eChapters

6.1 Introduction

Grapes are being grown commercially in the tropics. The region between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn which was once considered to be unsuitable for growing quality grapes is producing good quality grapes. Tropical countries where grapes are grown are India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, South China, Australia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela, West Indies, Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe. In India, about 90% of grapes are being produced in the tropical states including Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. There are three main commercial uses of grape, viz., table, raisin and wine.

5.1 Introduction

Citrus is one of the most important fruit crops in the world. It is grown in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. The top ten citrus producing countries are China, India, Nigeria, Brazil, Mexico, USA, Spain, Egypt, Italy and Argentina. The citrus industry in India is the third fruit industry after mango and banana. The important groups of crops in citrus are sweet orange, mandarins, limes, lemons, grape fruits and pummelo. The most important commercial Citrus species grown in India are mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco.), followed by sweet orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) and acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle). The major citrus producing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab.

4.1 Introduction

Banana (Musa spp.) is one of the oldest fruits and second largest growing fruit crop in the world. It is also known as Adam’s Fig and Apple of Paradise. Important banana growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. In South India, banana is extensively used in all auspicious occasions such as wedding, festival and worship. Banana is a good table fruit. The cultivar Nendran is used for cooking; it is also used for preparation of halwa, sweet, chips etc. Main bud or heart of banana bunches is also used as vegetable in India, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. Musa textiles is known for strong fibre quality. Ripe banana contains about 20% sugar (but no starch) and about 4.7% protein. Further, it contains vitamins A, B, C, D and E and minerals such as K, P, Ca and Fe.

3.1 Introduction

The Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belonging to the family Anacardiaceae in order Sapindales, is amongst the most important tropical fruits of the world. In India, it is also known as the ‘king of fruits’ owing to the delicious quality of the fruit rich in vitamins and minerals. Its long period of domestication is evident from its mention in the ancient Indian scriptures. In India, mango has been valued not only for religious consideration but also for its importance in the economic and cultural life of the society. Mango is rich in Vitamin A and C, flavonoids, carotenes, glucosides, sterols, terpenes, aromatic acids, essential oils, fatty acids and phenolics. It is a powerful nutritive fruit, containing most of the essential substances needed by the human body. The most important single factor limiting the production of mango fruit at the present time is the erratic fruiting habits of this species. Some cultivars produce a good crop in most years and a poor crop in other years, while still other cultivars produce only a few fruits each year. For many years new cultivars have been selected and grown on the basis of size, appearance, and dessert quality with very little attention given to their production capabilities. The improvement of mango needs to explore new recombinants primarily by means of exploiting the breeding methodologies. Diversity or heterogeneity is the main character desired for breeding either natural or manmade. It is required to have vast genetic pool to get new combinations of desired nature and developing new hybrids. It has been mentioned earlier that the development of mango in India is the result of selection from the amateur gardeners. Now, the scientists have developed certain hybrids of mango.

2.1 Introduction

The different breeding strategies (methods) that can be employed for improvement of fruit crops include introduction, open pollinated selection, clonal selection, hybrid breeding, polyploidy breeding, mutation breeding, molecular breeding, in vitro breeding and transgenic breeding. Combining traditional approaches with biotechnological approaches will speed up the rate of genetic improvement. Thus, what is required is to adopt a coordinated approach involving breeders, biotechnologists, horticulturists, pathologists, entomologists and statistician for making the cultivation of fruit crops more scientific and more profitable and thereby contributing more to improving the health of the people in a sustainable manner.

1.1 Introduction

Fruit breeding is an ancient technology with dynamic current technology and an exciting future (Janick and Moore 1975, 1996). In its broadest sense, fruit breeding refers to the purposeful genetic improvement of fruit crops through various techniques including selection, hybridization, mutation induction and molecular techniques. Its origins trace to the domestication process in prehistory and antiquity, where useful species were chosen and cultivated, and improved by continuous selection (Janick 2005, 2011). Through the millennia genetic improvement of these species have been achieved by grower selection, first from natural seedling populations and then from grower field that continued unique genotypes fixed by vegetative propagation. Spontaneous hybridization between wild plants and cultivated clones was critical to the early domestication of fruits.

Botanical Name: Hevea brasiliensis

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Chromosome No: 2n =36

Place of Origin: Amazon basin in Brazil

Common Name: Rubber tree, Rubber plant, Para rubber tree

11.1 Introduction

Rubber is a fast-growing tropical tree and mainly grown for the production of latex. In 1495, Columbus was the first person to report about latex. The latex was used for rub out pencil marks and this gave the product name as rubber. The latex is used for production of various rubber products. The most important application of latex rubber was initially accomplished in the 1880s when the rubber was used for making motor cars tyres. When rubber is heated with sulphur, it retains the physical properties.

Botanical Name: Phoenix dactylifera L.

Family: Arecaceae

Chromosome No: 2n = 36

Place of Origin: Countries around Persian Gulf

10.1 Introduction

Date palm is a nutritive fruit rich in sugar and iron and predominantly seen in desert oasis. It is the main fruit crop in arid and semiarid regions, particularly in the arid regions of western Asia and North Africa. The palm tree is well adapted to desert environments that are characterized by extreme temperatures and water shortage. Beyond the arid climates, date palm can also be grown in many other countries for food or as an ornamental plant including the continents of Americas, Southern Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. The majority of date palm growing areas are located in developing or underdeveloped countries where dates are considered the primary food crop, thus playing a major role in the nutritional status of these communities. By-products from date palm are used in building structures, animal feed, and also in several items such as baskets and ropes. The date palm tree has been in cultivation since 2400 BC. It is one of the oldest cultivated fruit trees on earth. India is the leading importer of dates. According to FAO statistics, in 2011 India was the largest world importer of dates (256,295 mt) and its neighbour Pakistan, in 2012, was the world’s sixth largest producer (600,000 mt). The major date palm growing areas in India are Kutch (Gujarat), Rajasthan and certain parts of the Punjab, as well as Tamil Nadu state to some extent. In Kutch, there are more than 2 million date palms, the majority of them grown from seeds and offshoots, providing a huge biodiversity for experimentation and improvement of products. Efforts by the Indian government in the last decade have resulted in an increase of date palm cultivation from 8,973 to 16,000 ha and establishment of a prominent effort in Rajasthan (Shah, 2014).

Botanical Name: Camellia sinensis L.

Family: Theaceae

Chromosome No: 30

Place of Origin: China

Common Name: Tea

9.1 Introduction

Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) of family Camelliaceae or Theaceae is the oldest and second most widely consumed beverage in the world following water. Tea is an evergreen plant that mainly grows in tropical and subtropical climates. India is world’s 2nd largest tea producer after China with production of 1.25 million tonnes in 2020. In India it is grown in an area of 6 lakh hectares, contributing one fourth of world total tea production annually. Interestingly, India is also the world’s largest consumer of the beverage and using nearly 30 percent of the world’s tea output. India stands third in terms of tea export after Kenya (including neighbouring African countries) and China. The total tea export was US$ 501.16 million in April 2020 to November 2020 and for November 2020 it was US$ 71.61 million.

