eChapters

4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Overview of Genomics in Biotechnology
The genome of an organism serves as the ‘blueprint of life’ (Baeza, 2024) and functions as an information repository (Goldman & Landweber, 2016), containing the necessary information for the synthesis of molecules, cells, and tissues (Abera et al., 2017). A study of the entire collection of genes within an organism’s genome is known as genomics (NIH, 2022; WHO, 2025). Genomics encompasses aspects of genetics, focusing on the comprehensive characterization of an organism’s entire set of genes rather than on individual genes (Baeza, 2024). The investigation of living organisms has undergone a transformation through the application of genomics and related fields, providing unique insights that enhance various applications aimed at improving human life, economic conditions (Kalaitzandonakes et al., 2023), and environmental sustainability (Mudaliar et al., 2023).
According to a genomic analysis, 80% of the 6,000 rare disorders have genetic causes (Brittain et al., 2017). Cancer, a genetic disease, has revealed through DNA sequencing the mutational events and oncogenic drivers (D. Wang et al., 2023). Genomic tests contribute significantly to the prediction and prevention of diseases, including familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) (Brittain et al., 2017). Agricultural industries are currently confronting multiple challenges, including global changes in climate (Bai et al., 2024), growing populations (Putri et al., 2019), resource depletion (Feng et al., 2023), reduction of cultivable land (Mirzabaev et al., 2023), and the prevalence of pathogens (Hossain & Roslan, 2023). Advances in genomic technologies, such as DNA sequencing and gene editing, have transformed the field. DNA sequencing includes; Nextgeneration sequencing (NGS) (Marudamuthu et al., 2023), Ribonucleic acid sequencing (RNA-seq) (Upton et al., 2023), whereas, gene editing methods includes; Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat- CRISPR associated protein 9 (CRISPR/ Cas9) (Q. Liu et al., 2021), Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENS) Zinc-finger nucleases (ZNF) (Malzahn et al., 2017) and Oligonucleotide directed mutagenesis (ODM) (Ravikiran et al., 2025) as well as doubled haploids (Chen et al., 2024), molecular markers (Kumar et al., 2024) and mapping populations (Temesgen, 2021), offers potential solutions against such agricultural challenges (Hossain & Roslan, 2023). Genome sequencing techniques are applied to various fields of industrial biotechnology such as; strain development or improvement (Salazar-Cerezo et al., 2023), enzyme discovery (Zaparucha et al., 2018) and analysis of microbial community (Hosokawa et al., 2022). The potential to enhance microbial strains through the incorporation, deletion, or alteration of

Introduction
The eco-friendly and commercially sustainable production has been a crucial aspect of modern commercial development. The ecologically sustainable microbial production of value-added products has seen rapid growth across multiple sectors, such as food, pharmaceuticals, and energy, resulting in notable economic benefits and social advancements on a global scale (Shi et al., 2022). The development of “omics” technologies has aided the improvement of microbial production processes through diverse omics procedures, such as genomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, and systems biology (Amer and Baidoo, 2021). These omics approaches give important understandings into the widespread metabolic variations, thereby identifying the factors that affect microbial production efficiency and improving the understanding of targeted optimization strategies. The integration of omics approaches is considered essential for any strategies that aim to be industrially sustainable. Industrial activities depend on the cultivation and accessibility of significantly competent microbial species to optimize bioproduct yields (Keasling, 2012). Recent progress in the industrial generation of value-added products heavily depends on strategies rooted in omics. Typically, the industry can achieve cost-effective production of limited quantities of biopharmaceuticals (Harris et al., 2015). Nevertheless, to sustainably scale up production capacities, economically feasible alternatives must be planned, standardised, and developed. Over the past few decades, microbes with enhanced abilities for superior product generation have been identified (Babar et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2015). Latest improvements in metabolic engineering have aided the manipulation of various genetic components, including coding and regulatory regions, to maximize commercial benefits (Babar et al., 2018). Genomic methodologies aim to investigate the variations among individuals at both the germline and somatic levels by sequencing specific genomes. The transition from DNA microarray technology to DNA sequencing has enabled the thorough sequencing of entire genomes, providing a detailed characterization of an organism’s genomic landscape (Dai and Shen, 2022) whereas, transcriptomics involves the analysis of mRNA, microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs. The methods used in transcriptomics are designed to identify and enumerate RNA molecules transcribed from a specific genome at a particular time. Proteomics on the other hand focuses on understanding the functional significance of all proteins expressed within a cell, tissue, or organism by examining the flow of information via protein signalling and metabolomics contributed a vital part in the development of bioprocesses by providing a comprehensive overview of metabolic activities (Horgan and Kenny, 2011; Petricoin et al., 2002). Synthetic biology contributes a vital part in the production of high-performance strains for microbial manufacturing. A variety of microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and microalgae can be employed in microbial production. However, synthetic biology methods primarily emphasis on the balanced blueprint of biosynthetic metabolisms for target outcome, as well as the creation and standardisation of these pathways and the heterologous production of the biosynthetic components (Wan et al., 2023). These approaches include the optimisation of fermentation process, optimisation of medium composition, scale up of fermentation, optimization of cell growth for manufacture of desired product, and strategies to decrease feedback inhibition and product toxicity (Figure 3.1) (Wan et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2022).

Introduction
Wide range of industrially important products such as antibiotics, vitamins, enzymes, polymers, amino acids, biofuels are produced by microbes in extremely small quantities. Using microbial strains that generate an elevated amount of the intended product is a prerequisite for effective biotechnological procedures at the industrial scale. But since this isn’t an intrinsic feature of the chosen microorganism, changes to their genetic makeup may help to navigate this. Therefore, in order to overproduce the target metabolite and increase process efficiency, industrially relevant microorganisms are exposed to a range of treatments employing physical, chemical, or genetic methods. Thus, microbial strain improvement is the process of improving the biosynthetic capacities of microorganisms to generate the desired product in greater quantities.
Recycling resources and promoting sustainable development have grown in importance in recent years. Cosmetics, food, fuels, lubricants, plastics, drinks, fibres, and medications are just a few of the goods that are being biosynthesised due to the growing popularity of biological production of commercially significant metabolites (Kaur et al., 2012). The rising bioeconomy’s success hinges on our capacity to produce high-performing strains efficiently and economically. One successful strain engineering strategy is the Design–Build– Test–Learn (DBTL) framework. The strain engineering process must be viewed from the perspective of optimising the entire cycle rather than just increasing productivity at each stage, if strain development time and cost is to drastically cut down. We suggest a strategy that incorporates all four phases of the DBTL cycle and leverages the latest developments in phenotyping techniques, high-throughput genome engineering, computational design, and machine learning tools to forecast strain scale-up efficiency. By substituting sustainable alternatives made from renewable feedstock for petroleum-based products and ingredients derived from animals or wild-harvested plants, microbial biomanufacturing of chemicals, materials and biomolecules promises to lower greenhouse gas emissions, enhance land use and promote sustainability. But doing so necessitates creating reliable and effective industrial strains that can generate a variety of goods at reasonable costs. Enhancing the effectiveness of the strain engineering process is necessary to lower development cost, time in order to take advantage of market potential in all bioeconomy industries.
Over the past few decades, technical advancements in genome engineering have significantly boosted our capacity to engineer biological systems. The strain engineering process has been significantly sped and enhanced by synthetic biology methods like as genome editing using CRISPR (clustered

Introduction 
A broad definition of bioprocessing is the process of creating a valuable product from a live source. The system’s most important element is that the source organism is living and sensitive to its surroundings. Accordingly, the framework states that it will respond to relatively small changes in its physico-chemical environment by modifying its physiology to maximise efficiency. The use of entire cells and enzymes to catalyse bioprocesses in industrial settings is becoming more popular these days than conventional chemical synthetic methods. Among the many benefits of biotransformations in this context are their extensive substrate portfolio (including liquid, solid, and gas waste), one-pot reactions in mild circumstances and environmental friendliness. However, a number of drawbacks, including the unstable nature of biocatalysts and subpar performance in specific reaction conditions, the low solubility of some substrates in the reaction medium, substantial production expenses brought on by intricate downstream processing and product isolation and the lack of expertise in microbiology or bioprocess design, frequently make it difficult to scale up bioprocesses from the lab to the manufacturing facility. There is a growing need for innovative bioprocesses that can get over the aforementioned obstacle in industrial and environmental biotechnology in order to create effective, sustainable, and affordable processes. As a result, the industrial sector requires new methods that use biocatalysts that are highly active and stable under a variety of reaction conditions (typically accomplished through metabolic engineering), boost feedstock utilisation by using inexpensive waste resources, use green chemistry solutions that enable the use of fewer toxic solvents and reagents, or develop cost-effective biorefinery concepts that can transform industrial waste and byproducts into products with added value, thereby establishing new value chains. Figure 1.1 shows the three stages of a typical bioprocess: upstream processing, bioreaction and downstream processing which includes separation and purification steps. Every stage of these phases offers multiple chances to enhance a certain bioprocess.

