplete without beds of annual flowers. They enhance the decorative value of a garden within a short span of time. At their blooming time, one feels elated when a rain of beauty drizzles in the garden.

Classification of Annuals

Based on season, the annual flowers are divided into 3 groups—winter season, summer season and rainy season.

Winter season annuals

This group includes a large number of seasonal flowers. The important ones are acroclinium, agrostemma, amaranthus, anchusa, annual carnation, annual chrysanthemum, antirrhinum, arctotis, bells-of-Ireland, brachycome, calceolaria, calendula, campanula, candytuft, celosia, China aster, cineraria, clarkia, cornflower, daisy, delphinium, dianthus, dimorphotheca, echium, eschscholzia, gazania, godetia, helichrysum, helipterum, hollyhock, gypsophila, limonium, linaria, linum, lupin, marigold, matricaria, mesembryanthemum, mignonette, mimulus, myosotis, nasturtium, nemesia, nicotiana, nemophila, nigella, pansy, petunia, phlox, pimpinella, poppy, rudbeckia, salvia, saponaria, scabiosa, schizanthus, senecio, stock, sweet alyssum, sweet pea, sweet sultan, sweet william, venidium, verbena, viola and wall flower.

Climbers can be used to break the bareness of long walls, soften posts, frame doors and windows and beautify window boxes. With a fence or trellis, they can be used for screens, making a background for flower garden or quickly turning an ordinary porch or patio into a private, shady living centre. Some slower growing climbers are useful as container plants for patios. On the down side, most vine species have the potential to become invasive, spreading to areas where they may not be desirable or becoming too large for the intended area.

Types

Climbers are characterized as three types based on how they cling to a support. The kind of support needed depends on whether the Climbers cling by twining stems, orby specialized structures such as tendrils, adhesive disks and aerial roots. Climbers with twining stems wind around a support as they grow (Fig. 5.2). Examples of plant with twining stem sinclude bitter sweet, wisteria and trumpet creeper.Tendrils resemble thread like stems that wrap around any structure they contact (Fig. 5.1). Examples of plants with tendrils include grape, pea, and cucumbers. Some Climbers have specialized structures for clinging to a support with a disk-like suction cup (Fig. 5.3). Examples include Boston ivy and Virginia creeper. Other Climbers cling by means of small, aerial roots that attach to rough surfaces such as mortar, wood, and tree trunks (Fig. 5.4). Examples include English ivy, trumpet creeper and winter creeper euonymus.

Shrubs are usually woody or semi-woody perennial plants; their branches arise from the base of the plants and grow up to the height of 3 to 4 meter. Many shrubs, which are more or less prostrate, make excellence ground flower. Availability of a large number of species & cultivars, a wide range of variation in shape & size of the plants, diversified types of leaves, growth habit, remarkable ranges of size, shape, colour of flowers & the variety of fragrance have made the shrubs as important garden plants. Several species of shrubs have unusually attractive colours.

Most of the shrubs are hardy & grow in all types of soil with little attention. Although some plants flower almost throughout the year, in most cases they are seasonal. A selection can be made in such a way that some plants in the shrubbery will be in bloom in any season of the year. Most of these plants are fairly quick growing and when vegetatively propagated, start flowering in the first year. Plants like Bauhinia acuminata (Kanchnar), Cassia alata (Candle Bush), Vinca rosea,which are usually grown from seeds also produced flowers in the first year.Shrubs can be classified into three groups according to the requirement of the sunlight for growth & flowering:

Bulbs

Floriculturists use the term “bulbous” to include a wide array of perennial plants that grow from underground organs, including bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes. Any plant described as bulbous will normally have a swollen root or stem or even leaves underground (Some orchids and other plants have swollen stems – above ground). Bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes are perennial plants organ that are part of a plant type called bulbous plants in which part of the plant has evolved into a below-ground storage unit where food created one year is used to nourish the plant in the next. They are valuable in the garden for many reasons. Spring bulbs appear early, before most perennials have started to grow again after the winter. They can also add color to containers when other plants are not ready to face the danger of frost. In summer, bulbous plants such as Alliums and lilies can provide stately interest, while autumn crocuses and tiny hardy cyclamen can cheer up the garden toward the end of the season. The purpose of the bulbous part of the plant is to store food for the plant parts that live above ground to enable the plant to survive adverse conditions. The leaf bases may resemble scales, or they may overlap and surround the centre of the bulb. A modified stem forms the base of the bulb and plant growth occurs from this basal plate. Roots emerge from the underside of the base, new stems and leaves from the upper side. Most true bulbs have their scales closely packed together such as Hyacinthus but some types, such as the Lily (Lilium), they are loose and swollen. Most popular bulbs have a papery skin, the tunic, whose function is to protect the tissues within. Some true bulbs such as the Lily do not have a tunic and are therefore, easily damaged by rough handling. Cardio crinums dies after flowering but other bulbs are perennial. Vegetative reproduction in true bulbs is by means of offsets called bulblets.