Botanical Name: Coffea arabica, Coffea canephora

Family: Rubiaceae

Chromosome No: 44, 22

Place of Origin: Africa

Common Name: Coffee

8.1 Introduction

Coffee is widespread throughout the tropics with more than 70 species. All cultivated species originate from Africa. Economically important today is Coffea arabica (Arabica, 64 % of world production) and Coffea canephora, (Robusta, 35 %). It is cultivated worldwide on approximately 10.3 million hectares and represents the sole economic income for more than 25 million families. The crop is produced and exported by more than 60 nations and ranks as one of the top cash crops in developing countries with 3.19 lakh MT production per annum in India in 2018-19 from more than 459 thousand hectares crop area. The coffee plant is a fast-growing tropical bush tree, with two types of shoots: upright growing orthotropic main shoots (stem), and horizontally growing plagiotropic shoots (branches). Traditionally, coffee trees are cultivated only for the berries, which are processed using dry or wet techniques directly in the growing areas to the final raw product, green coffee; this serves as the basis for various coffee products. Both the coffee species tolerate shade and share quite similar growth requirements with various forest crops and trees, thus predisposing them to be grown in agro-forestry ecosystems.

Botanical Name: Anacardium occidentale L.

Family: Anacardiaceae

Chromosome No: 42

Place of Origin: Brazil

Common Name: Cashew, cashew tree, caju

7.1 Introduction

Cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an important tropical tree crop which leads the edible nuts in international trade with 29% market share only after hazelnuts (35%) and followed by walnuts (21%) and almonds (16%). It is one of the major exports earning crops which accounts nearly Rs. 2515 crores contributing about 1.5% of the total Indian exports. It was only during the past two decades it gained the status of horticulture crop. India is the world’s largest producer of cashewnut. The cashew cultivation area in India during 2018-19 was 10.89 lakh hectares with an annual production of 743 thousand metric tons of fruits. Maharashtra is a much-advanced state for horticulture which occupies large area (1.9 lakh hectares) under this crop (Directorate of Cashew & Cocoa Development, Cochin, Kerala). Cashew exports amounted to over 566 million U.S. dollars from India in fiscal year 2020. This included cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid. India’s main export markets for this commodity included South Korea, China, Spain, United States and Belgium (Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare).

Botanical Name: Theobroma cacao L.

Family: Sterculiaceae

Chromosome No: 20

Place of Origin: Tropical South America

Common Name: Cacao, cacao bean, cocoa, cocoa bean

6.1 Introduction

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is a perennial plant and is used as beverage crop. The generic name Theobroma means the “Food of the God”. The word cacao refers to the tree, while the word cocoa refers to the drink made from its seeds. The roasted product of the dried beans is called as Cacao nibs that are used for the manufacture of various products. When cacao nibs are ground, the resulting product is called chocolate liquor or mass, which contains around 55% fat. The fat that is pressed from chocolate liquor is termed as cacao butter. It is mainly used for the manufacture of chocolates, in pharmaceutical preparations and soap making. After pressing out the fat the resultant product with reduced fat content is called cacao powder. For preparation of chocolates cacao powder is mixed with cacao butter and sugar with a definite ratio. Milk chocolates are prepared by adding milk to the above mixture. The cocoa powder contains 22- 25% fat, 20.4% protein and 35% carbohydrate with caloric value of 452 cal. Rind or shell of pod is used as a cattle feed.

Botanical Name: Borassus flabellifer L.

Family: Arecaceae

Chromosome No: 36

Place of Origin: Tropical region of Africa, Asia and New Guinea

5.1 Introduction

Palmyrah is a monocotyledon and perennial crop. The word “Borassus” was derived from a Greek word and it means the leathery covering of the fruit and “flabellifer”, means fan-bearer. The distinguishing characters of palm in this genus are their palmate, fanlike leaves and dioecious character, i.e., male and female flowers are borne on separate trees (sex ratio 1:1), allotetraploid (X= 8 or 9, n = 18), the male tree has a heteromorphic XY pair of chromosomes while the female has an XX pair (Sankaralingam et al., 1999). Next to coconut, palmyrah is the most abundant palm found in the world. Palmyrah thrives in arid conditions and is grown extensively in Tamil Nadu. Palakkad district of Kerala is popularly known as land of palmyra trees. Palmyra trees are known as the icon of this district and have a vast cultural, heritage and literary association.

Botanical Name: Elaeis guineensis Jacq.

Family: Arecaceae / Palmae

Chromosome No: 32

Place of Origin: Guinea Coast of West Africa

Common Name: Oil Palm

4.1 Introduction

The cultivated oil palm Elaeis guineensis Jacq. is a native of West Africa and exists in wild, semi- wild and cultivated forms. It was introduced as an ornamental crop in 1860 and planted at National Botanical Garden, Kolkata. Research on oil palm in India started during 1960 with the establishment of a research station at Thodupuzha by the Department of Agriculture, Kerala with Dura and Tenera germplasm imported from Malaysia and Nigeria. National Research Centre (NRC) for oil palm is situated at Elur, Andhra Pradesh. Oil palm crop is one of the highest oil yielding crops among all perennial crops. It gives 4 to 6 tonnes of edible oil/ha from 3 to 25 years of its life span compared to less than one tonne of oil per ha from other cultivated oil yielding crops. This oil palm is considered as golden palm due to its high yielding capacity. Among the 10 major oilseeds, oil palm is accounted for 5.5% of global land use for cultivation, but produced 32.0% of global oils and fats output.

Botanical Name: Areca catechu L. Family: Arecaceae / Palmae Chromosome No: 32 Place of Origin: Philippines, Malay, Indonesia, Cochin, China and Malaya Peninsula Common Name: Betel nut 3.1 Introduction Arecanut (Areca catechu L.), commonly known as Supari or Betel palm or Arecanut palm, is cultivated primarily for its kernel obtained from the fruit which is chewed in its tender, ripe or processed form. It is an important cash crop of India. The economic produce is the fruit called ‘betel nut’ and used mainly for masticatory purposes. Its cultivation is restricted in South Western and North Eastern regions of the country. The chromosome number of Areca catechu L. was first determined as 2n=32 (Venkatasubban, 1945) and it belongs to family Arecaceae. It is one of the important commercial crops grown in parts of Karnataka, Kerala, Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The cultivation of arecanut has also been extended to other states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. India is the largest producer and consumer of arecanut in the world holding 62% of the area and 60% of the production. The other major arecanut growing countries are Indonesia, Bangladesh, China, Myanmar and Thailand. Arecanut being a profitable plantation crop, it is important to understand the package of practices and seasonal operations to be followed in the nursery, in young gardens and in old plantations to get maximum returns. To get additional income in the adverse periods, concept of cropping system is very important. The exact origin of areca nut is not known till date but, arecanut is a palm which grows in much of the tropical Pacific, Asia, and parts of East Africa (Kumar, 2013).