After the Green Revolution, it is now time for an Ever-Green Revolution based on Eco Agriculture or Agroecology. In 2018, the FAO described Agroecology/Eco Agriculture as a means to transform food and agriculture systems by addressing root causes and emphasizing the improvement of efficiency in resource use, conserving, protecting and improving livelihoods, promoting equality and well-being and enhancing the resilience of people, communities and ecosystems. A timely transition to a sustainable eco-agriculture approach is essential to protect food security, the well-being of people and farmers prosperity. Eco Agriculture is a broad term that can inclusively refer to agroecology, regenerative, organic, natural, jaivik, etc, and is increasingly being recognized as the way to help save the planet. While discussing this with Prof Swaminathan and the ICFA team, the idea of a Working Group emerged. When I was requested to form the Eco Agri Working Group through ICFA, I consulted with different sectors and tried to determine the “why” and “how” of the impending Eco Agri Revolution.
WHY
The past sixty years led to Green Revolution and alongwith that ‘success’ several adverse impacts and the changing global situation as noted in Table – 1 are the reasons for the need for an Evergreen Revolution based on Eco Agriculture

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that is most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded! In January 2016, a global team was invited by the office of Prime Minister of India to discuss and prepare an approach paper on Agro-ecology ( or Eco Agriculture including Organic farming). The team consisted of J. Fagan, Hans Harren, M.H. Mehta and A. Thimmaiah who after intensive discussions had prepared several presentations – first given to the group of top officials of Government of India departments and institutions as organized through the office of the prime minister. This was later followed by a meeting with Prime Minister Modi. During this meeting, the clear question asked was, “You need not convince us that agro ecology and organic farming are the way forward, but the question is how? How do we expand this system to national scale ?”

Agriculture is increasingly being looked through the angle of environment and sustainability now. On global scale, the move is towards a balanced need for food production and ecological factors. Green revolution made a huge contribution for food security but now we face the following challenges.
1. Since the green revolution, land has witnessed an indiscriminate and prolonged use of chemicals and the strong need for moving away to more eco-friendly farming is felt.
2. We need to promote eco technologies which integrate the principles of ecology in technology development and dissemination. We also need to promote production and use of biological software for sustainable agriculture and food security.
Therefore, the terms like Regenerative Agriculture, Nature base solutions, Agro Ecology, Eco Agriculture, Conservation Agriculture, Organic Farming, Holistic Resource Management, Climate Smart Agriculture, Prakrutik Kheti etc etc have been gaining prominence in policy and funding spaces related to food systems. Global policy floors like the UN Food Systems Summit and the UN Climate and biodiversity conferences have used these terms as bywords for Sustainable Development. Different Names – Eco Agriculture Revolution Encompasses all ! Regenerative Agriculture is defined by many in ways that closely resemble Agro Ecology / Eco Agriculture. Broadly it describes farming, ranching and pastoral practices that stabilize our planet’s climate and carbon cycles by rehabilitating organic matter and microbial activity in the soil, thereby increasing carbon storage, retaining moisture and safeguarding bio diversity and living systems.

It is well understood that the impact of climate change on agriculture and food security will be critical. The variation in climate influences the productivity of crops, livestocks and fisheries.
The major points to remember are
Climate changes are increasingly impacting agriculture and food security adversely.
Cereal productivity may decrease by 10 – 40% by 2100.
Negative effect on livestock productivity and increased disease.
Achieving Millennium Development Goals (MDG) will become more difficult.
Further, it is also estimated that : Cost of Climate Change will be equivalent of loosing 5 to 20% of GDP (N. Stern : World Bank).Sustainable Agriculture practice could absorb a third of the CO2. Globally, about 800 m $ / day is spent on direct / indirect subsidies. Among other things, it is suggested that encouraging Eco Agriculture is the way out. We must transform 1.5 b ha into Eco / Agri Farming. Small farmers to play BIG role. At the COP28 summit in Dubai, food and agriculture declaration was signed by over 130 world leaders on Sustainable Agriculture and a commitment to mobilize over $2.5 billion to tackle climate issues related to agriculture
COP and 4 per 1000 initiative
Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCC (United Nations Frame Work on Climate Change) has been making significant efforts to mitigate the adverse climate change efforts. At COP 21 in Paris, a landmark agreement was reached to combat climate change and accelerate actions for sustainable low carbon future. COP 22 at Morocco will focus on short, medium and long

In the last several decades many international forums and institutions have discussed and agreed that food and water security are the most important issues for the future. The damage to the ecology directly affects the food, land, water, health and the livelihood. Agricultural progress serves as the best way to fight poverty, hunger and livelihood problems. Though in the last few decades, billions of pages about hunger, food and water security have been written, thousands of conferences have been organized, the urgency of action plans and creating holistic models is the most important need. For this, we must require bold reforms and action oriented programs which can reach the smallest farmers and give an optimistic signal rather than a despondent picture. Developmental models that are holistic and close to nature, sustainable and based on inclusiveness considering ‘unto the last’ women and man are the need of the day. Land and water together with biodiversity and atmosphere conditions are the foundations for sustainable food security. The ecological damage to these foundations are leading to lowering of productivity and livelihood. This will further aggregate with the threat of climate changes such as temperature, rain falls and sea level rise. As per the exercise by World Food Program, it is indicated that the green revolution states like Punjab and Haryana may become food insecure in another 20 years. Food insecurity is measure in terms of land degradation and salinization, ground water tables and green cover loss. *Based on Key Note address at Global Water Meet for Climate Change Adaptation – Agrarian Perspectives : 24 – 26 OCT. 2016 – UAS – DHARWAD – INDIA
Our Soils
The year 2015 was declared ‘ The International Year of Soil’. This is understandable. A healthy soil is key to farm productivity and healthy life (Annexure – 1). In India, out of 306 m. ha reported under various land uses,

In contrast to the traditional universities, agricultural universities have been entrusted with the Herculean task of technology dissemination at the grass root level such that the package of practices evolved by the agricultural scientists should reach out the end-users, viz. farmers , for adopting in the field, with consequent increment in the farm productivity and farmer’s income. This unique mandate has been assigned to agricultural universities on the pattern of land grant colleges of the United States. Such vision and trust, envisaged by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his devout lieutenants, herald creation of state agricultural universities (SAUs) in the early 1960s. The key role played by SAUs in the first green revolution and agricultural human resources development have been regarded as the milestones in the history of India post-independence, that made the country self-sufficient in food production and, in turn, to self reliance in milk, vegetables, fruits and inland fish production. Today, India has set fourth into commanding position as a global economic power, with primary and secondary sectors, viz. agriculture and industry, contributing modestly. At the current pace of the growth rate, I would not hesitate to predict that by the year 2020, we will accomplish the top lines both in terms of productivity and sustainability, by transforming hitherto deemed liability of population into a formidable asset of human resource capital.
Hunger-free World
Agriculture is a vital development tool for achieving the Millennium Development Goals that call for halving by 2015 the number of people, suffering from extreme poverty and hunger. We also note that more than 50% of the people in the world are small and resource-poor farmers and another 20% rural land less. The challenge is to transform this

To most of us Prof. Swaminathan was a great Scientist, humanist and true global leader. I am blessed to have been associated with Prof. Swaminathan. From a brilliant scholar to a visionary global leader, he had continuously moved to higher and higher level of achievements. The nine decades of his life can be divided in 4 phases – Brilliant & dreamy student, devoted scientist and Science Manager, a visionary and missionary solving the hunger problem and a global citizen and humanist. The vision and drive had taken him to extraordinary heights – Like Maharshi Patanjali has said in Yoga Sutra– “When you are inspired by some great purpose, some extraordinary vision, all your thoughts break their bond. Your mind transcends limitations, your consciousness expands in every direction and you find yourself in a new, great wonderful world.” Among many things, I also recollect his inspiration when I was planning GSFC Science Foundation and later the activities of Gujarat Agricultural University.