The term essential element was proposed by Arnon and Stout (1939).They concluded three criteria must be met for an element to be considered essential. These criteria are:

1.A plant must be unable to complete its life cycle in the absence of the mineral element.

2.The function of the element must not be replaceable by another mineral element.

3.The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.

The number of elements considered essential for the growth of higher plants now varies from 16 to 20 or more, depending upon the definition of essentiality. Other scientists such as Nicholas (1961) believed that an element should be considered essential if its addition enhances plant growth even though it merely substitutes for one of the 16 elements that Arnon declares to be essential. For example, sodium can substitute in plant nutrition for some potassium and vanadium for some molybdenum, Nicholas would consider both sodium and vanadium as essential, but Arnon would not. On the basis of the criteria used, Arnon specifies 16 elements and Nicholas 20 elements as being essential for the growth of higher plants. Three other debated nutrients are nickel (urea transformations), cobalt (N₂ fixation) and silicon. These criteria are important guidelines for plant nutrition but exclude beneficial mineral elements. Beneficial elements are those that can compensate for toxic effects of other elements or may replace mineral nutrients in some other less specific function such as the maintenance of osmotic pressure. The omission of beneficial nutrients in commercial production could mean that plants are not being grown to their optimum genetic potential but are merely produced at a subsistence level.

Weed is a plant that is growing in the wrong place. Weeds have many mechanisms and characteristics that enable them to compete, having thick waxy cuticle leaves that can be resistant to some chemicals, fast reproduction methods, the ability to reseed in 6 week cycles and deep tap roots enabling the weed to survive in compacted dry ground conditions.

There are many reasons to control weeds in annuals/biennial and perennial ornamentals. Weeds compete with the plants by absorbing essential nutrients and water, or by blocking light or air circulation. Weeds dramatic reduce the growth of the plants. The greatest damage is often done when the weeds and ornamental plants are small. Weeds also interfere with harvesting by physically hindering. They lower flower quality further by harbouring insects, such as whiteflies, thrips mites, slugs, snails and/or diseases.

Growing under optimal conditions for the flower will reduce the ability of weeds to compete against the crop. Controlling humidity/ventilation, water, light, pH, nutrients and temperature all figure prominently in providing flower optimal conditions. A plant health strategy to greenhouse weed control contains three principal elements, prevention/sanitation, evaluation of water quality and using all controls available physical, cultural and chemical. Prevention and sanitation can include the use of mulches in orchidhouse weed control. Rice hulls, perlite, pumice, corn gluten meal bark, Penn Mulch - pelletized recycled paper and human hair have all been used for this purpose. Prevention also includes, eliminating air borne weed seeds from entering the greenhouse by screening vents and other openings and preventing perennial weeds from growing under foundations. A 1-3 meter weed free zone should be maintained immediately adjacent to the greenhouse.

Pruning is a regular part of plant maintenance involving the selective removal of specific plant parts. Although shoots and branches are the main targets for removal, roots, flower buds, fruits and seed pods may also be pruned. Pruning wounds plants, but plants respond differently to wounding than do animals. In plants, damaged areas are covered by callus tissue to close wounds. Another response to pruning occurs inside plants. Chemical boundaries form around wounded areas, walling off or compartmentalizing the wounds. Compartmentalization limits any decay that results from wounding, or from the natural death of branches. Use pruning techniques that minimize plant wounding and speed wound closure.

Lawn

The lawn is a plot of closely mowed grasses. It is composed of thousands of individual plants crowded and forced into a very unnatural growth habit. It is an integral part of the garden. It is basically an area of land planted between gardens covered with grass and other low lying plants.

Lawn is one of the most important features of a garden. A well kept lawn makes a garden look extremely beautiful. It looks like a beautiful green carpet amidst colourful flowers in a garden. Lawn can be called as turf, pitch, field or green depending upon its plantation and usage. Selection of lawn grass depends upon it usage and its season of plantation. Though a well maintained lawn requires a little of patience and care, the final results are always very beautiful and soothing. Scientific reports say that lawns reduce energy consumption through it soothing effects and the green grass prevents soil erosion as well as cut down noise pollution in the urban areas.