Botanical Name: Cocos nucifera L. Family: Arecaceae / Palmae Chromosome No: 32 Place of Origin: Malaysia Common Name: Coconut 2.1 Introduction Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), is widely known as ‘Kalpavriksha’ (i.e., tree of heaven) as each and every part of the palm is useful in one way or the other and is an important perennial oil yielding crop of humid tropics. It provides food security and livelihood opportunities to 20 million people around the globe and 10 million people in India (Chowdappa et al., 2017). Even though India is the largest coconut growing country in the world, its contribution to the export market is not significant. Coconut as an edible oil and food crop, is now slowly transforming into raw material for various pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmetic products. Coconut is rich in fibre, vitamins and minerals. Because of its health benefits beyond its nutritional content, it has been considered as “functional food”. Hence, there exists a huge scope for coconut-based agribusiness in India, which will increase the present 8% level of value addition to 25%. The coconut-based value-added products are desiccated coconut powder, coconut milk, coconut cream, coconut milk powder, coconut flour, coconut water concentrate, coconut jelly (Nata-de-coco), coconut vinegar, virgin coconut oil, coconut chips, coconut pickle, coconut ice cream, neera and neera based value added products such as syrup, squash, honey, jaggery, candy and sugar (Chowdappa et al., 2017).

13.1 Introduction

Climate change is emerging out to be the greatest challenge to humanity. Climate change may be a change in the mean of the various climatic parameters such as temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, atmospheric gases composition etc. and in properties over a longer period and a larger geographical area. It can also be referred to as any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or because of human activity. Climate change is a global challenge threatening sustainability of agriculture and its impact is realized more in the fragile and vulnerable ecosystems. The resource poor small and marginal farmers are more prone to climatic aberrations than other farmers. Predicted population growth over the next 50 years will raise food demand globally higher (Trostle 2008), which is complicated by environmental changes such as climate, biodiversity, water availability, land use, atmospheric and other pollutants, and sea level rise (Misselhorn et al. 2012). Climate change has emerged as a serious global environmental issue having impact on all forms of life. It increases the greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, ozone and methane which may cause impact in terms of increased temperature, more demand for water and increase in biotic and abiotic stresses. It has direct impact on agriculture and horticulture. Due to climate change, low production of horticultural crops is featured. Due to severe cold wave, horticultural crops suffer a yield loss of 10-100% depending upon crop and variety (Hazarika 2013). Mitigation strategies aim to reduce the impact of changes to climate and the associated risks from anthropogenic (human) processes. Adaptive capacity is defined as ‘‘the ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes), to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences’’ (IPCC 2001, p. 982).

12.1 Introduction

Performance of an orchard mostly depends on the availability and quality of land and water resources and their management in fruit production. Before taking a decision on all the other possible alternatives under consideration, it is important to undertake feasibility study of the available resources to the orchard management. Other conditions in the growing environment, such as climate and weather conditions, disease and pest management and other factors affecting crop growth also affect production. With ever increasing population in India, today the major problem confronted in fruit cultivation is to improve or at least sustain the production to meet ever increasing demand for fresh or processed fruits. Fruit production can vary widely in response to management of available resources. India cannot afford to mismanage its natural resources (Sharma, 2012). Therefore, judicious utilization of available resources should be done. The following resource constraints are required to be judiciously handled in the management of fruit orchards:

1. Land and Soil management
2. Irrigation water management
3. Solar radiation management

11.1 Introduction

• Pest problems in fruit production has increased the cost of tree/plant protection and squeezed the profit of the fruit growers.
• In India, there are several existing or potential key pests for each fruit trees whose population densities must be kept at sub-economic levels to sustain higher per unit production at the farmers’ fields.
• During the second part of 20th century, the major emphasis was on pest control, which involved a set of actions to avoid, alternate or delay impact of pests on crops, which mainly involved pesticide application with the sole aim of eradication.
• Since horticultural crops like fruits are intensively cultivated that allow more inputs cost, the use of insecticides for the control of specific pests of a particular fruit crop has increased manifold during the last few decades. However, the toxic materials generated from chemical use in crop production has polluted the environment, because majority of them are not biologically degradable. They have harmed consumers’ and farmers’ health.
• Uses of broad-spectrum chemicals for pest control have a very negative impact on our efforts to conserve biodiversity. Because of their broad-spectrum nature of effect, it not only kills enemy insects but also useful insects like honey bees.
• The pest control option based on pesticide applications virtually eliminates the bee keeping activity.

10.1 Introduction

• In case of integrated nutrient management, all types of nutrients are supplied in the form of organic or inorganic manures and fertilizers to maintain uniform soil fertility.
• Continuous use of fertilizers spoils the soil structure and soil becomes unproductive in due course.
• Fertilizers applied along with sufficient quantities of organic manures will improve the efficiency of the fertilizers. Green manuring should be done every year or once in two years during the rainy season.
• Suitable bio-fertilizers should also be applied from time to time.
• Plants need adequate supply of sixteen essential nutrients for their normal growth and production, out of which carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) are needed in larger quantities and are referred as macro-nutrients, whereas, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl) are required in smaller quantities and thus called as micro-nutrients.
• An essential element is distinguished from a non-essential one on the basis of following criteria:
  1. The plant is unable to grow normally and complete its life cycle in the absence of the element.
  2. The function of the element is specific and cannot be replaced by any other element.
  3. The element plays a direct role in the metabolism of the plant.

9.1 Introduction

India is a vast country and is gifted with a variety of soils and climates. Thus, almost all kinds of fruits can be grown successfully in this country. It is a matter of great surprise that in spite of provision of adequate resources, the per capita consumption of fruits here is perhaps one of the lowest in the world.

The existing orchards are not able to meet the present requirements of the country. Poor selection of planting material, haphazard plantation and poor management has made many orchards uneconomic. The term ‘Rejuvenation’ means renewal or making new or young again.

As applied to the orchard tree it would mean restoring the productive capacity of the fruit trees. The meaning of ‘Rejuvenation’ according to Chamber’s dictionary is ‘to recover youth character or to grow again’. Obviously, this would apply to those plants which have attained a stage where they are no more profitable from the grower’s point of view.

8.1 Introduction

Fruitfulness refers to the state where a plant is not only capable of flowering and bearing fruit but also takes these fruits to maturity. The inability to do so is known as ‘unfruitfulness’ or ‘barrenness’. Unfruitfulness is a major problem in many fruit crops and their varieties. It results in huge loss to growers and makes fruit cultivation less profitable.

8.2 Factors Affecting Unfruitfulness

Unfruitfulness can be due to lack of balance between vegetative growth and fruiting, lack of flowering and poor fruit set, which is result of the unfavourable environment. It can also be due to heavy cropping, leading to inhibition of fruit bud production and poor crop in the following year. Sterility also leads to unfruitfulness due to impotence, incompatibility or the abortion of embryo. This unfruitfulness is one of the serious problems of many orchards and its causes need to be understood properly for effective control and obtaining economically acceptable production level. The causes of unfruitfulness can be broadly grouped into two categories: internal factors and external factors.

7.1 Introduction

Soil is an essential component of ecosystem sustaining all living vegetation, microorganisms, herbivores and carnivores. It is the outermost layer of the earth. It varies greatly in its physical and chemical properties which depend on its age and on the conditions (parent material, climate, topography and vegetation) under which it was formed. Processes such as leaching, weathering and microbial activity combine to make a whole range of different soil types, each of which has particular strengths and weaknesses for agricultural/ horticultural production.

