eChapters

Pineapple is a wonderful tropical fruit having exceptional juiciness, vibrant tropical flavour and immense health benefits. Pineapple contains considerable calcium, potassium, fibre, and vitamin C. It is low in fat and cholesterol. Vitamin C is the body’s primary water soluble antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage normal cells. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper and dietary fibre. Pineapple is a digestive aid and a natural Anti-Inflammatory fruit. A group of sulfur-containing proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme (bromelain) in pineapple aids digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain used for tenderising meat. Bromelain has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects, reducing swelling in inflammatory conditions such as acute sinusitis, sore throat, arthritis and gout and speedy recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple enzymes have been used with success to treat rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of injuries, diabetic ulcers and general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and helps remove plaque from arterial walls. Studies suggest that pineapple enzymes may improve circulation in those with narrowed arteries, such as angina sufferers. Pineapples are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in the treatment of arterioscleroses and anaemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner; it combats loss of memory, sadness and melancholy. Pineapple fruits are primarily used in three segments, namely, fresh fruit, canning and juice concentrate with characteristic requirements of size, shape, colour, aroma and flavour.

SUMMARY

Plant tissue culture mainly comprises a set of in vitro techniques, methods and strategies that are part of the group of technologies called plant biotechnology. Tissue culture has been exploited not only to create genetic variability from which crop plants can be improved but also to improve the state of health of the planted material and to increase the number of desirable germ plasms available to the plant breeder through a shorter duration in cost effective manner. Tissue-culture protocols are available for most crop species, although continued optimization is still required for many crops, especially cereals and woody plants. Tissue culture techniques, in combination with molecular techniques, have been successfully used to incorporate specific traits through gene transfer. In vitro techniques for the culture of protoplasts, anthers, microspores, ovules and embryos have been used to create new genetic variation in the breeding lines, often via haploid production. Cell culture has also produced somaclonal and gametoclonal variants with crop-improvement potential. The culture of single cells and meristems can be effectively used to eradicate pathogens from planting material and thereby dramatically improve the yield of established cultivars. Large-scale  micropropagation laboratories are providing millions of plants for the commercial ornamental market and the agricultural, clonally-propagated crop market. With selected laboratory material typically taking one or two decades to reach the commercial market through plant breeding, this technology can be expected to have an ever increasing impact on crop improvement as we approach for the need of the hour .

Issue

2004-2005 saw an upsurge in seed industry takeovers and a shake-up in rankings. Today, the top 10 companies control half of the world’s commercial seed sales. With a total worldwide market of approximately US$21,000 million [$21 billion] per annum, the commercial seed industry is relatively small compared to the global pesticide market ($35,400 million), and it is positively puny compared to pharmaceutical sales ($466,000 million). But corporate control and ownership of seeds – the first link in the food chain – has far-reaching implications for global food security. This chapter examines seed industry consolidation and other recent trends in the commercial seed industry.

Particulate Matter

Anthropogenic emissions of particulate matter include fossil fuel (diesel and petrol) combustion from mobile and stationary sources (Rogge et. al., 1993a-c), biomass burning (Forest fires, landfills, agricultural activities and incinerators) (Oros and Simoneit, 1999) natural gas (Rogee et. al., 1993c), wood (McDonald et. al., 2000) and coal combustion (Mastral and Callen, 2000).

6.1 World Trade Organization (WTO) and Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
6.1.1 Introduction
The globalization of trade and the rapid advancement in innovation—particularly in biotechnology—have necessitated the harmonization of intellectual property rights (IPR) across nations. The World Trade Organization (WTO), established in 1995, is the apex multilateral body that regulates international trade among member states. Within its legal framework, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) plays a foundational role in setting minimum standards for IPR protection and aligning national laws with global trade norms.
In the realm of biotechnology, TRIPS has profound implications on patentability of life forms, technology transfer, public health, biodiversity, and traditional knowledge.
6.1.2 World Trade Organization (WTO): An Overview
• Established: January 1, 1995
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
• Membership: 164 members (as of 2024), including India
• Primary Objectives:
• Facilitate free and fair global trade
• Administer trade agreements
• Resolve trade disputes
• Monitor national trade policies
• Promote cooperation with other international organizations (e.g., WIPO, WHO)

Introduction

It is an eminent actuality that the diets of end users are being advanced globally; however, the patterns of food procurement and food safety protocols diverge across countries. The fundamental rationale of the trend is that the consumer awareness with regard to food safety, quality and variety has been proliferated greatly. Looking back to the history of food industry, it is unquestionable that the past has a full frame of misfortune, indignity and many disastrous incidents. Moreover, the entire muddle was not always related with microorganisms; numerous of them were associated with environmental problems, technological advancements or certain alterations in production protocols and management.