Any substance or mixture of substances intended through physiological action, for accelerating or retarding the rate of growth or maturation, or otherwise altering the behaviour of plants or the produce thereof are known as plant growth regulators. It does not include plant nutrients, trace elements, nutritional chemicals, plant inoculants and soil amendments.

Plant hormones are organic compounds other than nutrients, synthesize by plants and regulate plant growth and development. They are active in very low concentrations, produced in certain parts of the plants and are usually transported to other parts where they elicit specific biochemical, physiological and morphological responses. They are also active in tissues where they are produced. The term plant growth regulator is usually used to denote a synthetic plant hormone, but most of the synthetic compounds with structures similar to those of the natural hormones have also been called hormones. For instance, the synthetic cytokinin, kinetin is considered a hormone.

Ornamental pot plants should be potted in small pots according to the size of the plants. Any kind of pot/container which can hold medium and provide aeration is suitable. The most common container is the plastic or clay pots. Plastic pots should be preferred because it retains moisture longer than mud pots. Plants should not be disturbed frequently and re-potting done only when absolutely necessary.

Potting media

Different types of growing media may be used for ornamental pot plant cultivation, but it is crucial that it must retain a certain amount of moisture and be well draining. Different plants require different substrate in which they would thrive. Conditions of the plant experiences in nature should think before choosing the media. Tropical plants require more water naturally compare to subtropical and temperate ones. For irrigating with sprinkling can or hose, it is better to use materials that drain well and decompose slowly while for drip irrigation heavy potting material should be used. The most important thing is to match watering habits to the potting material. Growing conditions play a most significant role in deciding on a medium. If there is no problem in providing a constantly humid environment due to climate or if growing in a greenhouse, the moisture retention on thepart of media is less of a concern. Ambient temperatures play a role here, as well, as warmer temperatures tend to increase the evaporation of water and along with the drying rate of the medium. The personal tendencies and how much time might be spending to water plants is another significant factor in choosing a medium. The combination of potting materials that will work best for garden plants mainly on Plant structure and root structures:

Bonsai is a Japanese art form using miniature trees grown in containers. The first documented evidence of an oriental word for container planting emerged approximately 1600 years ago in China. Bonsai is a Japanese pronunciation of the earlier Chinese term pen zai. A bon is a tray-like pot typically used in bonsai culture. The purposes of bonsai are primarily contemplation (for the viewer) and the pleasant exercise of effort and ingenuity (for the grower). Bonsai is not intended for production of food, for medicine, or for creating yard-sized or park-sized gardens or landscapes. Instead, bonsai practice focuses on long-term cultivation and shaping of one or more small trees in a single container.

The practice of bonsai is sometimes confused with dwarfing, but dwarfing more accurately refers to research and creation of plant cultivars that are permanent, genetic miniatures of existing species. Bonsai does not require genetically dwarfed trees, but rather depends on growing small trees from regular stock and seeds. Bonsai uses cultivation techniques like pruning, root reduction, potting, defoliation and grafting to produce small trees that mimic the shape and style of mature, full-sized trees.

Bonsai can be created from nearly any perennial woody-stemmed tree or shrub species. Which produces true branches and can be cultivated to remain small through pot Some species are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as small leaves or needles that make them appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai. Some of the plants highly suited for making bonsai

Ikebana

Flowers are generally known as the symbol of beauty around the world. Many people stick flowers in vases to wreath their rooms, houses and other places. Japanese FlowerArrangement is essentially different from the Western style of flower arrangement. The western style involves symmetrical arrangement of flowering plants in a vase whereas, the Ikebana, which means “flowers kept alive”, is much more intricate, complex and asymmetric. This style of flower arrangement is one of the famous cultural traditions of Japan known around the world. Generally, all Japanese flower arrangement styles are lumped together as ikebana but we cannot say they are all the same. Ikebana is a disciplined art form in which nature and humanity are brought together. Though it is a creative expression, it has certain rules governing its form. The main rule is that all the elements used in construction must be organic, be they branches, leaves, grasses, or flowers. The artist’s intention behind each arrangement is shown through a piece’s colour combinations, natural shapes, graceful lines and the usually implied meaning of the arrangement. They arrange flowers to recreate nature in miniature to see individual flowers which have been left behind. Ikebana is like one of the ways to communicate with nature. Another aspect present in ikebana is its employment of minimalism. That is, an arrangement may consist of only a minimal number of blooms interspersed among stalks and leaves. The structure of a Japanese flower arrangement is based on a scalene triangle delineated by three main points, usually twigs, considered in some schools to symbolize heaven, earth and man and in others sun, moon, love & earth. The container is also a key element of the composition and various styles of pottery may be used in their construction. Over time, the ways and styles have changed but there is still the basic idea of ikebana remain same.