The materials present in the soil are mostly in three states, i.e., solid, liquid and gaseous. They differ in their percentage from soil to soil. A good soil should have 5% organic matter, 45% mineral matter, 25% air and 25% water. So, while establishing an orchard, whole soil profile should be taken into consideration. Digging a pit shows the different layers of soil profile. Usually these are same and not distinct in many areas. Inorganic materials are the major component of most soils. They consist largely of mineral particles with specific physical and chemical properties which vary depending on the parent material and conditions under which the soil was formed. It is the inorganic fraction of soils which determines soil physical properties such as texture and has a large effect on structure, density, water retention and aeration. Air and water percentage in soil vary significantly with soil texture and weather conditions. The soil texture is a property which is determined largely by the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay particles content in it. The classification of soil based on particle size is termed as textural classification of soil. As per USDA classifications, clay particle size is less than 0.002 mm, silt size varies in between 0.002 to 0.05 mm and sand size in between 0.05 to 2.0 mm. On the basis of percentage of these particles present in a soil, the type of soil can be easily determined.

6.1 Introduction

Irrigation is the process of applying water to soil, primarily to meet the water requirement of plants. Irrigation is mostly done when rain water availability in the soil for plant is insufficient. Water from different sources like rivers, lakes, reservoirs or aquifers is pumped or flows by gravity through pipes, canals, ditches or even natural streams. Irrigating the fields enhances the quantity, quality and reliability of crop production. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, irrigation contributes to about 40% of the world’s food production on 20% of the world’s cultivated land (Bjorneberg, 2013).

Though nearly 75% of the total area on the earth’s surface is occupied by water, 97.3% of the water is in oceans and seas, and only 2.47% is the fresh water. Water is a vital factor and natural resource for the growth of any living organism, and is a limiting factor for plant growth. Plants require water for their better growth and production. Where there is shortage of water, particularly during critical stages like fowering and fruiting, there can be drastic reduction in yield. Hence, the necessity of irrigation is to make up this deficiency of water.

5.1 Introduction

A system is a group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli; it is unaffected directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. For example, the human body is a system — it has a boundary (e.g., the skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operate the living body) (Rana and Rana 2011).The main aim of orchard management in tropical and sub-tropical fruits, is to increase land use efficiency by use of inter-crops, multiple crops, multi-storeyed crops systems etc. in obtaining maximum income from the available land. Apart from these, cover crops, sod culture, herbicides, minimum tillage etc. are also common.

5.1.1 Cropping Systems

It is an important component of a farming system that represents a cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology, which determine their makeup.

4.1 Introduction

Fruit tree plantations are increasing gradually, sometimes at the expense of marginal lands. Consequently, limiting soils are now being used for crop production. Such soils are considerably constrained in terms of infiltration, retention, and transmission of water, and also regarding the salinity and/ or nutrient content. A number of agronomical techniques can be used to improve soil productivity for agricultural purposes; however, many of them are ineffective or unsustainable. Mulching techniques have emerged in recent years to address these soil constraints yielding positive results in a variety of scenarios. Zribi et al. (2015) reported the positive effects of mulches and organic amendments on soil physical properties such as increased water retention and decreased soil evaporation.

Mulching is the process of covering soil around plant root area with some extraneous matter of organic or inorganic in nature with a view to insulate the plant and its roots from the effects of extreme temperature fluctuations and make conditions more favourable for growing, as well as avoid weed germination and to conserve the available soil moisture.

3.1 Introduction

Weed is defined as an unwanted plant growing at a place where it is not desired. According to Jethro Tull, the father of Weed Science, weed is defined as the unwanted, undesirable plant, growing out of their proper place, which interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, competitive, harmful and even poisonous in nature and can grow in adverse climatic conditions. Weeds are considered major obstacle in agricultural production systems particularly in fruit crops. Weeds are a major problem to horticultural production as they take advantage of their initial slow growth rate. It has been reported that about 36-42% losses may occur due to inadequate management of weeds in apple (El-Metwally and Hafez, 2007). Fruits have a great potential but orchards are generally, infested with various types of annual, biennial and perennial weeds which compete with the fruit plants for nutrients, space, moisture, light and adversely affect growth, vigour, fruit set, flower initiation, yield, fruit quality and winter hardiness (Majek et al., 1993) and thereby directly reducing the productivity of fruit trees. Weeds also provide shelter to various pathogens by becoming an alternate or collateral host of invaded crops by a number of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases. Therefore, management of weeds in all agro-ecosystems is crucial to sustain our crop productivity and to ensure the food security to the rapidly increasing population. Weed control in orchard can be usually accomplished by various methods like manual, mechanical and chemical means. Yet the conventional hand weeding is the most common method of weed control which is not only laborious but also time consuming and expensive owing to high wage rates. If fruit orchards are located in high hilly areas with small and narrow routes, it would restrict the use of machinery which is also expensive and might injure the roots and stems of the fruit trees. Gradually, manual and mechanical weed control methods are being replaced by other alternatives such as herbicides and mulches as these are easier, cheaper and less time consuming. In recent years, the use of herbicide is becoming popular among the fruit growers all over the world.

2.1 Clean Cultivation

This type of cultivation is extensively followed in India. It involves regular ploughing of the land followed by removal of weeds. Tilling the orchard soil regularly provides a weed free environment in the orchard. Traditional tillage with the spade or hoe involves shallow cultivation and partial burying of weeds. Use of animals for ploughing reduces the labour cost but some superficial tree roots get damaged in ploughing. Tractor drawn tool can be used during initial years when the orchard trees are not fully grown. Branches hanging low, spreading in the inter-row spaces hinders the movements of the tractor even in widely spaced rows at maturity in most of the orchards. Under such situations small power tillers can be used. Tillage controls weeds partly through burying weeds and partly through exposing underground parts of weeds to desiccation. The land around the trunk must be cleaned separately with the help of spade as it is difficult to operate a power implement in the vicinity of the trunk. This is very instrumental in saving soil moisture. It has immense effects on the soil properties. Cleaning removes the protecting layer of vegetation and exposes the soil surface to weathering, and thus reduces the frequency of additions of organic matter to soil. Cultivation physically disturbs soil, mixing upper and lower layers. In this management system, the interspace between the trees is kept clean by tillage by removal of weeds. Clean cultivation by tillage influences the soil aggregate size and stability, porosity and pore size distribution, and the development of sub-surface layers of high bulk density (hard pans). The first change that occurs with tillage is the disruption of established soil pore continuity (Chan and Mead 1989). Organic carbon and nitrogen decline to a new equilibrium value depending on tillage intensity, cropping system and climate.