Global warming is the hottest issue facing life in our times. The gradual average increase in air temperatures near Earth’s surface over the past one to two centuries is leading to the phenomenon called global warming. It is this global phenomenon that triggers climate change, threatening the entire life on Earth. Earth’s climate has changed over all conceivable geological timescales, but that was all on account of the natural phenomenon. But, human activities are making the phenomenon more pronounced since the beginning of the Industrial Age, now emerging as a dominant triggering factor in influencing the overall climate fabric of the planet.

Introduction 
Chapter 16, “Global Warming and Food Security” delves into the intricate relationship between global warming and food security. The chapter opens by defining the multifaceted concept of food security, which includes availability, access, utilization, and stability. It emphasizes the critical importance of these components in ensuring a stable and reliable food supply. The chapter then explores various challenges to food security, highlighting the impact of rapid population growth, climate change, land and water scarcity, poverty, inequality, and conflicts. It underscores how these challenges are compounded by global warming, which exacerbates environmental stressors such as rising temperatures, altered weather patterns, and extreme weather events. The implications for agriculture are profound, affecting crop yields, livestock health, and overall food production. The section on the causes and consequences of global warming outlines key phenomena such as risi ng temperatures, changing weather patterns, melting glaciers, and ocean acidification. It illustrates how these factors disrupt agricultural systems and food distribution networks, leading to increased food insecurity. To address these issues, the chapter discusses various strategies for enhancing food security in a changing climate. These include adopting climate-smart agricultural practices, diversifying crop and livestock systems, developing climateresilient crop varieties, and implementing efficient water management strategies. It also highlights the importance of policy and institutional interventions, supportive measures for smallholder farmers, and research and development initiatives. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the need for collaboration and partnerships among various stakeholders, including governments, international organizations, and the private sector, to effectively address the dual challenges of global warming and food security. Global warming, a consequence of human-induced climate change, has emerged as one of the most pressing challenges of our time. As the Earth’s average temperature continues to rise, it brings about far-reaching impacts that extend to various sectors, including food and agriculture. The intricate relationship between global warming and agriculture is of paramount importance, as agricultural systems are both vulnerable to climate change and significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. Understanding the impacts of global warming on

11.1 Global Warming

Definition : Global warming is defined as an increase in the earth’s temperature due to the use of fossil fuels and other industrial processes leading to a build-up of green house gases (CO2, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons) in the atmosphere.

11.2 Who Coined the Term Global Warming?

The principle of global warming was first put fourth by S. Arrhenius in his paper on “the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground” in 1869. This concept gained ground in the late 1980s and early 1990s when it was found that the earth’s temperature had warmed over the past century, because of increased carbon dioxide emission.

1.1. Background Introduction

We live in a world with “throw-away” societies that are involved in a pattern of consuming packaged products that don’t even last past a single use or even a year and discarding the waste. This lifestyle generating waste is negatively impacting public health, environment and imposing socio-economic problems on us. The waste is continuously consuming our land, resources, and energy for storage, management, treatment, and disposal. Solid waste was an urban issue initially but has reached every corner nowadays. 

The weather parameters that may occur outside India will also play a dominant role on weather conditions in India. Such weather parameters are called as global weather parameters and were found to play very important role on weather even in most parts of the world. During normal conditions in the Pacific Ocean, trade winds blow west along the equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia. To replace that warm water, cold water rises from the depths-a process called upwelling. These global parameters are popularly known as El Ni?o, La Ni?a, Southern Oscillation, and ENSO (combination of El Ni?o and Southern Oscillation).