Plants are important to humankind not only economically, environmentally and industrially but also spiritually, historically and aesthetically, they sustain human life through direct and indirect gains by providing a wide range of products for survival and prosperity. Bio-aesthetic planning to a large extent is a product of the age. With the advancement in agriculture and increase in population, large settlements developed, marking the beginning of urbanization. More and more people moved to urban areas for comfortable life. Increasing human needs resulted in large-scale exploitation of natural resources, great reduction in forest cover and extinction of many species of flora and fauna. The extent of forest cover is a good indication of the health of the land. The large scale deforestation in recent decades has rendered the sensitive catchment areas and hilly areas particularly vulnerable to soil erosion. Professor Lancelot Hogben coined the term ‘Bio-aesthetic planning’ defined as planning of flora and fauna with the object of beautifying the piece of land (country). Bio-aesthetic planning is an aesthetic branch of Horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants in such a way that it creates a picturesque effect. It is a very fascinating and interesting subject. With the greater realization of environmental, ecological and socio- economic benefits of plants, scope of Bio-aesthetic planning has increased further. Bio-aesthetic planning can play important role in environmental amelioration of urban and industrial areas along with their beautification.

Landscape Gardening

Landscape gardening is an aesthetic branch of Horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants in such a way that it creates a picturesque effect. According to Chambers’ dictionary, the definition of landscape is the appearance of that portion of land which the eye can view at once and landscape gardening is the art of laying grounds so as to produce the effect of a picturesque landscape. Landscape gardening can be defined as the decoration of a tract of land with plants and other garden materials so as to produce a picturesque and naturalistic effect in a limited space. According to Bailey, Landscape gardening is the application of garden forms, methods and materials to the improvements of the landscape and the landscape in this connection is any area large or small on which it is desirable to develop a view or design. So landscape may or may not include plants.

Landscape gardening can also be defined as the beautification of a tract of land having a house or other object of interest on it. It is done with a view to create a natural scene by the planting of lawn, trees and shrubs. Landscape gardening is both an art and science of the establishment of a ground in such a way that it gives an effect of a natural landscape. It can be also defined as the imitation of nature in the garden. It can also be defined as improving of total living environment for the people. In light of all the foregoing definition landscape gardening can be defined more appropriately as art of creating gardens, parks and other green areas.

Landscape design seeks to create balance between living and natural environments in order to derive the greatest use and enjoyment from outdoor space. A landscape to a landscape designer is like a slab of marble to a sculptor or the insides of a home to an interior decorator; a landscape is the canvass on which the landscape designer crafts his or her masterpiece. Since the landscape gardening is the making pictures on the ground with plant and other material, landscape designer should be proficient in art, ornamental gardening, ecology and physiology. He should be an architect and engineer to appreciate the relationship between plant form, colours and buildings.

The term “low-maintenance” refers to a plant that does not require frequent maintenance such as regular watering, pruning, or spraying to remain healthy and to maintain an acceptable aesthetic quality. A low-maintenance plant has low fertilizer requirements and few pest and disease problems. In addition, low-maintenance plants suitable for India must also be adapted to or at least tolerate our poor, alkaline, sand or limestone-based soils. Both native and non-native species are included herein. Also, a variety of plants that are not commonly available in Indian nurseries or garden centres were intentionally included with the hope that increased demand will generate increased supply. Putting the right plant in the right place is of foremost importance in creating a healthy and successful low-maintenance landscape. However, this principle is dependent upon one’s ability to accurately select the right plant species for a given location. Common names are often misleading and sometimes more than one plant species may be referred to by the same or similar common name.

Table 19.1: Reference Guide for Landscape Plants.

Soil testing involves an estimation of its available nutrient status i.e. the portion or amount of nutrient directly available in soil for subsequent uptake by crop plant. This exercise is commonly referred to as soil testing and is used to arrive at optimum fertilizer application ratio. The need for estimation of available nutrient arises because only a small fraction of what the soil contains is the total nutrient content of the soil. Soil test are calibrated by correlating them with crop response and the result from the basis for making fertilizer recommendations.