1.1 Introduction

Orchard is an area of land on which fruit trees are grown. An orchard is purposeful planting of fruit trees that is maintained for food production. It encompasses fruit or nut-producing trees which are grown for commercial production. Orchard management refers to management practices planned in the fruit orchard to maximize production of high-quality fruit and increase grower profitability. Decisions on soil preparation, crop cultivars, orchard systems and designs, location and site selection, making provision for water availability, canopy management, nutrient management, orchard floor management, pest and disease management, harvesting and mechanization etc. need to be taken care of while establishing an orchard. It is easy to establish an orchard considering its features critically but difficult to manage afterwards. It needs high managerial skills and technically skilled manpower to carry out different orchard operations. Orcharding is a long-term investment. Fruit plants once planted remain committed to the land for many years. Being perennial in nature, any mistake committed during initial years of orchard planning, is very tough to rectify.

The results pertaining to the present investigation, “Diagnostic Study of Farmers in context of Price spread analysis, marketing pattern and Potential assessment of agricultural diversification in Chenani Block of Udhampur district” have been presented in this chapter.

4.1 Cost and return analysis of cereals, vegetables and fruit crops

For financial analysis of different enterprises, it is necessary to workout costs of various inputs, which needs to be deducted from the value of inputs. The cost and return analysis of cereal crop and vegetables in Mantalai village of Chenani block is presented in Table 4.1. Per hectare Cost A which included all the variable costs excluding the family human labour were found to be highest (?55416.38) for the cultivation of garlic followed by tomato (?54260.75) whereas raddish incurred lowest of ?29361.33. The cost B which included the fixed costs in addition to cost A were ?39020.89 for maize, ?59074.66 for tomato, ?37280.11 for cucumber, ?33361.33 for raddish, ?41053.97 for beans and ?59416.38 for garlic. The cost C i.e. total item wise per acre operational costs which also included the imputed value of family labour were found to be highest (?149074.66/ha) in tomato and lowest of ?39361.33/ha in raddish. The cost C increases in case of tomato to such an extent only because of the addition of family labour. Cost C* was also calculated by adding 10 per cent of cost C as management cost to total cost.

The present investigation entitled “Diagnostic Study of Farmers in context of Price spread analysis, marketing pattern and Potential assessment of agricultural diversification in Chenani Block of Udhampur district” was carried out during the year 2015. The sampling structure, experimental procedures and techniques adopted during the course of investigation have been described in this chapter.

3.1 Locale of study

The present study was conducted in Chenani block of Udhampur district in Jammu and Kashmir state. Mantalai, Kosar, Bupp and Bashath villages were randomly selected.

3.2 Climate and rainfall

The Jammu and Kashmir state is situated between 32⁰.17'–36⁰.58' North latitude and 37⁰.26´–80⁰.30´East longitude. The state is the northern most part of the India is girdled by Tibet to the east, China and Afghanistan to the north, to its west is Pakistan. To its south lies the states of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and have been divided into three agro climatic divisions’ viz. outer plain and outer hills, middle mountains and Kashmir valley and inner Himalayas (Ladakh). The outer plains and outer hills includes Kathua and Jammu districts, extends up to Shivalik hills in the north. According to NARP (National Agricultural Research Project) classification this state has been divided into four agro-climatic zones: Temperate, Sub-tropical, Intermediate and Cold-Arid zone. In summer hot dry winds from plains of Punjab make it very hot, dust storms are common with occasional rain. Rainfall occurs from July to September. Average rainfall is 1143 mm and temperature shoots up to 46⁰C during May to June. During December to February temperature is between 13.5⁰C to 20⁰C, rainfall is 150 mm and in upper reaches there is snow. In the region of middle mountains and Kashmir valley winters are very cold. There is snowfall during winter and subzero temperature. In valley, winters are long and summers are short but pleasant. Average rainfall is 732 to 854 mm. The maximum temperature hardly ever goes beyond 35⁰C. In region of inner Himalayas, days are hot and there are no clouds in the sky. Winters are very cold. Temperature falls as low as minus 23⁰C. The average rainfall is 976 mm and humidity level is very low.

Bhatia, (1965) in his study on “Patterns of Crop Concentration and Diversification in India” has observed that physical, socio-economic and technological factors have affected the magnitude of crop diversification. Variations in above mentioned factors are responsible for variations in patterns of crop diversification in India. He has also evolved a new technique for measuring crop diversification in India. He has taken all the crops which are having 10 per cent or more than 10 per cent of the cropped area. He summed up the total area under these crops and divided the sum by the number of crops. According to his method, higher the index, lower is the magnitude of crop diversification and vice-versa.

Ayyar, (1969) in his study “Crop Regions of Madhya Pradesh: A Study in Methodology” has evolved a new technique for measuring crop diversification regions. He has taken all the crops which were having 1 per cent or more than 1 per cent of the total cropped area. Then he divided the sum of crops by the number of crops which are having 1 per cent or more than 1 per cent of the total cropped area. His method is an improvement over Bhatia’s and Singh’s methods for measuring crop diversification.

Patel and Pawar (1980) studied the marketing of fruits in Mahatma Phule market, Bombay. The study showed that there was close relationship between wholesale prices and supply position, whereas there was no such pattern in case of retail prices. The producers’ share in consumers’ rupee was 33.07 per cent for sweet oranges. In case of apples, mangoes and grapes, the share of the producer in consumers’ rupee varied according to the varieties and ranged from 33 to 54 per cent. The study also made some suggestions as standardization and grading, and establishment of cooperative marketing societies for getting better prices for the producers.

Globalization of economies and liberalization of trade has led an urgent need for prioritizing the potential areas for investment in order to earn handsome amount of income. Even the entrepreneurs, small as well as marginal farmers aspire to take advantage of global opportunity. Diversification to horticultural crops has been found to be best option as they make more profit, generate additional employment for rural masses and conserve natural resources. Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. Over 52 per cent of the rural households depend on agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. But unfortunately Indian farmers in general are small and marginal land holders with poor resources and realizing income mainly from cereal based production system, which is insufficient to improve their living standards. Agriculture, along with fisheries and forestry, accounts for one-third of the nation’s GDP and is its single largest contributor (www.indianbusiness.nic.in). GVA at Basic Prices for 2019-20 from ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector is estimated to grow by 2.8 per cent as compared to growth of 2.9 per cent in 2018-19. The GVA estimates of this sector are based on 1^st advance estimates of agricultural production during Kharif season of 2019-20 obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmer Welfare. For Livestock sector, estimates of production of major livestock products (i.e. Milk, Egg, Meat and Wool) obtained from the Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying and Fish production data obtained from Department of Fisheries have been used. The crops including fruits and vegetables account for about 56 per cent, the livestock products 30 per cent and forestry & fisheries 14 per cent share of GVA in total GVA of ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector [As per the estimates released by National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and programme Implementation, GoI, 2020]. Agricultural exports constitute a fifth of the total exports of the country. In view of the predominant position of the Agricultural Sector, collection and maintenance of Agricultural Statistics assume great importance. In 2018-19, India achieved a record food grain production of 285.17 million tonnes beating the previous year’s (2017-18) 285.01 million tonnes, according to data provided by Department of Economics and Statistics (DES). Also, agricultural profitability has increased over the last decade with record increases in MSPs (minimum support prices) for agricultural produce for all covered crops.