Building upon the foundation laid in earlier chapters, perhaps exploring local weather dynamics and regional climate patterns, the present chapter “Global Weather Parameters and Teleconnections,” takes a significant step back to examine the Earth’s weather systems on a truly planetary scale. Here, we shift our focus to the fundamental forces and patterns that orchestrate the global climate ballet. We will delve into the key global weather parameters – think of these as the vital signs of our planet’s atmosphere – such as the overall distribution of temperature across latitudes and altitudes, the major global pressure belts that drive air movement, and the resulting large-scale wind systems that circulate heat and moisture around the globe. These parameters, born from the interplay of solar radiation, the Earth’s spherical shape, and its continuous rotation, are the primary drivers of our planet’s diverse climates. Beyond these fundamental parameters, this chapter will illuminate the fascinating world of teleconnections. Imagine the atmosphere and oceans as an intricate network, where events in one distant region can have a ripple effect on weather patterns thousands of kilometers away. Teleconnections represent these long-range linkages, acting as the “threads” that connect seemingly disparate weather phenomena. We will explore prominent examples like the El Niño- Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which has profound impacts on rainfall and temperature across the Pacific and well beyond, including potential influences on the Indian monsoon – a topic likely of particular interest given your previous research. Similarly, we will examine phenomena such as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), influencing weather across Europe and North America, and the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), a traveling wave of thunderstorms in the tropics that can affect global circulation. For those interested in agricultural meteorology, the understanding of global weather parameters and teleconnections is paramount. These largescale patterns and their interconnections play a critical role in shaping regional climate variability, influencing the onset and intensity of droughts and floods – events you’ve extensively researched – and impacting crop yields and water availability. By grasping these global drivers, we can enhance our ability to forecast seasonal weather patterns, anticipate potential climate-related risks to agriculture, and develop more informed strategies for long-term agricultural planning and adaptation in a changing world. This chapter aims to provide you

Introduction

Globalization, as defined by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), refers to the increasing economic interdependence among nations, characterized by rising volumes and diversity of cross-border transactions in goods and services, international capital flows, and the more rapid dissemination of technology worldwide.

Key Characteristics of Globalization

1. Expansion opportunities for businesses globally.

2. Elimination of distinctions between domestic and international markets.

3. Freedom to buy and sell products and services across any country.

4. Production and distribution facilities are established based on economic feasibility at optimal locations worldwide, rather than national priorities.

5. Product planning and development are influenced by global market conditions.

6. Sourcing raw materials from across the globe to maximize efficiency.

7. Global strategies, organizational structures, cultures, and management practices.

8. Viewing the world as a unified market.

Abstract: Gomphrena, indigenous to India, is popular choice for borders, edging, making crafts and potpourris. Only few species are cultivated under tropical and sub-tropical regions. A little work has been done in its improvement. Research should be focused on varietal development for long photoperiod cultivation, tolerant to high temperature stress and medicinal values of the crop. Prospects of hybridization and mutation breeding need to be explored.

INTRODUCTION

Gloriosa is commonly known as glory or gloriosa lily. Gloriosa lilies have assumed an important place in flower trade and are widely grown for cut flower and tuber production both in USA and Europe. Gloriosa lily is the national flower emblem of Zambia. Their cut flower stems last well in summer heat and their buds take lon time to open after picking. The bright vibrant and intense, red, gold, lemon and pink flower colours and the lush green leaves of gloriosa lilies bring a sense of the tropics or festivity to room. They combine well with many other flowers from roses to heliconias. Gloriosa blooms make perfect posies for the office desk, bedside cabinets or small tables and shelves. The stiff stems of gloriosa and their ability to hold their form out of water for a longer time make them ideal for out of water floral installation work. They are light climbers and are suitable for training on low walls or trellis. With proper trailing they can also be grown in pots. Its flowers are fascinating and its tubers and seeds have great medicinal value. The tubers are rich in alkaloids. Colchicine has been obtained from various plant parts viz., young leaves, flowers, old leaves, tubers, seeds and stems.

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of tropical Asia and Africa.

• Tropical India, from North-west Himalayas to Assam and Deccan plateau.

• In Karnataka, it is grown along Western Ghats.

• Important species in India - Gloriosa superba and G. rothschildiana.

• Tamil Nadu leads in production of glory lily in India

• State flower of Tamil Nadu

5.2. Economic importance

• Economic part: Seed

• Rhizomes are used as a tonic, antiperiodic, antihelminthic and also against snake bites and scorpion stings.

• Used for promoting labour pains and an abortifacient.

VIVEK M. PATIL

Antivirus software : Programs specifically designed to detect and disable viruses and other harmful software that can invade the computer system and damage it.

Applications/Application software : Programs designed to perform a specific function directly for the user or for another application program, using the services of the computer’s operating system and other supporting programs. eg. word processors, spreadsheet programs, database programs; image editing programs etc.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) : The simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. These processes include learning (the acquisition of information and rules for using the information), reasoning (using the rules to reach approximate or definite conclusions), and self-correction.

Aspect ratio : The ratio of the number of horizontal dots (pixels) to the number of vertical dots on the computer screen.