“Where is your Dhoti, Dr. Mehta ?” Dr. Varghese Kurien surprised me as I entered his office at IRMA (Institute of Rural Management Anand). That was April 2000, soon after I had taken over as the Vice Chancellor of the erstwhile Gujarat Agricultural University (GAU) and had decided to call on him during my visit to the Anand Campus. (At that time GAU was the largest University in Asia with four main campuses – Dantiwada, Anand, Junagadh and Navsari and about 65 experimental farms / stations spreaded all over). Earlier, I did have some interactions with Dr. Kurien. When at GSFC Ltd., we had introduced Nylon – 6 Engineering plastic. I had discussed with my team of Research and Application Development Engineers about multi layer packaging of dairy products where Nylon – 6 can have a good market potential which we used to discuss with Amul. Also, our work on Bio Fertilizers and Bio Pesticides had indirect interest to them. So, when suddenly I was offered the position of Vice Chancellor of GAU and was in a dilemma, I went for his advice. After all, he had held the same position earlier (in addition to AMUL). I explained about the offer and said that I was not too sure about accepting it. He, on the contrary, encouraged me to accept it saying “you can do a lot !” I just murmured,” But I am not an agriculture graduate. I am a Chemical Engineer!” To which he jokingly said – “So ?. I am a Metallurgical Engineer. And now I am a Dudhwala!”

for limitation of world fresh water supply, farmland availability, salinity ingression and the pressing future need of food supply. The cultivation of salttolerant crops on saline soil and with saline waters has significant social and economic potential. It is often argued that fresh water agriculture near rivers and ponds was invented because of the need to sustain people and communities. Saline water agriculture is going to be needed for sustaining our future generations and civilization.
FROM DESALINATION OF SEA WATER TO SEA WATER AGRICULTURE
Sea water contains nearly 35000 ppm of dissolved salts. There has been great deal of interest world wide on desalination of sea and brackish water to safe drinking water. In early 1960s the young President of USA John Kennedy put forward two famous challenges for the scientists (1) Landing the man on moon and (2) Producing desalinated water at low and competitive cost. It is often said that the first challenge was met but the second one has been more difficult! With tremendous support and interest, work on desalination was taken up worldwide. Newer processes were being tried. At the Environmental Research Lab of University of Arizona and at Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar simultaneously solar powered HD (humidification – dehumidification) process of Desalination was developed and pilot plants were commissioned. It was however realized that desalinated water was costly and not easily applicable to most coastal communities, though for many countries in middle east with no alternative water source and cheap petroleum energy – it is applicable on a very large scale.

The Late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam is described as a great patriot, visionary leader and the 11th President of India ( 2002 – 2007 ). The country would have celebrated his 84th birth day on 15th October 2015. To many like me, he was the most ideal role model that the youth of India needed, in recent time. He emerged as a complete human-being who touched the lives of people. My first meeting with himwas when he visited IPCL in eighties - as the DRDO Chief to discuss about Carbon Fiber and Composites. I was heading GSFC’s R & D Centre and other facilities like engineering plastic Nylon – 6 and their Composites and hence was invited to join the discussions. That interaction left a strong impression in my mind. Later when I became Vice Chancellor of Gujarat Agricultural University, I had many more opportunities to meet him and was often surprised at his deep rooted interest and knowledge in every sphere of Science & Technology. Subsequently, to my delight, I received an invitationfrom his office on the eve of 26th January evening - at home with the President and later was given more time for a one-to-one meeting the next day. Walking across the corridors of the Rashtrapathi Bhavan, the atmosphere looked rather formal and uneasy for me, but, as I was ushered into his room, I saw Dr. Kalam wearing his favourite blue shirt and smiling. He moved forward and greeted me with the same friendliness and warmth. As we started talking about Agriculture scenario, the work I was planning and the future prospects, I marveled at his understanding and insight and left the room truly inspired. Later, I was fortunate to have many more meetings and interactions with him. In fact, during myfrequent visits to Delhi as the Chairman of National Agri Technology – nrdc, I would call at his residence in the evenings at Rajaji Marg to discuss different developments and get his guidance. It soon became clear to his efficient Secretaries to inform me in advance and arrange a meeting with him whenever he would visit Anand or Vadodara. In one such meeting at theCircuit House in Vadodara, I took my 8 year old Grand Daughteralongwith me. He enquired briefly about the progress in my work in Bio Technology and Agriculture in the first 2 minutes but later turned his entire attention to the little girl. It was amazing the way he interacted and talked with much love and

All agriculture universities have three main Directorates – Education, Research and Extension of the three, I have often observed that Extension Department comes in for maximum criticism. ‘Loose links’ and need to do much more in transfer of knowledge and technology are frequently emphasized at various levels – especially in meetings with farmers groups. This is understandable – as it is said that less than 10% - often less than 6% of lab scale knowledge and development reach the farmers fields in developing countries and even in many ‘developed’ counties. The situation is much more challenging when we consider a large population of small and marginal farmers – who as we saw can play extremely important role in eco-agriculture. A large percent of such farmers – women and men are practicing eco friendly agriculture without realizing it. Their ‘ignorance’ can be converted in to advantage and new opportunity. The age old extension practice of reaching farmers through meetings, visit , seminars, camps, demonstrations all have limitations and need to be ‘scaled up’. New developments in information and communication Technology offer a great opportunity for a big jump in reaching the unreached. Again to alarge population of ‘Green Revolution’ – there is a new hope and opportunity.
ICT in Agriculture
The potential for using ICT in agriculture can be divided broadly under two heads (1) as a tool for direct contribution to agricultural productivity and (2) as an empowering tool for the farmer to take and quality decisions. There have been several excellent examples of practical use of ICT in Agriculture and expectations are rising such that a major transformation

Rivers are the most important system for water, for irrigation and human settlement. Historically, civilizations always nucleated near rivers, and latter also had social and religious significance. Rivers in India are considered holy and play the most important part in the lives of people, fauna & flora and the future environmental system. The Ganga Basin is the largest river basin in India which includes the Ganga, the Yamuna, the Ghagra, the Gandak, the Kaveribasin etc. Compared to these, the Vishwamitri River, situated between Mahi River in North and Narmada River in South in Central Gujarat is a small seasonal river but it is very important for the city of Vadodara and Central Gujarat region. This seasonal river originates from Pavagadh hills and flows east to west. It is a typical small river with the kind of problems in most rivers in India and other countries – liquid and solid wastes, enouncements, blocking of water ways, floods in monsoon months and dry dumping basin during most other months etc.
RIVERS & THEIR REVIVAL
River basin planning and watershed management were the centerpieces of water resource planning at the dawn of the era. For most of the century, however, natural resource policies and pressures led to watershed degradation. Today, the resources value of watershed ecosystems are being rediscovered. Watershed management reflects the recognition that we can only sustain biodiversity by managing the future ecosystem.
VISHWAMITRI RIVER
In a well researched book ‘Vishwamitri Mahatmyam’ edited by Thaker of oriental Institute – Vadodara the history, glory and mythological details of the ancient river Vishwamitri has been brought out. It is said that the river

Bioshields offer barriers of vegetation, shrubs, small and big trees and if integrated as a well designed system they can greatly help our coastal as well as inland areas. Though primarily looked at for coastal regions, under a broader definition Bioshields can play important role in semi-desert areas, hills, etc. also.
Why Bioshield ?
Bioshields or Biobarriers can make a major contribution in minimizing the effects of storms, cyclones and Tsunamis and at the same time offer short and long term ecological and livelihood benefits.
• Bio-Shields in coastal areas include raising mangroves, casurina, palms, bamboo & other tree species and halophytes like Salicornia, etc. followed by other regular plants for the land.
• They serve as speed-breakers under conditions of coastal storms, cyclones and tsunami.
• In addition, they serve as carbon sinks, since they help to enhance carbon sequestration and sustainable fisheries and agriculture.
• Integration of Bio-shield with livelihood options and eco-restoration by developing different site specific models is therefore very important.
For example- the case of two villages near Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu is often taken. During the devastating Tsunami sometime back, the village with plantation- a natural bioshield was saved with hardly any loss of life as against a nearby village with no natural bioshield. Several such examples are available world over. This indicates that if we can have a good, scientifically designed bioshield, it can be of a great help. This concept is bound to get much greater emphasis when we consider the increasing effect and danger due to climate change in the coming years.

The recent earthquake in Nepal brings back memories of 26th January 2001. While the nation was busy in celebrating Republic Day, an earthquake shattered Gujarat especially Kutch and Saurashtra regions. A large number of buildings and houses collapsed within moments. Thousands were injured and many lost their lives and many more became homeless. Bhachau – Kutch soon after the earthquake in 2001 (Picture – 1) Kutch received quick responses from all over the world and a large number of individuals, institutions, government and semi-government bodies, professional experts, religious and social organizations etc. sprang into action to bring back some normalcy in the lives. However, long-term rehabilitation program based on scientific planning is most vital after such disasters. Since agriculture was the main source of livelihood of majority of Kutch people, a plan based on scientific agriculture and integration of the same with livelihood, nutritional and long term social considerations was required. It has also been observed that new and appropriate technology can be fast adopted even by small and marginal farmer women and men under such circumstances.