Introduction

Food and nutraceuticals are obtained from various agricultural resources available in this planet. Many types of bio-active compounds are available in small quantities in the plants and animals which are evidenced to improve performance of various organs, increase in immunity and cure for some diseases. Last decade evidences several advancements in developing phytochemical formulations which can be used as a cure for many diseases as well as helps in boosting immunity in human being. Such materials exist in different form, structure and chemical compositions. Examples of such chemicals are phenolic and organosulphur compound (Pascall 2011). The vegetables, fruits and seeds are used without further processing. Some plants are subjected to cooking before its consumption. Many industries are carried out extraction of bioactive compounds and developed products in the form of tablets, powders and liquids which are available in the market. In order to make commercial process more economic and feasible, long term storage of plant residues (Raw materials) as well as the prevention of the extracts emerges as essential requirement for the industries. Moreover, the products requires suitable packaging solution to increase its self-life, preventing it from the influences of environment, and to make viable solution for easy access which makes it more user-friendly. Suitable packaging solution is required for mainly the three reasons: (i) prevention. (ii) protection and (iii) presentation. Prevention is required in-order to avoid deterioration of the packaged items due to microbial growth, loss in moisture and enzymatic action. Protection is required for the purpose of protecting the packaging materials from the contamination as well as from the environment impact and rough handling. Presentation is equally important to provide it an aesthetic look to make it more approachable to the consumers. Moreover, packaging also offers “labelling for easy identification, warnings, instructions, and nutritional information, ease of transportation” (Pascall 2013).

Introduction

COVID-19, a worldwide pandemic, addresses a deflationary stun for the worldwide economy. The outbreak of coronavirus has had a significant impact on public health worldwide and all stages of various industries’ supply chain and value chain. The 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is rapidly spreading from its origin in Wuhan City of Hubei Province of China to the rest of the world. The infection began in bats and was communicated to people by inhalation or contact with infected droplets, and its infection time frame goes from 2 to 14 days. Primary manifestations in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 include fever (98%), cough/hack (76%), and myalgia or weakness (44%). Severe complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), RNAemia, acute cardiac injury, and multiple organ failure. However, exaggerated immune responses may lead to Cytokine Storm. Cytokine storm syndrome includes ARDS, shock, and multi-organ failure (Zheng et al., 2020). Many people are asymptomatic also, and the severity of this disease varies from person to person. The fatality rate is estimated to range from 2 to 3%. Typical/low white cell checks can analyze it with raised C-responsive protein (CRP), periodic modernized tomographic chest examination. The infection spreads quicker than its two predecessors, the SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory disorder Covid (MERS-CoV); however, it has lower casualty. The worldwide effect of this new scourge is yet questionable (Singhal, T. (2020).

Introduction

The art of fermentation process is developed as far back as thousand years ago without understanding the role of microorganism in it. It is believed that the process of fermentation originates in Indus valley during 7000 – 8000 BC. Archives of harappan civilization showed that different clay utensils were used for the fermented product and the agriculture and animal husbandry were fully developed during that period. It is evident from the artifacts of Egypt and middle east that the practice of fermentation was common in that part (Farnworth, 2003). The earliest practice of cheese making is originated from Falcate between Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in Iraq, 8000 years back. Later, Egyptians developed the use of yeast in wine and bread making during 4000 BC (Ross et al., 2002). Further, Sumarians prepared beer from fermented barley during 1750 BC. Earlier the fermenting process was an artisan way without any knowledge of microorganism. However, the main turning point was in 1608, when Antony Van Leeuwenhoek first established the use of a microscope and revealed the existence of microorganisms. Another, major finding was Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur in 1861 AD and this was the first report that documented the role of microorganism in fermentation. Later, there was a shift observed in the production of fermented food from local communities to large scale industry. The health effect of fermented food was first reported by Roman historian Pliny, who reported that fermented milk is beneficial for gastrointestinal complains. Further, a French paediatrician proved that Bifidobacteria in food prevents infants against infection (Grill et al., 1995).

Introduction

Hippocrate, an ancient physician, a great thinker and also often referred as father of medicine, for the first time conceive the idea nearly 2,500 years ago that a disease is caused due to natural factors such as environmental factors, diet, and living habits. He advocated the secret of healthy living in healthy food in his famous quote “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”. But unfortunately, this wisdom about food has faded with the time and we became dependent on synthetic medicines and drugs for even life style disorders. In the last century, research advancement in the field of food science and nutrition established food not only as a source of nutrition but also a source of active food components that aid specific functions and rejuvenated the Hippocrates concept. According to the Department of Health and Human Services, USA, daily diet of a person, plays a crucial role in 5 of 10 diseases which are the leading causes of death, such as diabetes (noninsulin dependent or type 2), stroke, coronary heart disease (CHD), specific type of cancer, and atherosclerosis. In the mid-1980s, term “functional food” was introduce in Japan and defined as food that contain active components either from plant or animal origin and provide physiological benefits in addition to the basic nutritional needs.

Introduction

During the first 50 years of the 20th century, scientific focus was on the identification of essential elements and their role in the prevention of various dietary deficiency diseases. This emphasis on nutrient deficiencies or “undernutrition” shifted dramatically, however, during the 1970s when diseases linked to excess and “overnutrition” became a major public health concern. “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”, the age old quote by Hippocrates is the ideology of today’s health conscious population. Eli Metchnikoff, the Russian Nobel prize winner was the first one to recognize the beneficial role of selected bacteria on gastrointestinal tract of humans. Subsequently the “Theory of Longevity” by Metchnikoff was correlated with prolonged youth and a healthy old age, observed largely in Balkan peasants of those times, who used cultured milks in their diet (Kaufmann, 2008). Since then, the quest continues for understanding the role of wide range of food components and nutrients in enhancing health or preventing chronic diseases. The research in this field has resulted in a plethora of new labels for pro-, pre- and synbiotics.

Introduction

In recent years, food scientists, nutritionists and health experts have become more inclined towards functional food components present in various food sources due to their positive influence on health, which is beyond providing the basic nutrition.Nowa days, generalconsumers are also seeking healthier food options because of nutritive food habits and awareness. Therefore, it has triggered the studyof food and deep mining of food components from nutritional and health benefit’s perspective also. Functional food ingredient can be defined as any componentwhich is more than a source of nutrient i.e. provides additional specific health benefits. Milk is well known to exert positive effect on human health, provides nutrition and widely consumed all across the globe in form of either milk or milk products. As per the definition, milk is heterogeneous blend of lacteal secretion which contains various elements that displays wide range of chemical and functional activities. It has been more than a source nutrition and supplement to different age groups either neonates, youngsters or grown up peoples (Park, 2009). It is one of the basicelements of many diets either in its native form or fermented form which every class of people can afford and had evolved as one of the important nourishment sources. Milk in its native form contains fewer bioactive components while fermentation process produces numerous secondary metabolites which possess various health-beneficial properties (Stanton et al., 2005).