Backup : A method of copying one of more files/folders from a hard drive on the computer to other external storage devices like a CD/DVD, external hard drive, flash drive etc. so as to have an additional copy of the data in case the original is damaged/lost.

Bandwidth : In computer networks, bandwidth is often used as a synonym for data transfer rate - the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually a second). This kind of bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second (bps).

A

Abdomen: Area between the keel and the pubic (hip) bones.

Abdominal capacity: The distance between the two public bones (width) and between the pubic bones and the tip of the keel (depth).

Addled: An egg where the contents are decomposing.

Air cell: The air space between the two shell membranes, usually at the large end of the egg.

Albumen: The white of an egg.

Alektorophobia: The fear of chickens.

Allantois: A sac connected to the embryo’s abdomen and involved in embryo respiration.

Amnion: A sac surrounding the embry filled with amniotic fluid which protects the developing embryo from shock and provides a medium for the develop embryo to exercise their muscles.

Antibody: A natural substance in the blood that recognizes and destroys foreign invaders and that causes an immune response to vaccination or infection.

Anticoccidial: An anticoccidial drug used to treat or prevent coccidiosis.

Antigen: A foreign protein in the blood that differs from nautral body proteins and, as a result, stimulates the natural production of antibodies.

Artificial insemination: The introduction of semen into the female oviduct by methods other than by natural mating.

As hatched: Description of a group of chicks that have not been sorted.

Animal Fibers                   The animal materials like wool, hair, fur, mohair and silk used for weaving, knitting or felting into a fabric are                                                      generally termed as animal fibers. Animals used for the purpose are sheep, goat, llama, alpaca, camel, vicuna                                                and silk worm.

Apparel wool: Any wool utilized for the creation of garments, excluding carpet and pulled wool, is referred to as apparel wool.
Bale: A bale is a wool package that contains a designated minimum weight of wool. The wool is compactly packed into bales, entirely covered with new gunny cloth, and secured with multiple iron hoops. Each bale typically weighs between 100 kg and 200 kg, which is considered a standard commercial weight.
Belly wool: Belly wool is the wool that grows on the underside of sheep. Black wool: Black wool encompasses any wool that is black, brown, or gray in colour.
Blending: The process of combining various grades and/or lengths of wool in either their raw or semi-compressed state to produce a specific type of yarn is known as blending.
Blood grade: Blood grade initially indicated the percentage of Merino (fine wool) genetics present in a fleece.
Break: A break is a noticeable weak point along the locks in fleeces, resulting from a decrease in the diameter of the wool fibers. This condition is usually caused by illness, fever, or significant stress.
Bright wool: Bright wool is grease wool that is almost white and exhibits minimal yellow coloration due to excess yolk. Britch or breech wool: Britch or breech wool pertains to the wool harvested from the hindquarters of sheep, which is generally the coarsest section of  the fleece.
Buck fleeces: Buck fleeces are those obtained from mature rams. They are usually longer and coarser than ewe wool from the same breed and possess a distinct ram odour.
Burr: Burr denotes vegetable matter, such as twigs and straw, that can be found in wool.

3.1. Terminology Used in the Description of the Fungal Pathogen

3.1.1. The Mycelium

The hypha or mass of hyphae that make up the body of a fungus.

3.1.1.1. Coenocytic or aseptate mycelium

Commonly used terms in swine husbandary

A

Acervulus (pl. Acervuli)—A saucer-shaped, spore-producing body of a fungus embedded in host tissue.

Actinomycetes—Filamentous bacteria that produce several antibiotics and give soil its earthy smell.

Active ingredient: In pesticides, the chemical responsible for the desired effect.

Aggressiveness: Virulent forms of pathogen cause differing degrees of symptom severity.

Alternate Host—One of two kinds of plants on which a parasitic fungus (e.g., rust) must develop to complete its life cycle.

Anamorph—Asexual stage of a fungus.

Antagonism: The counteraction between organisms or groups of organisms.