Irrigation status at the national level
Out of the 140 m ha of net sown area in the country, 50 m ha ia under irrigation working out to a percentage of about 35. In the different states, the net irrigation per cent varies from 12 in Mizoram to as high as 90 in Punjab. Though at national level the contribution from canal and under ground water are almost equal, yet in Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and the other North eastern states, it is predominantly canal system, while in Gujarat , Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh and ground water predominates as the source. In Tamil Nadu, tank irrigation is an important irrigation source with almost Quarter of the irrigated area under this system. In the other southern states as well as in Orissa also tank system is in vogue to a considerable extent. The unscientific water use in both canal and lift irrigated commands has resulted in raising water table in the first case and fast receding ground water table in the second case. Thus, there is an imminent need for reducing the irrigation water application in agriculture with out affecting the yield and there by increasing the Water Use Efficiency (WUE) The options for increasing the water productivity/improve the WUE are discussed here.
Prevention of water losses in transportation system
Huge quantity of water is lost during the transportation of water from the source (reservoir/main canal! tank/ wells) to the field and till it reaches the root zone. Hardly 20 to 40 per cent of the water released reaches the root zone. The irrigation efficiency can be increased by the selection of proper method of irrigation along with proper design. Apart from the high evaporative and seepage losses occurring at the reservoirs and main canal, considerable amount of water is lost as seepage and evaporation in minors, distributaries, field channel etc. The losses occurring in a typical project in the alluvial plains as reported by the Second Irrigation Commission is given in table 2.

Since many decades environmentalists have warned of perils of chemicalised sports grounds, golf courses and cricket fields. They warn that our health is inextricably linked to the widespread use of toxic chemicals and also complain about the non-availability of safe alternatives.
Eco-sustainable sports fields must use the methods
• That do not pollute
• That are environment-friendly and effective
• That economize on the use of water and energy
Organizations like ECOCERT have prepared guidelines for Eco-sustainable fields including guidelines to take care of soils and turf, use of water including recyclation and use of only eco-friendly and certified compost and organic fertilizers.
Typical Golf Courses are heavy users of pesticides and water. UNESCO World Water Development report found that an 18 hole golf course can use as much as 2.3 million liters of water every day. With the increasing awareness and concern about health and environment, the demand for eco-friendly sports fields are on the rise.
Phil Weaver – Chairman of the Professional Golfer Association (PGA) has stated that “we are keen to have a more environmental approach to the golf industry. I am not sure organic is totally achievable but it is a great aim”. A numerous environmental certification system have been set up for golf courses that lead the way in terms of chemical reduction there are many limitations and difficulties. Some courses are making great sides, with recycling systems, minimum or no chemical use and alternative bio inputs. In BOX – 1 & 2 such examples are given which are typical.

Normally we associate our agriculture and food supply with farms and villages. The new trends of greener cities and urban and peri urban horticulture (UPH) are emerging very fast. Towns and cities in the world’s developing countries are growing at great speed. Ten years ago, an estimated 40 percent of the developing world’s population or 2 billion people lived in urban areas. Since then, their numbers have expanded twice as fast as total population growth, to more than 2.5 billion. By 2025, more than half the developing world’s population of 3.5 billion will be urban. Again most of the world’s fastest growing cities are in Asia and Africa with young population. The concept of “Green Cities” is being discussed for environmental sustainability. However, the core principles of Greener Cities can guide urban development that ensures food security, clean environment and economic well being. Urban and peri-urban horticulture, together with eco-friendly home and public gardens and sports fields can offer a solution for a better future.
Greener Cities and Eco Agriculture
FAO’s program for UPH is major initiative and the following advantages and plans taken from FAO’s report make the reasons clear : Urban and peri-urban horticulture (or UPH) is the cultivation of a wide range of crops - including fruit, vegetables, roots, tubers and ornamental plants - within cities and towns and in their surrounding areas. It is estimated that 130 million urban residents in Africa and 230 million in Latin America engage in agriculture, mainly horticulture, to provide food for their families or to earn income from sales. The FAO program have demonstrated how horticulture helps empower the urban poor, and contributes to their food security and nutrition. But it can

Indian Government has several developmental programmes to promote agriculture and rural sector. It includes Drought Prone Area Program, Antodaya Programme, Integrated Rural Development Programme, Hill Area Development Programme, Desert Development Programme, Intensive Jawahar Rojgar Yojna and Employment Assurance Scheme, Indira Awaas Yojna, Integrated Waste Land Development Programme, National Food Security Mission, National Horticulture Mission, etc. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) has the main focus to provide guaranteed employment for 100 days in a year to every rural household. Since 2014, the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan has been a major initiative by the Government of India.
THE FOOD SECUR3ITY BILL
The Food Security Bill is here. Some of the salient features are
Nearly 82 crore (820 m) poor people to get food grains at highly subsidized rate, nearly 20 crore poor in urban areas and 62 crore in rural areas will be eligible to get 5 kg rice, wheat and coarse grains at Rs.3, 2 and 1 respectively. Additionally for pregnant women, there will be a provision for free food for 10 months and for children below 7 years, food will be free. There is one danger point feared in this scheme that in the long run, many farmers will stop farming and go for easier way for casual labour and take food security cover in stead of farming the low production lands. But on the other hand we should look at the solution to this keeping in mind that the Food Security Bill is here and how best we can build on our strength rather than weakness. The areas of strength to look for should be :

Reducing the input costs in farming, especially agrochemicals and improving the yields of farm products in environmentally sustainable way, is one of the most important challenges. World over, the understanding of alternative eco-friendly inputs and intelligent integration of such products with the farming practices are the areas which need to be emphasized, understood and demonstrated. Our experience of working with farmers in different regions has convinced us that they all are looking for alternative, eco-friendly and cost effective inputs and the only way to convince them is practical demonstrations. Eco safe farming is a global challenge and needs combined efforts of NGOs and farmers bodies, private and public sector industries and scientists in the institutions and universities. There are many challenges and many success stories and some typical once are listed here.
1. POTATO IN BIHAR
Bihar Government planned a major program in 2011 – 12 for taking up large scale organic farming. A group of experts was invited to discuss and help this initiative. After a systematic planning and joint participation of the state Government, public and private sectors a package of bio inputs was prepared. The results with respect to productivity increase were extremely encouraging as reproduced from a case study paper in BOX – 1

Large quantities of crop residues are produced and if properly used, they can provide cost effective means for supplying organic matter, plant nutrients and improved soil health. The highly lignocellulosic nature of crop residues indicate their potential role in maintaining soil organic matter and enriching the soils with N-rich microbial biomass resulting from decompositions. However, their indiscriminate handling often burning leads to decline in soil health, air pollution and overall loss. Since most crop residues find use as feed and fuel, efficient recycling of the remaining amount can have very significant
and positive effect.
The data regarding five major crops are shown. Even after use of some of them as animal feed they offer a great opportunity of using them back in to the soils which are hungry for organic carbon and other matters. Practice of Crop Residue Burning
The problem of collection and transport of crop residue and the short timebetween harvesting of one crop and making the farm free for the second crop has led to the harmful practices of crop residue burning. If instead of burning it, the residues can be incorporated into soils, a host of heterotrophic microorganisms bring about minor discharge of carbon and other elements contained in plant residues. A large increases in beneficial soil microbial populations and organic carbon can be achieved

There is a great need to reduce the input costs and at the same time improve the farm productivity in a sustainable manner. A model has been worked out based on a number of field demonstration studies in different parts of India, Africa and Far Eastern countries. A model in which input cost can be reduced by nearly 20 percent and at the same time the crop production can be enhanced upto 20 percent is possible and can be a boon to farmers in most parts of the world. This is the model, which can be easily adopted in an evolutionary way. As suggested by Jonathan Foley (BOX – 1), use of high-tech, precision farming systems, as well as approaches borrows from organic farming, we can boost farm productivity substantially.
Among 8 millennium goals, eradication of poverty and hunger and environmental sustainability are perhaps the most prominent and complementary. The Green Revolution changed India from (and many other countries) from being food deficit to food sufficient / surplus state. Time is now for a new and Sustainable Revolution.
If we look at the challenge that agriculture sector has to face during the next few decades, it is clearly to double the food production by 2025 and triple it by 2050 on less per capita land, with less water and under environmentally challenging conditions.
Let us look at the current scenario and some major developments.
• Indian farmers spend nearly Rs.2 Lakh crores (1 Lakh = 100000& 1 Cr
= 10 Million) on inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides.
• Nearly Rs.50,000 crores goes as fertilizer (chemical) subsidy.
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers in India hasreduced soil fertility and food production (Green Peace & Vishwa Bharti report – 2009). Fertilizer use efficiency is drastically declining. (It has already come down from 19 Kg food grains per kg fertilizer in mid 60s to 12 kg/kg in 2007).
• Our soils are hungrier for organic carbon. The carbon transfers and trans-formations at the soil or even the cell level can delineate the other nutrients such as N, P, S etc that become available to plants and microorganisms.