Estimation of nutrient contents and forms in materials that are involved in nutrient supply and dynamics is a conical step towards planning scientific nutrient management. In this content, both soil and plant testing information comes out of the interpretation of analysis assumes a greater value when their concentrations and amounts can relate to soil fertility, nutrient availability, plant growth, yield and quality of the crop produce.

Determination of pH is actually measurement of hydrogen ions activity in soil-water system. It is defined as negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity. Mathematically, it is expressed

as:pH = - log a H⁺

The pH value of a soil is an indication of soil reaction i.e. acidic, neutral or alkaline. The nutrient availability is governed by soil reaction. It is maximum at neutral pH and decreases with increase in acidity or alkalinity. Thus, pH value gives an idea about the availability of nutrients to plants.

Principle

The pH is a measure of hydrogen or hydroxyl ion activity of the soil-water system. It indicates whether the soil is acidic, neutral or alkaline in reaction. Since crop growth suffers much under both very low (strongly acidic) as well as very high pH (alkaline) conditions.

Now a days, most of the pH meters have single combined electrode. Before measuring the pH of the soil, the instrument has to be calibrated with standard buffer solution of known pH. Since, the pH is also affected by the temperature, hence, the pH meter should be adjusted to the temperature of the solution by temperature correction knob.

The method is based on the Stokes law which states that the rate of fall of particles in suspension is directly proportional to their size. Accordingly, larger particle (sand) will settle first, followed by silt and clay. The resistance offered by the liquid to the fall of the particles varies with the radius of the sphere.

Principle

This method is based on the principle of dispersion and sedimentation techniques, employed to a given weight of soil sample. Mechanical stirring disperses macro aggregates while chemical dispersing required for micro aggregates. The mixture of dispersed soil particles in water is called a soil suspension. Sedimentation refers to the settling rates of the dispersed particles in water, which is a function of particle size and is governed by Stoke’s law.

Purpose

The bulk density varies indirectly with total pore space present in the soil and gives a good estimate of porosity of soil. Bulk density is of great importance than particle density in understanding the physical condition of soil.

Soil bulk density is defined as the ratio of the mass of the oven dry soil to its bulk volume.

Method of determination

Different methods are available for bulk density determination which differ how the soil sample is obtained and its volume is determined such as core, clod and excavation methods. There are other methods for the determination of bulk density where different principles are employed, for example, radiation method. Commonly used methods are weighing bottle, core and clod method.

Particle density determination is based on the measurements of weight of solids and their volume. The weight of solids is obtained by weighing a sample of oven dried soil. The volume of solids is determined is determined by immersion. The method outlined here is “Pycnometer method”.

Principle

A given amount of dry soil when immerses in a definitive volume of water, expels air and results in the displacement of equal volume of water. The volume of soil particles is determined by measuring the volume of water displaced in the pycnometer bottle.

Purpose

The determination of water holding capacity in soils is important as it gives an idea of the capacity of soil to hold water for the use by crops. The light soils which do not hold such water require more frequent irrigations than heavy clay soils; well decomposed organic matter increases the water holding capacity. Exchangeable sodium and type of clay mineral also have a marked effect on water holding capacity. Water holding capacity of soils is useful for selection of soils for irrigability classification. It also helps for comparing other properties of soils.

Soil aggregates refers to a group of two or more primary particles which cohere to each other more strongly than surrounding particles. Under field condition, all such units also cohere to some degree with neighboring aggregates and form larger aggregates. Such aggregates form and break easily into smaller aggregates during tillage and by disruptive action of water and air. The aggregates maintaining their identity are those in which the cohesive forces among particles are greater than the disruptive forces. A quantitative characterization of aggregates is done by determining aggregate stability and size distribution of aggregates. The aggregate stability refers to the resistance of soil aggregates to breakdown by water, air and mechanical manipulations.

The soil aggregates which can stand the disruptive forces of wetting by water are known as water stable aggregates. Therefore, the process of wetting, disruption of dry aggregates and screening of aggregates of different sizes should reasonably compare to the disruptive action of water and mechanical forces of tillage under wet conditions. The vacuum wetting of dry soil largely simulates the process of soil wetting in the surface layers but the immersion wetting is more comparable to the wetting of surface soil by irrigation. Similarly, sieving under water compares more closely with the disruptive action of water and other mechanical forces. The mean weight diameter (MWD) of water stable aggregates is a useful index to characterize the change in structure due to tillage. The mean weight diameter can be calculated using following equation.