Plants, with the help of photosynthesis, convert simple molecules (like carbon dioxide and water) into more complex molecules (anabolism) through various chemical reactions. Animals synthesize more complex molecules (anabolism) from monomer units through multiple chemical reactions. Anabolism refers to a biosynthesis process involving the sequences of biochemical reactions by which complex molecules are formed in living cells from available monomer units. Anabolic processes include the biosynthesis of complex biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. The anabolic processes require energy from high-energy bond compounds like ATP.
The anabolic processes related to the biosynthesis of carbohydrates include
(1) Gluconeogenesis and
(2) Glycogenesis
11.1 Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of new glucose molecules from noncarbohydrate molecules. The non-carbohydrate molecules that are used for gluconeogenesis are derived from glycolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis. Examples are pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. The liver and kidneys are the preferred organs for the gluconeogenesis process. It also occurs to some extent in the brain. Blood glucose levels are maintained at physiological concentrations through the process of gluconeogenesis in humans and ruminants. The blood glucose drops below normal levels during various conditions like fasting, starvation, pregnancy, lactation, fever, and low carbohydrate diets.

(Method of Froesch and Renold, 1956; Froesch et al., 1957)
Enzymatic with Glucose-oxidase / Peroxidase

Introduction

Glucose oxidase enzyme specific for the oxidation of glucose, was discovered in a fungus preparation by Müller in 1928. This enzyme is present in bacteria and in moulds such as (Pencillium notatum), which promotes the oxidation of glucose (b-ring form) to gluconic acid with the production of an equivalent amount of hydrogen peroxide. Normal values for whole blood glucose oxidase are 60 to 90 mg/100 ml. Results by the enzyme methods are lower than by the best “true  sugar” reduction methods largely because of their specificity, but inhibition of glucose oxidase by uric acid may be a contributory factor. In suspected cases of diabetes, values below 120 mg per 100 ml call for further investigation, for example, by glucose tolerance test. Due to the presence of glycolytic enzymes in red cells, blood must be collected into an antiglycolytic/anti-coagulant preservative, if there is to be a delay of more than 1 to 2 h. in processing or estimation. A fluoride/oxalate mixture, containing 2 mg of fluoride per ml of blood, is suitable and the glucose content will then remain unchanged for upto 3 days at 4ºC.

A glucose syrup is defined as ‘A purified and concentrated aqueous solution of nutritive saccharides derived from starch’, and having the following characteristics:

1. Dry matter of not less than 70%.
2. A dextrose equivalent (DE), expressed as d-glucose, of not less than 20% based on dry matter.
3. A sulphated ash content of not more than 1% on a dry basis.

Starch has a DE value of zero, whilst dextrose, the final end product of starch hydrolysis, has a DE value of 100. For the lay person, the term dextrose equivalent or DE can be regarded as an indication of how far the conversion process from starch to dextrose has gone. While technically DE is a measure of the total reducing sugars present in a glucose syrup.

Introduction

Wheat is the most important cereal crop to the human kind. It is the main source of energy and nutrition in human diet. Wheat is consumed in the form of large number of end products as chapati, bread, biscuit, cakes, pretzels, noodles and pasta products. Millions of people are involved in milling, baking and pasta products industry with huge turnover per annum. However, each end-use product of wheat has it’s own specific requirement for example basically hard wheats along with strong gluten and high protein content are used for bead making. Soft wheat with weak gluten and low protein content are required for biscuit making Souza et al. (1994). Durum (tetraploid) wheat is used for pasta products as macaroni, vermicelli and spheghatti and Dicoccum for therapeautic purposes. Often chemical improvers are used to improve the dough properties for these products. Most of these chemicals have been banned because of their toxic effects. Therefore, only alternative is to develop varieties suited to meet the requirements of these end-use products. This needs better understanding of molecular basis of grain quality to accelerate breeding for producing wheat varieties for each end-use product separately. Storage proteins are the major component of grain which determines end-product quality. In this chapter detailed structure, genetics and functionality of gluten proteins are described.

Glycogenesis helps to maintain blood glucose, as it is a primary source of energy for every cell. An inadequate supply of glucose to the body may lead to the failure of the vital organs. Glucose, when in excess, is synthesized into glycogen and stored (glycogenesis), mainly in the liver and muscles (including the uterus). It is also found in other tissues, such as the kidney, brain, heart, and adipose tissues. The stored liver glycogen is broken down (glycogenolysis) into blood glucose when needed. Still, the glycogen stored in muscle is broken down to glucose 1-phosphate and converted to blood glucose later. Either the synthesis or breakdown pathway is primarily active at a time in tissues. Glycogen synthesis and its breakdown are not reversible processes.
The percentage of glycogen stored in skeletal muscles is less ( 1% to 2%) than in the liver (10%). Still, the total quantity of glycogen is greater in muscles due to their greater mass than an animal’s total liver mass. Muscle mass, on average, ranges from 40 to 45 % of body weight for the most mature mammals.
Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) is an anabolic process forming a branched homopolysaccharide made of several chains of alpha D-glucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds in a linear chain and nearly every ten glucose residues; the chain branches off via α-1,6 glycosidic linkages. The α-glycosidic bonds give rise to a helical polymer structure. The number of glucose units in a single glycogen molecule varies (1,700 to -600,000 units). The glycogen granules are formed on the glycogenin protein in the center, so it acts as a primer, and their number determines the total number of glycogen particles.