Agriculture worldwide is undergoing a profound shift toward sustainability, driven by the need for increased productivity and environmental stewardship. Among the many innovations shaping this transition, biostimulants have gained prominence as a vital tool for enhancing crop performance, improving soil health, and promoting sustainable farming. Unlike conventional agrochemicals, biostimulants work by activating natural plant processes, enhancing nutrient uptake, and increasing resilience to environmental stress. The global agrichemical industry now distinctly categorizes biopesticides, biofertilizers and biostimulants.
WHAT ARE BIOSTIMULANTS?
Biostimulants are natural synthetic substances that enhance plant growth and development without being fertilizer or pesticides. They work by improving nutrient uptake, increasing stress resistance, and stimulating beneficial microbial activity in the soil. Unlike chemical fertilizers, which directly supply nutrients, biostimulants enhance the plant’s ability to utilize nutrients more efficiently.
TYPES OF BIOSTIMULANTS
Biostimulants are categorized based on their composition and mode of action:
Humic and Fulvic Acids – Improve soil structure, enhance nutrient availability and increase root growth.
Seaweed Extracts – Rich in phytohormones and trace elements that promote plant growth and stress resistance.
Amino Acids – Play a crucial role in protein synthesis and help plants recover from environmental stress.
Microbial Biostimulants – Beneficial bacteria and fungi that enhance nutrient uptake and improve soil health.
Brassinoloilds & Tricontanols – Help in vegetative growth and fruit development.
Alkaloids – Improve plant defense mechanism.

Composting is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is a natural process of decomposition and recycling of organic material into humus rich soil amendment. At the simplest level, the process of composting requires making a heap of organic material sprinkled with water which break down to humus after a period of weeks or months. However, modern bio composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air and carbon and nitrogen rich ( in proper C:N ratio ) materials.
The term composting is used and understand world wide with different
meanings. ( I remember a funny incidence in China when during my talk I mentioned that the process of bio composting does not appear to be understood by more than 80% people. Objecting to this, the President of the academy got up and said “80% is a wrong figure! More than 95% people do not understand it !!”). For many people, composting is used to refer to several types of biological process often calling it “anaerobic digestion”. The microbes used and the process involved are quite different between composting and anaerobic digestion.
Ingredients for Bio Composting
Bio Composting organisms require four important ingredient to function well:

At an Agri Summit, I had an in-enviable task to chair a session on “Sustainable Future”, with two well-known but extremely opposite personalities. On my left was a globally well-known environment activist talking about all the evils of chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides. On my right was the President of Pesticide Association with equally strong views about how the chemical pesticides have greatly helped in feeding the hungry world. My task was further made difficult by a large lobby of green activists in the audience and also a number of seasoned industrialists with opposite views. Such a scenario is becoming increasingly common.
In January 2009, the European Council Directive 91-414 was passed banning a total of more than 40% chemical pesticides (David Frabotta, FCI – March, 2009). Earlier in 1993, there were 740 active ingredients available in European markets. By August 2008, however, 394 of these were no longer allowed and 113 more were still under review. It was predicted that in next 5 – 10 years, 85% of these could disappear from European markets. The Swedish chemical agency shortlisted nearly 21 chemical under criteria of ‘Endocrine’ ( The Endocrine criteria are defined as any substances that trigger class – 3 carcinogenic effect and class - 3 reproductive effect). These are new herbicides like :loxynil, Gluctosinate, etc. The two major class of fungicides are described as Triazoles and Dithiocarbonate. Triazoles are major weapon against septoria – a major fungal diseases in cereals.
BEYOND GREEN REVOLUTION
In spite of increase in the use of agrochemicals, the agricultural production and productivity has remained stagnant beyond 1990 due to poor soil conditions

To many Bio Fertilizer is still an unclear term. Often they are identified as urban and rural organic wastes, plant extracts, organic components etc. However, Bio Fertilizer is mostly commonly referred to the use of soil micro organisms to increase the uptake and availability of plant nutrients. Bio Fertilizer have gained a good deal of momentum and the industry after a slow start is now gaining more and more importance globally. The major reasons for this are that they:
1. Improves the soil structure.
2. Add nutrients to the soil / make the nutrients available to the crop
3. Secret certain growth promoting substances
4. Under certain conditions exhibit antifungal activities and there by protect the plants from pathogenic fungus
5. Enhances seed germination
6. Increase the soil fertility
7. Increase the agricultural productivity
8. The nitrogen fixed or phosphate solubilized will be beneficial to the
subsequent crops also.
The major, popularly used and commercially produced Bio Fertilizers are Nitrogen fixing bacterial fertilizers (Azotobacter Culture, Azospirillum Culture, Rhizobium Culture) and Phosphate solubilizing bacterial fertilizers (Pseudomonas Culture). However, currently their applications for other useful elements like Potash, Sulphur, Zincetc are also increasing.

Agriculture is the most significant part of economies of all African countries and can therefore contribute towards major priority for eradication of hunger and poverty. It also forms the strong base for rapid industrialization, employment and environmental management.
N. KozanaDiaminiLuma, the Chairperson of the African Union Commission has emphasized that ‘the year 2014 – the year of Agriculture in Africa’ will be used as an opportunity to accelerate the drive for food security. The major thrust for that has to be on ensuring that the farmers make their profession on economic activity that generate well-being for all in a sustainable manner (1, 2). Africa will have a population of 2 billion people by 2050, the majority women and youth. This prediction and the climate change problem summarize the scale of agricultural challenge for them. Currently more than half of all people living in Africa depend on agriculture for all or part of their livelihood. *Based on Key Note address by the author at the First International Agri Business Conference at Mauritius, Africa : 25 – 28 September 2008
EVER GREEN REVOLUTION OR ECO AGRI REVOLUTION FOR AFRICA
Nearly all agree that Africa needs technology for farming comparable to the Green Revolution of Asia. In 2006, two major philanthropic foundations namely Gates Foundations & Rockefeller foundations joined in a joint venture called Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA). They emphasized the importance of introducing African small fodder farmers to modern agricultural science.However, this was rejected strongly by some calling it “naivete” about the causes of hunger and warned that this approach

The words “Economy” and “Ecology” have the same root. Both these words derived from Greek ‘Oikos’ mean house or house holds and both imply thrifty economical way of dealing with valuable resources. However, for some reason we seem to find these two words coming opposite each-other in many situations.
The destruction and degradation of the environment has become the greatest problem of our century. Our survival will depend on how well we are able to redefine our technologies and our relationship with nature. We therefore need a new sustainable eco-agri revolution and a country like India is in an ideal situation to give a model for that. In the new economy, good ecology will be fundamental to good business.
BEYOND GREEN REVOLUTION
We have often emphasized that perhaps the two greatest successes in India since independence have been maintaining a stable democracy and success in bringing the green revolution, which changed us from a food-begging country to a food self-sufficient nation. We should rightfully feel happy and proud about these achievements, but at the same time remember that the global problems, environmental issues, priorities and the technological scenario have vastly changed in the last two decades. Another feature of Indian agriculture is the vast varieties of agricultural and horticulture practices as shown in Fig. 1.

harmony with nature is proving winner in the long run. If the past 60 years led to the Green Revolution in agriculture which often became Greed Revolution, the next 60 year should be the emergence of love for nature, diversity and Sustainable Green Revolution. The two goals – Sustainability and Productivity are inter-related. It is also said that the main difference between the past and today is that our problems are truly global. We are also aware that globally and nationally the rich-poor divide is growing and though world produces enough food, nearly 800 million people remain food insecure. Among 8 millennium goals, eradication of poverty and hunger and environmental sustainability are perhaps the most prominent and complimentary. In his book, “Remember your Humanity – Pathway to food Security”, M.S.Swaminathan has emphasized that a pro-nature, pro-woman and pro-livelihood orientation should be the bottom line of all technological development and delivery program for food security. Mainstreaming of environmental concern in agriculture to avoid exploitative agriculture and ecological consequence is therefore the call of the time.
COMPASSION
The great Tibetan scholar and close companion of HH Dalai Lama, Thupten Jinpa defines compassion as a mental state endowed with a sense of concern for the suffering of others and aspirations to see that suffering is relieved. One of the highest understanding underlined at the global level and in the preparation of sustainable development goals is for a hunger free world and for

In his classic book ‘The Ascent of Man’, Bronowski has written, “When I was a young man, we all thought that mastery came from man’s domination of his physical environment. Now we have learned that real mastery comes from understanding and moulding the living environment.” Our Biosphere, the living environment that supports us all, has problems and we humans are mainly responsible. We do not live ‘gently’ on the earth. The seven billion of us require air, water, food, energy, housing and amenities and we have developed the earth to provide them and have also created problems. That problems exist are serious is the bad news. That we are recognizing them and that man has shown ability to organize and grow in ascending order from time to time is the good news.
TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIMISTS OR TECHNOLOGICAL CRITICS
A barrier often divides environmentalists and industry. This is the result of a kind of polarization in the 1970s that forced people to define themselves as other technological optimists or technological critics. The environmental debates have usually advocated environmentally benign, small-scale, relatively “low’ technologies. The “soft path” based on conservation and simple renewable energy technologies was pitted against the “hard-path” based on largely on nuclear, fossil fuels etc. In farming Eco agriculture and Organic farming challenged the intensive use of energy, fertilizers, pesticides etc.
WHAT REALLY IS ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
For the optimistic proponents of advanced technology, the main danger was that retrealist, anti-technology “prophets of doom” would be causing a collective loss of nerve. To them, it would mean missing an opportunity to get an affluent, supercritical society that would overshoot the limits to growth.