Soil Organic Matter (SOM) is the seat of nitrogen in soil and its determination is often carried out as an index of nitrogen availability. The top soil (surface soil) range from 0.5% to 3.0% organic carbon for most upland soils and less than 0.5% are limited to desert soils. Soil organic matter averages about 58% carbon, it follows that soils generally range from about 2 to 6 % organic matter (% O.M. = %C x 1.724, The factor 1.724 = 100/58). There is also a close relationship between carbon and nitrogen in soils. Most organic matter average about 5% nitrogen so that the N: C ratio is 1:11.6. Therefore by multiplying the soil organic matter percentage by 0.05 an approximate value for the soil nitrogen, percentage is obtained. In soil the chief source of some of the nutrients essential for plant growth is organic matter, such nutrients are N, S and boron is also largely derived from organic matter.

The major part of soil nitrogen exists in complex combination in the organic compounds. It becomes available to plants after breakdown to simple form followed by mineralization. The chemical methods for determination of soil nitrogen availability involve either direct or indirect of total nitrogen or measurement of a fraction of easily hydrosable nitrogen by employing solution of dilute acid or alkali. Distillation of alkaline potassium permanganate solution has often been adopted for estimating the ox disable and reactive form of soil nitrogen. The available nitrogen in soil is determined by alkaline permanganate method as per procedure suggested by Subbiah and Asija (1956).

Principle

A known weight of the soil is mixed with alkaline potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) solution and distilled. The organic matter present in soil is oxidized by the nascent oxygen, liberated by potassium permanganate, in the presence of sodium hydroxide and the released ammonia is condensed and absorbed in known volume of a boric acid with mix indicator to form ammonium borate, the excess of which is titrated with a standard sulphuric acid.

The term available phosphorus (P) refers to the inorganic form, occurring in soil solution, which is almost exclusively ‘orthophosphate’. The available P is considered to be a fairly good indicator/measure of the P supplying capacity of a soil. A knowledge of available P content of soils is important for determining its critical limit , based on soil-test-crop response calibration study.

Principle

In soil, phosphorus exists in the form of various types of orthophosphates. A very small fraction of these is available to plants at a given time. Available phosphorus content of soil consists mainly of Ca-P, Al-P and Fe-P. In the neutral and alkaline soils particularly, Ca-P is the dominant fraction. Organic –P fraction is also considerable amount, but is usually not include in the determination of available phosphorus. A large number of extractions, buffer solutions, acids and chelating agents have been suggested for available phosphorus from time to time. However, no single extractant appears to be suitable for all types of soils. Two types of extraction methods are more popularly adopted. Under acidic soil conditions, Bray No.1, which involves soil extraction with a solution consisting of 0.003 N NH₄F and 0.025 N HCl is widely followed. The fluoride complexes Al and Fe in soil, thus releasing some bound p besides the easily acid soluble P (largely Ca-P). This extraction is suitable for soils containing less than 2% calcite or dolomite because in calcareous soils, carbonates quickly neutralize the acid, resulting in less extraction of P.

The total potassium content (K) of a soil varies from 0.05 to 2.5%. The total K is distributed in mineral form (90-98%), fixed non-exchangeable (1-10%) and exchangeable plus water soluble K(1-2). Exchangeable K represents an average of 2-15% of the sum of exchangeable bases and 1-3% of the total capacity of cationic exchange.

Principle

It is based on the principle of the equilibrium of the soils with an exchangeable cation mode of the solution of neutral ammonium acetate, in a given soil:solution ratio. During the equilibrium, ammonium ions exchange with the exchangeable K ions of soil.The K content in the equilibrium solution is estimated with a flame photometer.

Sulphur (S) occurs in different forms in soil viz., sulphites, sulphates , sulphides and in organic compounds. Plants absorb S in the form of sulphate(SO₄ ^2-) . The organic forms of S compounds become assimilable, especially following microbiological transformation into SO₄ ^2-. The mineralization of organic sulphur in a soil depends primarily upon the N:S ratio and any SO₄ ^2- formed may be fixed against extraction, particularly if much Fe and Ba is present or if soil is very acidic.