Glycogen breakdown is known as glycogenolysis. This breakdown occurs in the cytoplasm of cells of the organs, wherein glycogen is stored. The end product of glycolysis is glucose in the liver, which is glucose-1-phosphate in skeletal muscles.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide synthesized from glucose monomers. Glycogen is stored in the cell instead of glucose because glucose requires more water, whereas glycogen can be stored with much less water. Most of the stored glycogen is in the liver (5% of body weight) and muscle (1 to 2 % of body weight). Muscle and liver glycogen undergo glycolysis for different purposes. Muscle glycogen provides energy for muscular activity, whereas liver glycogen helps to maintain the blood glucose level.
Glycogen contains many glucose residues (up to 120,000) linked by alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds, forming a straight chain. Glycogen has branches at alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds at every ten glucose residues. At the reducing end, the carbon one of glucose is free, whereas it is not accessible in the case of non-reducing ends.

Glycolysis involves a series of reactions to extract energy from glucose to
release two molecules with three carbons called pyruvate. The process is not
dependent on oxygen but can occur under aerobic and anaerobic conditions,
releasing different end products. Under aerobic conditions, the pyruvate formed
is then oxidized in the mitochondria to CO2 and H2O. The energy released in
glycolysis is in the form of ATP (High Energy Bond). All the reaction steps
occur in the cytoplasm, as it is the extramitochondrial pathway. In anaerobic
conditions and the absence of mitochondria (RBC), the end product of
glycolysis is lactic acid.
The net reaction of Glycolysis (anaerobic) may be summarized as under
Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi → 2 Lactate + 2ATP
7.1 Steps in EMP Cycle or Glycolytic Pathway
Table 7.1: Steps and enzymes of glycolysis or EMP cycle.

Glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate and a non carbohydrate residue in the same molecule. They are the complex polysaccharides which are chemically heterogeneous collection of substances, which have in common one property that the molecules are linked together and contain at least one sugar unit. The term glycoside represents a group of compound containing glucose and one or more basic or acidic organic compound in chemical combination. When the sugar other than glucose is present, it is called glycoside. Each sugar is linked through a glycosidic bond to either a non sugar component, aglycones, (aglycone or aglucone is the nonsugar molecule in glycosides).

Biotech crops or genetically modified (GM) crops or the transgenic crops are those crop plants into which certain genes have been introduced from unrelated sources beyond the boundary of sexual compatibility using techniques which bypass the normal sexual cycle. The transgenic production technology uses recombinant DNA technology where a recombinant DNA molecule is a vector into which the desired DNA fragment has been inserted to enable its cloning in an appropriate host. The recombinant DNA technology has opened up the flood gate of plant biotechnology to produce plants which are equipped with novel genes to produce products never heard of that a plant will do. Now transgenics in several crops have been commercialized globally. The importance and potential of GM crops can be realized from the fact that acreage under such crops at global level has reached to 189.8 million ha covering 24 countries in 2017. One can have a feel of this huge acreage under commercialized GM crops globally if it is compared with about total cultivated area of 143 million ha in India.

Over the last 30 years field of agricultural biotechnology has expanded rapidly due to greater understanding of DNA as the chemical double helix code from which genes are made. Genetic engineering is one of the modern biotechnology tools that are based on recombinant DNA technology. The term genetic engineering, often interchanged with terms such as gene technology, genetic modification, or gene manipulation, is used to describe the process by which the genetic makeup of an organism can be altered using “recombinant DNA technology.” This involves the use of laboratory tools and specific enzymes to cut out, insert, and alter pieces of DNA that contain one or more genes of interest. The ability to manipulate individual genes and to transfer genes between species that would not readily cross is what distinguishes genetic engineering from traditional plant breeding and opens up a huge opportunity to create crop plants equipped with desirable genes from the sources which cannot be sexually crossed. With conventional plant breeding, there is little or no guarantee of obtaining any particular gene combination from the millions of crosses generated. Undesirable genes can be transferred along with desirable genes or while one desirable gene is gained, another is lost because the genes of both parents are mixed together and re-assorted more or less randomly in the offspring. These are the major limitations of conventional crop breeding.