Introduction
Agroforestry systems have the potential to make use of marginal and degraded lands through the soil improving effects of trees. Underlying all aspects of the role of agro forestry in maintenance of soil fertility is the fundamental proposition that trees improve soils. It would be useful to have guidelines on which properties of a tree or shrub species make it desirable for the point of view of soil fertility. This would help in identifying naturally occurring species and selecting trees for systems which have soil improvement as a specific objective.
Agroforestry is a sustainable land management system which increases the overall yield of the land, combines the production of crops (including tree crops) and forest plants and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially, on the same unit of land and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local population. Nitrogen fixation and a high biomass production have been widely recognized as desirable. However, many properties are specific to particular objectives of systems in which the trees are used. Even species that are shunned for their competitive effects may have a role in certain designs. An example is the way in which Eucalyptus species with a high water uptake, which adversely affects yields in adjacent crops, have been employed to lower the water table and so reduce salinization The agroforestry systems comprises Agrisilivicultural systems (improved fallow species in shifting agriculture (jhum), hedgerow intercropping (alley cropping), multispecies tree gardens, multipurpose trees/shrubs on farmlands, plantation and other crops, shade trees for commercial plantation crops, soil conservation hedges etc.), Agrisilvipastoral systems (tree- livestock-crop mix ground, home garden, woody hedgerows for browse, green manure, soil conservation etc., integrated production of crops, animals ,fuelwood, poles, etc.), Silvipostoral systems (multipurpose fodder trees on or around farmlands,

Introduction
Agroforestry, social forestry, community forestry, village forestry, and farm forestry are all practices that involve tree cultivation primarily outside designated forest reserves. Agroforestry, in particular, is a land-use approach that integrates trees with agricultural crops, shrubs, pastures, or livestock. This combination of trees and shrubs within land management systems can be structured in a spatial arrangement or occur in a sequential manner over time. The term ‘woody perennials’ is sometimes used to describe these trees and shrubs, referring to all long-lived plants that persist for more than a year, including bamboos and palms. In agroforestry systems, trees may not always be deliberately planted; natural regeneration may be encouraged by protecting emerging seedlings, or mature trees may be intentionally retained in fields and pastures. These woody perennials are often categorized as “multipurpose trees” (MPTs) or “multipurpose trees and shrubs” (MPTS) due to their diverse uses. While most trees can be considered multipurpose, this distinction highlights the varied benefits trees offer in agroforestry systems, as opposed to singlepurpose timber plantations focused solely on wood production.
Conversely, tree cultivation in designated forest areas is often directed toward industrial needs, commonly referred to as industrial forestry. The promotion of MPTs in agroforestry holds great promise for addressing land-use challenges and improving livelihoods by enhancing environmental sustainability and economic opportunities for local communities. Agroforestry research has now advanced to a stage where suitable tree-crop combinations, their management practices, and genetically improved planting materials can be recommended for specific conditions. Furthermore, continuous advancements in research by international and national agroforestry organizations are contributing to the benefit of farmers. The availability of information on multipurpose tree species (MPTs) for many species has facilitated the adoption of agroforestry as a viable land-use system. However, for certain MPTs, a lack of fundamental data on growth rates, breeding patterns, resilience to environmental stress,

Introduction
Accurate and detailed information on the geographical location, aerial extent, and spatial distribution of wastelands is crucial for their efficient management and sustainable rehabilitation. Among modern resource assessment tools, Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have emerged as powerful technologies for detecting, evaluating, mapping, and monitoring degraded lands. Space-borne multispectral imagery, with its ability to provide large-scale, repetitive coverage, has proven particularly effective in identifying salt-affected soils and waterlogged areas in a timely and cost-efficient manner. In visual interpretation of satellite data, regions with high soil moisture and surface waterlogging appear as dark grey to black, indicating areas prone to water stagnation. To analyze the spatial dynamics of wastelands and assess the effectiveness of high-resolution satellite imagery, IRS P6 satellite data (23.5 m resolution) alongside topographical maps (1:50,000 scale) are commonly used. Given the dynamic nature of wastelands, multi-temporal satellite data is essential for precise delineation. These images must be geo-referenced within a unified coordinate system for consistency. The Planning Commission of India has endorsed GIS as an indispensable tool for land-use planning and wasteland development, facilitating treatment area identification, landuse trade-off analysis, and impact assessment simulations. Recognizing the importance of wasteland management in national development, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) initiated a GIS-based wasteland mapping project in 1991, building upon earlier efforts by the Department of Science (1986) under the National Wasteland Identification Project, which mapped 147 districts at a 1:50,000 scale. A Task Force was established to develop a standardized classification system, later approved by the Planning Commission, categorizing wastelands into:

Introduction
Land is one of the most valuable natural resources on Earth. However, its significance varies across professions. Engineers view land as a foundation for constructing roads, buildings, and flyovers, whereas agriculturists consider it a medium for cultivating crops. For business professionals, land represents a space for establishing offices and industries. Although “land” and “soil” are sometimes used interchangeably, they are distinct. Land is typically regarded as a two-dimensional surface, while soil is three-dimensional, extending in depth. Another key difference is that land refers to any portion of the Earth’s surface, whereas soil consists of weathered rock materials enriched with essential nutrients, making it capable of supporting plant growth. The utilization of land should be aligned with its potential and limitations. Being a finite resource, land use is not solely determined by human needs but also by its capability. Over the past two decades, land degradation has become a growing concern globally, particularly in India. Land serves multiple purposes, primarily supporting agriculture, pastures, and forestry. A standard soil survey map illustrates the various types of soil that are important and their distribution in relation to other landscape features. These maps are designed to cater to users with diverse needs and, therefore, contain detailed information to highlight essential soil distinctions. For a soil map to be useful, the information it presents must be clearly explained to the user. These explanations are referred to as interpretations. Soil maps can be understood in two ways: (1) by examining the individual soil types showed on the map and (2) by grouping soils that exhibit similar responses to management and treatment. Since there are numerous types of soil, there are also many specific soil interpretations. These interpretations provide users with all the relevant information that a soil map can offer. However, many users require more generalized information than that of individual soil-mapping units. To address this, soils are classified in different ways based on the specific needs of the map users. The composition of these soil groups and the allowable variation

Any undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological properties of air is called air pollution. Air pollution interferes with wellbeing of living livelihood. Various human made and anthropogenic sources which deteriorate the air quality are called air pollutant. Some of the common air pollutant are dust, smoke, smog, fog, aerosol, SO2, CO2, O3 and NOx etc.
Sources of Air Pollution
The sources of air pollution are classified into two categories:
1. Natural source
2. Man-made source
1. Natural sources
• Ash from burning volcanoes, dust from storm, forest fires
• Pollen grains from flowers in air are natural sources of pollution
2. Anthropogenic (man-made) sources
They are population explosion, deforestation, urbanization and industrialization whose effect can be explained as fallow:
a) Power stations using coal or crude oil release CO2 in air
b) Also furnaces using coal, cattle dung cakes, firewood, kerosene, etc.
c) Steam engines used in railways, steamers, motor vehicles, etc. give out CO2.
d) So do Motors and internal combustion engines which run on petrol, diesel and kerosene. etc.
e) Vegetable oils, kerosene, and coal as household fuels
f) Sewers and domestic drains emanating foul gases
g) Pesticide residues in air
h) Carbon monoxide and Nicotine from smoking
i) Thermal power plants pollute air by emitted sulphur dioxide and fly ash
j) Fertilizers and pesticides

Introduction
Water is chemical substance which important for all living organism to survive on this planet. Water is necessary for all cell of the living organism’s body to performance any normal work. Water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface, most like in oceans and other more water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapors, clouds and precipitation. Some observation have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability, a situation which has been called a ‘water crisis’ by the United Nations. A recent report suggests that by 2030, in some developing regions of the world, water desire will be exceed supply by 50%. The total volume of water 1,385 million Km3 on the planet earth, 96.5% is salt water (oceans and seas), the fresh water is mostly ice (24 million Km3). The fresh water available as annual stream flow is 46,768 Km3, that is 0.00034% of the total global water. If there is no intake of water into the body, death can ensue in 7-10 days. Water is also essential to man for maintaining personal hygienic and freedom from disease. Today there are many cities worldwide facing actual shortage of water and nearly 40 percent of the world’s food supply is grown under irrigation and a wide variety of industrial processes depends on water. Water is the most vital element among the natural resources, and is critical for the survival of all living any organisms including human, food production, and economic development. The environment, economic growth and developments are highly affected by water is regional and seasonal availability and the quality of surface and groundwater. The quality of water is affected by any human activities and is declining due to the rise of urbanization, population growth, industrial production, climate change and other factors. The resulting water pollution is a serious surrounding to the well-being of both the Earth and its population. The pressures is increasing population, growth of industries, urbanization, energy intensive life style, loss of forest cover, lack of environmental awareness, lack of implements of environmental rule, regulations and environment improvement plans, untreated effluent discharge from industries and municipalities, use of non