Principle

Beside some amount in the soil solution, available sulphur in mineral soils occurs mainly as adsorbed SO₄ ^2- ions. Both CaCl₂ and phosphate solutions (as monocalcium phosphate) are generally used for replacement of the adsorbed SO₄ ^2- ions. Use of Ca salts have a distinct advantage over those of Na or Na, as Ca prevents deflocculating in heavy textured soils and leads to easy filtration. SO₄ ^2- in the extract can be estimated turbid metrically using a spectrophotometer. Sulphur in the extract can also be measured by colorimetric method using barium chromate but the turbimertic method given below is mainly used in the soil testing laboratories.

Carbonate is a natural constituent of many soils occurring as sparingly soluble, alkaline earth carbonate, chiefly as calcite and dolomite. Most carbonate minerals found in local soils are calcite and account 90% of total soil carbonates. The determination of total carbonate such as CaCO₃in soil is of great interest on account of high useful ess for diagnosing soil status in terms of structure, texture, biological activity or nutrient content. In calcareous soils carbonates exert a major influence on the chemical properties. Also carbonate content is used as a differentiating criterion for some classes at the family level of soil taxonomy.

Principle

A qualitative rapid test for free calcium carbonate is made by adding 10 mL of diluted HCl(1:3) to about 5 g of air dry soil on a watch glass and observing the intensity of effervescence which results from the evolution of CO Based on the . degree of effervescence the amount of calcium carbonate present in the soil can be broadly categorized into “traces or negligible, low, medium, high and very high”. Soils having traces to low amounts of calcium carbonate do not pose any problem. But those showing medium to very high degree of effervescence, a separate quantitative analysis should be carried out using Puri’s rapid titration method.

Calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are the two most abundant alkaline earth cations in soils. They both occur as soluble ions in soil solution, exchangeable, non-exchangeable and in organic material. Soils from arid regions are richer in Ca (1-2% CaO), while those from humid zones have a low content (0.01-0.02% CaO). On the other hand exchangeable Mg is found in very small quantities in calcareous soils. Sometimes, in acid soils, Mg²⁺ represents the largest quantity of the sum of exchangeable bases.

Principle

The method is based on the principle that calcium, magnesium and a number of other cations form stable complexes with versenate (ethylendiaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt, EDTA) at different pH. A known volume of standard calcium solution is titrated with standard 0.01N EDTA solution using murexide (ammonium purpurate) indicator in the presence of NaOH solution.

The end point is a change of color from orange red to purple at pH 12 when the whole of Ca forms a complex with EDTA. Calcium plus Mg are also present in the solution and can be titrated with 0.01N EDTA using buffer solution and a few drops Eriochrome Black T indicator. The end point is a change of color from red to blue at pH 10. Beyond pH 10, magnesium is not bound strongly to Erichrome Black-T indicator to give a distinct end point.

Principle

Carbonate (CO₃) and bicarbonate(HCO₃) ions are species of the same acid, carbonic acid. Their proportionate content is a function of pH. The CO₃ starts to form as pH rises above 8.4. Carbonate and bicarbonate are generally determined in soil saturation extract by titration with 0.01 N H₂SO₄ to pH 8.3 and 4.5, respectively.

Apparatus Required

Burette, pipette, conical flask and mechanical shaker etc

Soluble chloride (Cl) concentration in the extract is determined by silver nitrate titration. This method quantifies the concentration of Cl (meq/L) in the saturation paste extract. Chloride may be determined using anion selective electrode (potentiometric). Plant tolerance to Cl can be related to its concentration in the soil saturation paste extract. The method detection limit is approximately 0.1 meq/L, dependent on the method of analysis, and is generally reproducible within ± 10 %.

Apparatus Required

Burette, pipette, conical flask and mechanical shaker etc

All atoms can absorb light at certain discrete wavelengths corresponding to the energy requirement of the particular atom. When at ground state the atom absorbs light it is transformed into the excited state. It is the same atom containing more energy. This energy is measured in relation to the ground state and a particular excited state say for example in case of Na may be 2.2 eV (electron volts) above the ground state.

Each transition between different electronic energy states is characterized by a different energy and by a different wavelength. These wavelengths are sharply defined and when a range of wavelengths is surveyed, each wavelength shows as a sharp energy maximum (a spectronic line). These characteristic lines distinguish atomic spectra. The lines, which originate in the ground state of atom, are most often of interest in atomic absorption spectroscopy. These are called the resonance lines. The atomic spectrum, characteristic of each element, then comprises a number of discrete lines, some of which are resonance lines. Most of the other lines arise from excited states rather than the ground state. The lines of excited states are not useful generally in atomic absorption analysis as most of the atoms in a practical atomizer are found in the ground state.