Transgenic varieties combine genes from totally unrelated species. For example, we can now transfer genes for salinity tolerance to rice from mangroves. The recombinant DNA technology is part of the evolution of genetics starting with the rediscovery of Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance in 1900. In the early part of the twentieth century, various techniques like irradiation, use of chemical mutagens and doubling of chromosomes through colchicine treatment were adopted to develop novel genetic combinations.  Today such gene transfer can be done with both precision and ease through recombinant DNA technology. Both molecular marker-assisted breeding and gene transfer now play a very important role in developing genetic combinations to meet the challenges rising from biotic (i.e., pest and diseases) and abiotic (i.e., drought, flood, sea level rise, etc.) stresses. They will gain further importance in the emerging era of climate change. Varieties developed by marker-assisted selection are also eligible for certification under the protocol for products produced through organic farming.

1. GMP

Good manufacturing practices and requirements of premises, plant and equipment for pharmaceutical products

To achieve the objectives listed below, each licensee shall evolve appropriate methodology, systems and procedures which shall be documented and maintained for inspection and reference; and the manufacturing premises shall be used exclusively for production of drugs and no other manufacturing activity shall be undertaken therein.

Introduction

Meat derived from animals are subjected to various contaminations from number of sources. The animal itself is a major contributor of both pathogenic and spoilage organisms. Further contamination may be introduced from water used, equipment used for product preparation, from the meat handlers and the surrounding environment. Microbiological problems such as food poisoning or spoilage may arise when the desired effect is not achieved and is usually due to errors in the handling or processing procedures. The detection and rapid correction of such errors and their future prevention is a major objective of any quality control system.

In traditional approach to meat and meat product quality control system, only the samples of the final product were analyzed by laboratory test to check for compliance with specifications. However, the responsibility for control of hazards rests with individuals involved in all stages from farm to ultimate consumer. And the control of hazards at each stages of food chain may be achieved by Hazard Analysis Critical control point (HACCP). Hazard analysis critical control point is an internationally recognized system that helps to ensure the manufacture of safe food products. HACCP is not a zero risk system but rather a system designated to minimize the risk of food safety hazards. HACCP concept is a systematic and rational approach Firstly by consideration of the hazards i.e., microorganisms or their toxins, that need to be controlled in a specific operation by structured hazard analysis and secondly on the identification of the most effective means of controlling the identified hazards. This system, by focusing attention on the factor that directly affects the microbiological safety and quality of meat foods, eliminates wasteful use of resources and superfluous consideration. As a consequence, the cost/benefit relationships are more favorable. The system is applicable at all levels of meat food chain from farm production through processing, transporting, merchandising and ultimate use in the meat food service establishment or at home. Ensuring food safety and quality is the responsibility of all links in the food chain. Now a day’s food consumers are very much health conscious and they want their food to be safe and of good quality. As meat being highly perishable and high risk food product, it is very much imperative on the part of meat and meat products producers and exporters to produce safe and quality meat to stand in the competitive world and further hygienic meat processing is important not only to provide safe and wholesome meat but to provide a good public image and to increase consumer demand.

31.1 Introduction
A fundamental element of quality assurance is good manufacturing practice (GMP), which ensures that goods are consistently produced and regulated according to the quality standards suitable for their intended application and as outlined by the marketing license. The primary objective of GMP is to mitigate risks in pharmaceutical manufacture, which may be categorised into two main types: erroneous labelling and cross-contamination/mix-ups. Primarily, manufacturers must guarantee that their goods are safe, effective, and of adequate quality; hence, risk assessment has become a crucial component of WHO quality assurance guidelines.
31.2 Implementation of HACCP
31.2.1 HACCP Preamble and Definitions Preamble
1. The introductory portion of this publication delineates the concepts of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system as endorsed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. This section provides broad recommendations for system application, recognising that implementation specifics may differ according to the food operation’s unique conditions.
2. The HACCP system, grounded in scientific principles and methodical methodology, identifies specific dangers and implements control measures to assure food safety. It functions as an instrument for hazard evaluation and the implementation of control systems aimed at prevention rather than predominantly on final product testing. The HACCP system is flexible, allowing for modifications in equipment design, processing methods, or technology innovations.
3. HACCP is relevant across the whole food chain, from initial production to ultimate consumption, and its use must be guided by scientific knowledge on dangers to human health. In addition to improving food safety, the use of HACCP can provide other substantial advantages. Furthermore, the use of HACCP systems can streamline regulatory inspections and enhance international trade by increasing confidence in food safety.