Introduction
Soil is considered as a thin layered living entity over the earth’s surface, poses a profound implication on the solidity of ecosystems. It act as a transient nutrient sink for the plants and plays a crucial role in the crux of biogeochemical cycling of Earth’s elements which is being carried out by distinct microbial assemblages present in the soil profile. Soil is the most diverse niche for the microbial communities in which large proportion of taxa exists at a very low correlative abundance. Despite the extensive importance of this entity it has been snubbed lately with the various undesirable activities done by human kind. Therefore, the scientific understanding of soil origin is critical. Scientifically speaking, formation of one inch of soil almost took 15 years if the parent materials are soft whereas hard parent material might takes hundreds of year for its development. Soil horizon involves the arrangement of mature soil in a series of zones. Each horizon encompasses the distinct texture and composition that varies with different kinds of soils. Soil profile is the cross sectional view of the horizons in a soil. The O horizon is the topmost layer of soil, mainly consists of partially decomposed leaves, animal wastes, fungi and other organic materials. A horizon is looser than other deeper layers of soil, mainly dark in colour and considered as the uppermost layer of the soil consisting of partially decomposed organic matter known as humus. Generally, in the upper layers of soil the roots of most plants exist. As long as these layers are supported by vegetation, it acts as a storehouse of water which gets released in a trickle throughout the year. Plant roots grow in the soil and absorb nutrients and water which are required during the process of photosynthesis that helps in the growth and development of plants. Soil contains essential nutrients which are being adsorbs by the plants and is beneficial to all living organisms such as herbivores and omnivores depends on plants for their food, then these being eaten up by carnivores and omnivores in the food web, so nutrients that are absorbed from the soil is reached to all strata of living entity. Soil is a niche for different organisms as its top layers harbors a large population of bacteria, fungi, earthworms and many other small insects that

Introduction
Water is one of the most vital natural resources for sustaining life on Earth. However, its availability is not uniform across the planet, and the growing demand for freshwater in the face of climate change, population growth, and industrial development has raised serious concerns about the future of water resources. In 2024, the global water landscape presents both challenges and opportunities, shaped by shifting environmental patterns, technological advances, and policy responses to water scarcity. Water resources refer to the natural sources of water that can be utilized for various purposes, including water supply. Approximately 97% of the Earth’s water is saline, found primarily in oceans, while only about 2.5% is fresh water, but only a small portion of this is accessible. The majority of freshwater is locked in glaciers, ice caps, and deep underground aquifers. Less than 1% of Earth’s freshwater are readily available in rivers, lakes, and accessible groundwater for human use. Of this small fraction, nearly two-thirds is locked in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water exists predominantly as groundwater, with only a small percentage available as surface water in rivers, lakes, and atmospheric moisture. The primary natural sources of freshwater include surface water, underflow in riverbeds, groundwater, and frozen water in glaciers. In addition to these, artificial sources such as treated wastewater (reclaimed water) and desalinated seawater are increasingly being used to supplement the global freshwater supply, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. As agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of global freshwater withdrawals, the management and quality of irrigation water are vital for sustaining food production and maintaining the health of ecosystems. Water is essential not only for basic plant functions, such as photosynthesis and nutrient absorption, but also for controlling temperature and supporting soil structure. In regions where rainfall is insufficient or irregular, irrigation provides a reliable source of water to meet the needs of crops throughout their growth cycle.

Introduction
Soil, the outermost layer of the Earth’s crust, plays a vital role in supporting plant life. It consists of a mixture of mineral and organic materials, with its depth varying from negligible to several meters across different regions. Subjected to continuous atmospheric influences, soil experiences erosion, primarily driven by the movement of wind and water. Erosion, originating from the Latin word “erodere,” meaning “to eat away” or “to excavate,” involves the detachment, transportation, and deposition of soil particles. The erosion process encompasses two main phases: the detachment of individual soil particles from the soil mass and their subsequent transportation by various agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity, followed by eventual deposition. Finer soil particles are more susceptible to erosion compared to coarser ones, leading to the formation of sediment, the ultimate product of soil erosion. Sediment, which refers to fragmented material transported or deposited by natural agents, illustrates the sedimentation process, reflecting the sequence of the sediment cycle. Detachment involves the dislodgment of soil particles from the soil mass by erosive agents such as impacting raindrops and runoff water. Transportation entails the entrainment and movement of these detached soil particles (sediment) from their original location, often through stream systems, towards eventual deposition sites, which may include the base of slopes, reservoirs, or floodplains. Soil erosion presents a significant threat to human well-being by diminishing the productivity of agricultural land through the removal and washing away of essential plant nutrients and organic matter. The widespread distribution of sediment load globally underscores the pervasive impact of erosion on natural landscapes and ecosystems.

Introduction
Soil crusts are surface alterations in the topsoil resulting from natural processes, such as the impact of raindrops followed by drying. These crusts manifest as thin, hardened layers on the soil surface, particularly common in arid and semi-arid regions. Their thickness typically varies from less than 1 mm to 5 cm (Evans and Boul, 1968). Once dry, these layers become denser, harder, and more brittle than the underlying soil, reducing both the number and size of pores and reorganizing the soil’s pore structure. In temperate regions, surface crusts primarily form on unstable loamy soils, particularly in areas under cultivation. In tropical regions, soil crusting affects a broader range of soils and poses a significant problem not only in arid zones but across various climatic conditions. In humid areas, intensive farming exposes the soil surface to high-energy rainfall for extended periods, accelerating the degradation of soil organic matter. As a result, bare soil areas expand, and biomass production declines. From an agronomic perspective, the most critical drawbacks of soil crusting are its negative effects on seedling emergence and water infiltration. Seedling emergence is particularly affected for crops with small seeds or when the timing of emergence is crucial due to climate or market demands. In some instances, costly replanting becomes necessary. The reduction in water infiltration caused by crusted soils creates significant challenges for irrigation, especially in areas where water scarcity limits large-scale use, forcing farmers to adopt more efficient water management strategies. Reduced water infiltration also leads to increased surface runoff, contributing to soil erosion and environmental risks, such as the pollution of surface waters due to nutrient loss. Additionally, restricted gas exchange between the soil and atmosphere further contributes to lower crop yields. Epstein and Grant (1973) observed that soil erodibility is closely linked to the rate and extent of crust formation, with soil loss peaking within the first 10 minutes of rainfall before stabilizing. It is well established that during crustforming rain events, water infiltration declines over time, leading to an increase in runoff volume. This increase in runoff, combined with the intensified energy

Introduction
Waterlogging refers to the accumulation of excessive water in the root zone, leading to anaerobic conditions. This surplus water hampers the exchange of gases with the atmosphere, and biological processes deplete the oxygen supply in both soil and water, resulting in anaerobiosis, anoxia, or oxygen deficiency. In India, approximately 11.6 million hectares, constituting 8.3% of its net sown area, are affected by waterlogging (Planning Commission, 2011). According to Brundtland and Khalid (1987), available estimates indicate an annual global loss of 1.5 million hectares of irrigated land due to salinity and waterlogging. Regrettably, data regarding the occurrence and extent of these issues are inconsistent and incomplete. More recent estimates, provided by Datta and Joshi (1992), range from 5.5 million to 13 million hectares. After conducting a comprehensive global survey, it has been determined that submerged and waterlogged soils cover approximately 5 to 7% of the Earth’s land surface. The total area of waterlogged soil worldwide is estimated to be around 700 to 1000 million hectares. Tropical swamps, rice fields, and floodplains collectively represent nearly 14%, 12%, and 10% of the total waterlogged area, respectively. In India, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh have the highest concentration of waterlogged soil, with an estimated total area of one million hectares. The eastern region bears a significant portion of this burden, with over 20% of the affected land suffering from surface waterlogging, which severely diminishes productivity. Waterlogging is characterized by the soil becoming unproductive and infertile due to excess moisture, creating anaerobic conditions known as waterlogged soils. Waterlogged soil presents a significant challenge to agricultural productivity and soil health, characterized by excessive water saturation that restricts oxygen availability to plant roots. In this chapter, we delve into the multifaceted aspects of waterlogged soil, exploring its causes, defining characteristics, and far-reaching consequences. The serves as a comprehensive overview, underscoring the detrimental impact of waterlogging on agriculture, ecosystems, and human well-being. It identifies key factors contributing to