Introduction

Increasing knowledge regarding the impact of diet on human health along with state-of-the-art technologies has led to significant nutritional discoveries, product innovations, and mass production on an unprecedented scale. In particular, naturally occurring bioactive extracts or single compounds thereof, that are believed to benefit human health, have spawned an important and dynamic new area of research resulting in substantial advances in nutritional knowledge. There is also growing awareness that dietary source and form of food may affect overall health. Suitably, the role of food as an agent for improving health has been recognized, initiating the development of new classes of food, known as functional foods (Honkanen 2009).

The concept of functional foods is to improve the general conditions of the body and decrease the risk of illness and disease. That is to say, bioactive compounds present as natural constituents or as fortificants in food having the potential to provide health benefits beyond the basic nutritional value of the product. Marine-derived nutrients and other marine bioactive components have excellent potential as functional food ingredients as they possess advantageous physiological effects, with medicinal characteristics and added health benefits such as anticancer or anti-inflammatory activity.

The marine world, due to its phenomenal biodiversity, is a rich natural resource of many biologically active compounds such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), sterols, proteins, polysaccharides, antioxidants and pigments. Many marine organisms live in complex habitats exposed to extreme conditions and, in adapting to new environmental surroundings, they produce a wide variety of secondary (biologically active) metabolites which cannot be found in other organisms. Moreover, considering its great taxonomic diversity, investigations related to the search of new bioactive compounds from the marine environment can be seen as an almost unlimited field.

Introduction

Food ingredients sector is indicating ample prospects for growth. The segment is an obligatory element for the growth of the food and beverage sector. These ingredients are also driving the development of the healthy functional foods industry to increase by 20% growth annually. Innovation in the food and beverage market, especially in the processed food domain, has created innumerable opportunities for new product development in the ingredients market as well. The segment is driven by the growing food processing industry and India is emerging as ingredients bowl of the future. Additionally, growing urbanization coupled with industrialization and changing lifestyles have led to growing demand for convenient food that offers health benefits, over and above the basic nutritional benefits of the foodstuff. There are nearly 10 to 15 broad classes of ingredients that include the very basic ingredients as well as certain value added ingredients that have niche applications. Key ingredients are preservatives, flavours, colours, hydrocolloids/stabilizers, emulsifiers, artificial sweeteners and value added health food ingredients such as omega-3-fatty acids prebiotics, probiotics etc. Until recently, there has been limited research into functional foods in meats, while functional foods in the dairy sector have been developed to a high degree. But meat is less allergenic than many other foods and much more research into the development and marketing of novel functional meat products is required. Such meat products would open up a new market for the meat industry. Nutraceutical and functional food industry is a very vibrant industry today with the claims and a clear mandate of health, wellness and prevention of diseases as one of its main goals.

Introduction

India is considered as the “Home of Spices”. They are a prized group of minor components and have been an integral ingredient of Indian diet. Since antiquity, spices form an important part of the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia (The Indian System of Medicine), with their widespread traditional use. With its wide climatic conditions and topographical features, India naturally possesses wide variety of medicinal flora. The country enjoys the distinction of being the largest producer and consumer of spices as well as the fastest growing spice market in the world.

Spices are potent plant foods that possess a wide range of nutrient bioactive compounds that contribute to improve health, while adding variety, colour, flavour and aroma to daily diet. The term spice or condiment applies to “such natural plant or vegetable products or mixtures thereof, in whole or ground form, as are used for imparting flavour, aroma and piquancy to and for seasoning food” (Sikri and Berwal, 2008).

Webster (2011) describes spices as ‘Any of various aromatic vegetable productions as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, allspice, ginger, cloves, etc., used in cookery to season and to flavour sauces, pickles, etc.; a vegetable condiment or relish, usually in the form of a powder; also, as condiments collectively’.

Introduction

Biological activation of grain or germination is a natural, biological processing techniques and traditional method that can be used to improve the nutritional, functional, and sensory properties of grains. During biological activation of grains, extensive phytochemical changes were reported in a variety of food grains, which reflects a dynamic and complex nutrient flux including remobilization, degradation and accumulation. During this process many hydrolytic enzymes were activated to hydrolyze the starches, proteins and, non-starch polysaccharides, which results in more oligosaccharides and free amino acids. Many nutrients and bioactive compounds reportedly increase and then decrease as they are utilized by the growing plant, which results in degradation of the high molecular weight polymers for generation of bio-functional substances. The biological activation of grains also realizes a significant growth of nutritional value by increasing the bioavailability of nutritional compounds, vitamins, bio-elements and other biologically active substances due to the partial hydrolysis of starch, proteins, hemicelluloses and even celluloses. Biological activation triggers the enzymatic activity in grain and dormant hydrolytic enzymes are activated, breaking down starch, fibers and proteins and leading to an increase in the amount of digestible compounds along with improvement of functional properties without any chemical modification. Also, the activity of some anti-nutritional factors (enzyme inhibitors, haemagglutinins, anti-vitamins etc.) decreases or disappears during activation, allowing a complete valorization of biological compounds in grains. During biological activation hydrolytic amylase enzymes, proteolytic enzymes, and catalase were activated in grains, which enhances the starch degradation, a complex biochemical process and thus lead to the conversion of insoluble granules to soluble starch and dextrin. Apart from positive shifting in the level of nutrition, biochemical activities which occur during activation also generate bioactive components of health-promoting activities through the enzymatic actions that are antioxidants in nature, such as ascorbic acid, tocopherols, tocotrienols and phenolic compounds, thus resulting in an increase of antioxidant activity.

Introduction

Pulses are annually grown leguminous crops that yield one to twelve grains/ seeds within a pod, and are often promoted in diet owing to their low cost and many beneficial nutritional effects (Craig 2009). The United Nations general assembly has declared 2016 as the international year of pulses (Oyeyinka et al. 2016). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) describes pulses as the crops that are harvested only for dry grain. This definition excludes crops that are harvested green as food sources (such as green beans and green peas), crops that are used only for sowing purposes (such as alfalfa and clover) and crops used primarily for oil extraction (such as peanuts and soybean). India is the largest producer (around 25%) of pulses in the world and the Indian subcontinent covers the leading area in terms of consumption of pulses. It was also suggested that India can also increase the production output by 30%, considering a rise in government support prices for stimulating the growth of pulses and in case of a normal monsoon season (FAOSTAT 2008). The mainly grown pulses in India include mungbean (green gram), chickpea (Bengal gram), urd bean (black gram), lentil (masur), pigeon pea (arhar), cowpea, horse gram and peas (Tiwari and Singh 2012). In the western countries, nowadays pulses are one of the preferred food sources of the population, owing to ideological reasons and interest in vegetarian diet.

Introduction

Functional elements are non-conventional biomolecules in foods that have the ability to modulate one or more body metabolic processes or pathways, leading in health advantages and well-being promotion. Research has demonstrated a connection between food, health and well-being functional elements. Consequently, functional elements have health-promoting roles connected with multiple progressive steps at various phases of disease control, from initiation to growth. They can therefore be implemented efficiently in disease therapy and prevention. Therefore, the borderline between food and medicine is becoming very thin at a moment when the role of a healthy diet in stopping non-communicable diseases is well recognized. Functional elements include plant-derived, non-nutritious and biologically active chemicals that operate in the body to avoid certain non-communicable diseases from occurring.