Boron occurs as anion in soils and isrequired by plants in very small quantity. Water soluble B makes the estimate of its availability to plants. Total boron in soils varies from 20 to 200 mg kg^-1 and available (water soluble) boron in soils ranges from 0.03 to 12 mg kg^-1 respectively. The threshold value ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 mg kg^-1 (water soluble B) depends upon the soil type, crops, and other factors, below which the response to applied boron may be expected. Its availability is affected by soil pH as under:

A pesticides residue is any substance or mixture of substances in food, agricultural commodities or animal feed resulting from the use of pesticides and includes any specified derivatives such as degradation products and impurities that are considered to be of toxicological significance.

Pesticide residue analysis (PRA) may be defined as the quantitative and qualitative analyses of the representative samples drawn from agricultural field, market and environment for pesticides and their toxic metabolites.

Chromatography is a physical method of separation in which components to be separated is distributed between two phases, one of which is stationary while other moves in a definite direction. By separating the sample into individual components, it is easier to identify (qualitative) and measure the amount (quantitative) of the various sample components. There are numerous chromatographic techniques and corresponding instruments.

Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) is the most widely used analytical technique for estimation of volatile and thermo stable type of pesticides with speed, accuracy, reproducibility and sensitivity.

Although Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) is widely used technique for pesticide residue analysis, it has some limitations. It can analyze of volatile and thermo stable type of pesticides only because it operate at high temperature. These problems have overcome in HPLC. Although HPLC can analyze both polar as well as non-polar type of compounds but it has less sensitivity than GLC.

Principle

Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

For the determination carbamates, the extract is subjected to C-18 solid phase cartridge clean up.

Principle: Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors FPD-P/NPD without cleanup. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

Principle

Pesticide residues are extracted from soil using a mixture of acetone/water in a soxhlet apparatus for 7-8 hours. This extract can be determined directly by GLC.

Scope: This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Principle

Pesticide residues in milk are derived from the intake of pesticide contaminated feed and fodder.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Apparatus required

• Homogenizer
• Centrifuge
• Nitrogen evaporator

Horticultural plants present a kaleidoscopic scenario from small herbs to very big deep rooted perennial trees. The associated rhizospheres present variable conditions as to supply of nutrients, water and air. The principles governing their physical, chemical and biological properties along with their relationship with plants need to be understood clearly. The plants differ in their requirements at various stages of growth; hence their tissues require constant monitoring of nutrient status for better productivity and quality. As nutrient behavior in soils is governed by soil properties and environmental conditions, measurement of such properties is often required. These include pH, salinity, organic matter, CaCO₃ and texture in drier areas the presence of Na and gypsum (CaSO₄2H₂O) is also of concern.The irrigation water is a source of dissolved salts which are also nutrients and in excess impede water and nutrient relations of soil and plant. It requires a thorough understanding of the principles underlying methods of collection, characterization of water, air and nutrient relations of soil-plant system, monitoring of plant nutrient status, quality of irrigation water and soil and water pollution for effective management of nutrients avoiding pollution.

Soil and plant analysis is a diagnostic instrument for soil fertility and basis for fertilizer recommendation; to know where and where not fertilizer is to be applied. Obtaining accurate and precise values has always being the basis of soil analysis.

Introduction

The objective of soil sampling is to obtain reliable information about a particular soil. The value of laboratory data in soil studies largely depends on effective sampling. Soil sampling is one of the most important aspects in the determination of the properties of the soil. Care in preparation and analysis can overcome the damages of careless or inappropriate sampling in the field (Bates, 1993). Errors arising from sampling are mainly related to spatial variability of the soil. While keeping in mind financial constraints, sampling procedures should be adopted properly to minimize the influence of spatial variability and to maximize the accuracy of mean plot values for the measured soil variables. The obtained soil data should be representative for the whole observation plot, taking into consideration the spatial variability of the soil within the plot.

Importance of soil sampling

Soil sampling and testing are done to provide an estimate of the capacity of the soil to supply adequate amount of nutrients to meet the needs of growing crops and information to its nature and problem. Traditionally, the goal of soil sampling is to develop a representative estimate of a field. A few grams of soil are actually used for the laboratory analysis. That small amount must represent the entire area for which the recommendation is to be made. The samples should be collected in such a way that it would represent the area for which recommendation is to be made.