Introduction
The word “calcareous” has been commonly used as the generic description of all materials containing calcium carbonates greater than 10%. In the context of agricultural problem soils, calcareous soils are soils in which a high amount of calcium carbonate dominates the problems related to agricultural land use. They are characterized by the presence of calcium carbonate in the parent material and by a calcic horizon, a layer of secondary accumulation of carbonates (usually Ca or Mg) in excess of 15% calcium carbonate equivalent and at least 5% more carbonate than an underlying layer. Calcareous soils are common in the arid areas of the earth (FAO, 2016) occupying >30% of the earth’s surface. In the world Reference Base (WRB) soil classification system calcareous soils may mainly occur in the Reference soil group of calcisols.
Formation / genesis of calcareous soils
The soil are formed largely by the weathering of calcareous rocks and fossil shell beds like varieties of chalk, marl , lime stone and frequently a large amount of phosphates. Soils also can become calcareous through long term irrigation with water contains small amounts of dissolved CaCO3 that can accumulate with time.
The secondary CaCO3 are formed under arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, when the carbonate concentration in the soil solution remains High Accumulation starts in the fine and medium sized pores at the surface of contact between the soil particles. This accumulation may be rather concentrated in a narrow zone of the solum or more dispersed depending upon the quantity and frequency of rainfall, topography, soil texture and vegetation. In high rainfall area i.e. in highly weathered soils, CaCO3 is dispersed from the surface horizons. While in arid and semi-arid regions due to low rainfall and limited leaching carbonates may be present in relatively high amounts. In medium deep and deep black clay soils carbonates are generally accumulated in subsurface horizons. However in some eroded shallow black soils they may be exposed right at the surface of soils. In some soils CaCO3 deposits are concentrated into layers that may be very hard and impermeable to water also

Introduction
Acid sulphate soils are formed when pyrite within a soil layer is oxidised, generating sulphuric acid. The oxidation of pyrite often results in yellow mottles of jarosite. The pH levels in greatly affected areas are often less than 4.0, and the associated environmental impacts include fish kills, retarded growth of crops and changes in water chemistry. Acid soils are distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, constituting approximately 30% of the ice-free land in the world, which is 50% of the world’s arable land. In China and India, 212 Mha or 12% of the agricultural land is classified as acidic. In India, about 28% of the total geographical area is affected by acidity of different degrees. Acid sulphate soils (ASSs) are a group of these soils having high soil acidity and other soil function limitations. These soils were termed as Kattecleigrondon or Kattakali by the Dutch farmers in the seventeenth century meaning ‘Cat Clays’ in English for soils of some reclaimed areas that became gradually highly acidic and developed prominent yellowish mottles and crusts composed of jarosite and related sulphates; in northern Germany, similar clays were called Maibolt.
Occurrence
They occur in many regions of the world, mostly along coastal areas where the land is inundated by sea water. Countries having extensive area of acid sulphate soils are:

Introduction
In India acid soils occur in the high rainfall areas covering about 25 million hectares of land with a pH below 5.5 and 23 million hectares of land with a pH between 5.6 and 6.5. In India, acid soils occur in Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland, NEFA, Manipur, Tripura, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, MP, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat are the only states in India where acid soils do not occur. Soil acidity is a limiting factor affecting the growth and yield of many crops all over the world. The basic problems concerning chemical properties of more acid soils are, besides acidity itself, the presence of toxic compounds and elements, such as soluble forms of Al, Fe and Mn, nitrites and various toxic organic acids. Aluminium (Al) toxicity is one of the major constraints on crop productivity on acid soils, which occur on up to 40% of the arable lands of the world. Al is the third most abundant element in the earth’s crust and is toxic to plants when solubilised into soil solution at acidic pH values. Very few plants can grow well in strong acid soils. Soil acidity below pH value 5.5 is generally injurious to plants. Plant roots are badly affected if the pH value exceeds limits of tolerance for particular crops. High degree of soil acidity (pH 5.0 to 6.5) decreases the availability of plant nutrients particularly phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, molybdenum, iron, manganese, potassium sulphur nitrogen, boron, copper and zinc. It also affects adversely the important microbiological processes, such as nitrogen fixation by Azotobacter, Clostridium and nodule inhabiting bacteria (Rhizobia) of leguminous plants

Introduction
Salt-affected soils (SAS) can be found across different latitudes, exhibiting variations in morphology, biology, and chemical, physical, and physicochemical properties (Gupta and Gupta, 2017). Despite their diversity, SAS share a common characteristic: the dominant role of soil solution electrolytes in the soil formation process, leading to properties that create unfavorable conditions for the normal growth of most plants (Szabolcs, 1989). In cases where SAS develop due to natural geomorphological processes, certain plant species, known as halophytes, have evolved specialized physiological adaptations to survive in these environments. Halophytes are capable of thriving in highly saline habitats by effectively managing the stress caused by excessive salt. Plants growing in such conditions employ various adaptive mechanisms to tolerate and flourish despite the salinity challenge. Salt-affected soils (SAS) require specialized management strategies to mitigate the challenges posed by high salinity levels. Plants and organisms in these ecosystems have evolved various adaptations to manage salt levels, such as developing specialized root structures, eliminating or containing excess salt, and efficiently absorbing water and nutrients (Flowers and Colmer, 2015). Despite their typically low alpha-diversity, SAS ecosystems contribute significantly to beta-diversity due to the specialization of organisms that thrive in such challenging environments. However, many of these high-value ecological systems have been severely degraded worldwide as a result of various political and economic decisions. For example, mangroves in countries like Thailand, Vietnam, Mexico, and Ecuador have been destroyed to make way for shrimp farming (FAO, 2007). Sabkhas around the Mediterranean coast have suffered from overexploitation of the aquifers that sustain them, and the reduction of water flow to closed drainage basins, such as in the case of the Aral Sea, has occurred due to water being diverted for irrigation, especially for cotton farming. Further degradation is seen in the transformation of SAS wetlands into agricultural fields through drainage, a practice observed in many regions (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007). These ecosystems, once considered wastelands

Introduction
Soil quality is a critical concept in environmental science, agriculture, and land management. It refers to the ability of soil to perform its essential functions, which include supporting plant growth, regulating water flow, cycling nutrients, filtering pollutants, and providing habitat for microorganisms. Healthy, high-quality soil is fundamental for the productivity of ecosystems and the sustainability of agricultural practices. The quality of soil is influenced by a combination of physical, chemical, and biological factors. These include soil texture, structure, organic matter content, pH, nutrient availability, and the presence of beneficial organisms like bacteria and fungi. When these factors are balanced, soil can support healthy crops and ecosystems. However, soil degradation—caused by practices such as overuse of chemical fertilizers, deforestation, erosion, and pollution—can severely reduce its quality, leading to lower agricultural yields, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity. Assessing soil quality involves monitoring several key indicators, such as organic matter levels, soil texture, compaction, water infiltration rates, and the presence of key nutrients. Organic matter is especially important, as it helps to bind soil particles, retain moisture, and provide a food source for beneficial microorganisms. The chemical aspect of soil quality is equally vital, encompassing the availability of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as the presence of any harmful contaminants like heavy metals. The biological dimension of soil quality relates to the diversity and activity of organisms within the soil. A rich microbial community enhances nutrient cycling, helps decompose organic matter, and promotes plant health. Earthworms, for instance, play a critical role in aerating the soil and facilitating water infiltration. Soil quality is not a static property; it can change over time depending on land management practices. Sustainable practices such as crop rotation, conservation tillage, the use of organic amendments, and maintaining ground cover can improve and maintain soil quality. Conversely, unsustainable practices like excessive tillage, monoculture, and the overuse of agrochemicals can degrade soil, making it less productive and more prone to erosion. In

Introduction
Managing the diverse array of stresses confronting cultivated lands stands as a pressing necessity within the agricultural domain, demanding swift adaptability to navigate shifts and satisfy evolving requisites along the production-consumption continuum. In India, approximately 7.0 million hectares of agricultural terrain grapple with salt-related predicaments, a figure poised for escalation owing to factors like secondary salinization in irrigation networks, amplified dependence on substandard water reservoirs in arid and semi-arid locales, and the complexities posed by phenomena such as sea water encroachment and brackish water aquaculture in coastal regions. Forecasts indicate a potential expansion of salt-affected soil regions in India to encompass roughly 13 million hectares by the year 2025. Within this landscape of challenges, agronomists shoulder a pivotal responsibility, entrusted with the mandate of bolstering productivity via pioneering research endeavors and the formulation of holistic strategies. This undertaking necessitates a nuanced comprehension of salt-affected soils, coupled with the crafting of contingency blueprints predicated upon resourceefficient, economically sound, and ecologically sustainable methodologies. Given the flux in climatic patterns, the adoption of proactive measures assumes heightened significance. Scholarly discourse, exemplified by Singh’s seminal work in 1998, furnishes a retrospective lens on the saga of salt-affected soils. Building upon this historical scaffold, the present exposition endeavors to trace the trajectory of agronomic inquiry spanning epochs ranging from the Vedic era through pre-independence and post-independence epochs. By spotlighting the seminal contributions of researchers in tackling salt-induced soil adversities, the paper endeavors to underscore the profound ramifications of such endeavors on societal wellbeing and environmental equilibrium.
Soil Salinity in Ancient India: Pre- and Post-Vedic Perspectives
Landforms and landscapes emerge from the weathering of rocks and minerals, incorporating salts as essential constituents. These salts have been present