Food contains over 900 phytochemicals. One fruit or vegetable serving (about 120g) can contain as many as 100 distinct phytochemicals. Previously, functional elements were believed to happen predominantly only as phytochemicals in plant products including whole grains, fruits and vegetables. However, in animal goods such as milk, fermented dairy products and cold water fish, probiotics, conjugated linolenic acid, long-chain omega-3, −6 and −9 polyunsaturated fatty acids and bioactive peptides are also discovered. Usually, functional elements happen in various forms in food such as glycosylated, esterified, thiolated or hydroxylated materials. They also have numerous metabolic operations that enable positive impacts in the body on several illnesses and target tissues (Balic et al. 2020).

Introduction

Fruits contain various beneficial compounds that possess biological activities and can be used as pharmaceutical nutraceutical products. Most of the fruits contain polyphenolic components that can promote antioxidant potential on human health. Wild Blueberries, strawberries, plums, oranges, grapes, cherries and mangoes are rich in antioxidant. Additionally, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal and chemopreventive effects are associated with the various fruits. Besides polyphenols, other compounds such as xanthones, carotenoids, saponins also exhibit health effects. Fruit consumption is considerably increasing in the daily diet because they supply high levels of biologically active compounds that impart health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Fruits provide an optimal mixture of antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, polyphenols and carotenoids, vitamins, phytoestrogens, glucosinolates and anthocyanins. Diets rich in fruits may help to delay the ageing processes and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and other chronic diseases. The combination of vitamins, minerals, phenolic, antioxidants and fibre seems to be responsible for these effects. The most dietary components in fruits acting as antioxidants are fibre, polyphenols, conjugated isomers of linoleic acid, D-limolene, epigallocatechin, gallate, soy protein, isoflavones, vitamins A, B, C and E (group of tocopherols), calcium, selenium, chlorophyllin, alipharin, sulphides, catechin, tetrahy-drocurecumin, seasaminol, glutathione, uric acid, indoles, thiocyanates and protease inhibitors.

Introduction

Consumers are nowadays very much concerned about the food they purchase and consume. Consumer wants the food containing antioxidant properties or can say functional food in safe and stable forms, so that the availability of daily requirements of functional food ingredient must be ensured for normal growth and development of the body. The functional food that can provide a health benefit such as increased dietary fibre, vitamins or minerals to the body. The incorporation of antioxidant compounds acts as an efficient way to fight against reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in our body. As it is already known that the ROS causes oxidative stress and acts as a main trigger for different life threatening chronic diseases like cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, aging etc. Therefore, seeing the consumers’ demand for value added products with bioactive ingredients, all small and large scale food industries are taking initiatives to process different types of food (fruits, vegetables, dairy, sea food, animal, microbial products etc.) to extract and purify its active fraction of functional ingredients to valorize different value added products. Functional ingredients may also be derived from different food wastes generated during processing of food. This practice provides additional economic benefits to food businesses. Food industries are also giving importance to different processing methods to extract high quality of functional food ingredients in large quantity because processing method affects the concentration of extracted bioactive compounds. The simple addition of functional ingredients may cause an unwanted and negative change of sensory and texture of food. Therefore, using novel processing technologies such as microencapsulation, the negative changes could be minimized or avoided because these technologies could prevent the inactivation of bioactive ingredients.

Introduction

Our traditional knowledge of medicine has been one of the strongest areas of research because of our rich heritage in herbal plants & great biodiversity in our fauna & flora. Consumption of plant foods and the structurally diverse natural products provided by them have long been associated with health-protective and therapeutic effects. Natural products in plant foods have been shown to have pleiotropic therapeutic and chemopreventive properties. These bioactive products are known to potentiate the efficacy of other drugs and have synergistic effects too. Most of the prescription drugs discovered so far is from plant sources and 75% drugs had been claimed in folklore claims and traditional medicinal system (Reynold, 1991; Benowitz, 1996). The traditional Indian medicinal system utilizes multicomponent formulations of plant extracts which may either act synergistically or avoid many side effects and might have added up trace element through combination of different plant extracts which could have additive effects. However the effort to utilize traditional knowledge in the light of modern scientific findings is lacking in India. Accumulating evidences as well as in-vitro studies implicates inverse relationship between regular consumption of fruits vegetable and the risk of specific cancer. Diet derived nutritional compound mediated interventions in the process of tumorigenesis may be promising chemopreventive strategy with minimal toxicities to the physiological system.

Introduction

Society is dynamic. The requirement of society varies in course of time. During the life process human being faces lots of health hazards which are mostly due to intake of various foods. So people become cautious about the intake of food and think about the quality of foods which can protect the health of human being. In ancient times people made medicines from plant extracts to protect their health. In 1989, Dr. Stephen coined the term “Nutraceuticals” which is combination of nutrition and pharmaceutical. Nutrition is required for health and pharmaceuticals provide remedy for sickness. So it is a preventive approach. Nowadays, the definition of nutraceuticals has been expanded to include vitamins, minerals, herbs and other botanicals, amino acids, and dietary substance for human use as a supplement diet (Stauffer, 1999).

Nutraceuticals are dietary supplements made only from whole foods to augment health. Currently over 470 nutraceutical and functional food products are available with documented health benefits (Brower, 1999). The patients are much aware about the side effects of chemical agents in short and long term therapy. So to avoid medicine used for small diseases, new therapies came into trend with the help of nutritional approaches i.e. “Nutraceuticals”. The use of nutraceuticals becomes easier than pharmaceuticals since nutraceuticals does not require any animal verification for its use in human. Nutraceuticals,

Functional foods and Dietary Supplements are most important concept in food science. They have distinction amongst themselves.

Introduction

The health and wellness continue to drive growth in the global food industry as the consumers are constantly looking for the foods, beverages and other dietary solutions that will help them more aggressively to meet their own unique nutrition and personal health goals. Worldwide countries are going through a nutritional transition and are now affected by double burden of problems like nutritional and food security. The common alarming problems are under nutrition and specific nutrient deficiencies simultaneously coupled with imbalanced diets and chronic diseases. The problem of chronic diseases, non-communicable diseases (cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, diabetes, obesity, cancer etc.) and malnutrition is more serious in the developing countries. The lack of access to health services, sufficient income, healthy and nutritious foods characterize majority of poor people in developing countries. So, food is not only the solution but also viewed as a product to enhance health and wellbeing, and it encourages the producers by supplying new goods that meet these needs. From the past decade, there has been growing consumer awareness regarding health, nutrition and the food safety which are often triggered by specific food incidents, especially in the developed countries and high-income groups in such countries. In the food industry there have been two broad trends which are hazards in the food chain and nutritional profile of the food. There has been recognition that hazards and contaminants can enter the food chain and can cause sickness, death and diseases, and so governments, often to deal with consumer and industry concerns, establish regulations and standards on food hazards including standards on pesticides, antibiotics, microbiological hazards and other chemical and physical contaminants. On the other hand, there is also a growing awareness of the health-enhancing properties for prevention and treatment of health concerns beyond the basic nutritional component of many foods.