Goat anatomy

Understanding of the basic structure and functioning of goats is required to maintain the health and productivity of goats. Anatomy deals with the form and structure of the animal whereas physiology deals with the mechanism of body functions.

The skeleton of goat is made up of the vertebral column, ribs and skull, the limbs, and the joints. There are 7 neck (cervical) vertebrae, 13 chest (thoracic) vertebrae, 6 or 7 lumbar vertebrae, 4 pelvic (sacral) vertebrae and between 4 and 8 tail (coccygeal) vertebrae.The ribs are elongated, curved bones that form the ribcage, which is the skeleton of the thoracic cavity (chest). There are 13 pairs of ribs attached to each side of the thoracic vertebrae. Most of them are fixed i.e. they are joined to the sternum (breastbone) at the front of the chest but the last two pairs are not attached at the front and are called floating ribs.The skull includes all the bones of the head. It consists of a number of flat bones that form immovable joints, most of which disappear with age; and a lower jaw bone (mandible), which forms movable joints with the other parts of the skull.The limbs include forelegs (thoracic limbs) and hindlegs (pelvic limbs). The forelegs consist of shoulder,forearm and a lower limb made up of carpus,metacarpus and phalanges. The hind legs consist of pelvic girdle, thigh, and a lower limb made up of tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges.

The joints are where two or more bones of cartilages meet. There are two main kinds of joints.Fixed or immovable joints have no joint cavity and are united by fibrous tissue or cartilage. Many of these are temporary joints which become fixed as calcium accumulates in the flexible tissues and turns to bone (calcifies) with age. Examples are the joints in theskull, the joints of ribs to vertebrae, and the pelvic and mandibular symphyses (midline joints).Movable joints have a joint cavity surrounded by ajoint capsule. There are two opposing bone surfaces,which have smooth surfaces of very dense bone.

Movable joints have cartilages between the bones to reduce friction and absorb concussion. The inner lining of the joint capsule is the synovial layer, which produces synovial fluid (joint fluid). Examples include joints of the limbs, such as the shoulder and the hip, and the joint between the skull and the vertebral column.

In India, goats are known as “poor man's cow” because they are an important source of income for poor and landless people. They can be reared on cheaper resources easily than other livestock.

Goats come under the genus Capra have evolved from five wild species, including Capra hircus (which includes Bezoar), Capra ibex, Capra caucasica, Capra pyrenaica, and Capra falconeri. This evolutionary pattern contributes to their phenotypic diversity and adaptability to various environments. The chromosome profile of goats (specifically the Capra hircus species) reveals some interesting features which are as follows:

Chromosome Number
The modal chromosome number for goats is 60.
These chromosomes can be categorized into different types based on their centromere position:
Autosomes: These are either acrocentric or telocentric.
X Chromosome: It is acrocentric.
Y Chromosome: It is submetacentric.

Identification

Quinacrine-mustard staining and fluorescence microscopy allow us to identify 28 out of 30 chromosome pairs in goats.

Goat is the 1st domesticated animal in the ancient age and has been considered to be the Poor Man’s Cow Goat’s meat is lean & has low fat and the demand for goat’s meat is increasing, with rising prices. Goats usually give birth to twins & triplets. Goat is a multi functional animal and plays a significant role in the economy and nutrition of landless, small and marginal farmers in the country. Goat rearing is an enterprise which has been practiced by a large section of population in rural areas. It can efficiently survive on available shrubs and trees in adverse harsh environment in low fertility lands where no other crop can be grown. In pastoral and agricultural subsistence societies in India, goats are kept as a source of additional income for their meat, hair fiber, and dairy, or as a pet. Goats are also used in ceremonial feastings and for the payment of social dues. According to FAO (2008) goat milk production in India were 4 million metric tons, Bangladesh 2.16 million metric tons and the Sudan 1.47 million metric tons over much of the world. Goats are among the main meat-producing animals in India, whose meat (chevon) is one of the choicest meats and has huge domestic demand (Shalander Kumar, 2007). Goat rearing is an enterprise which has been practiced by a large section of population in rural areas. Goats can efficiently survive on available shrubs and trees in adverse harsh environment in low fertility lands where no other crop can be grown. (Oberoi et al., 199I) reported that in variable cost, expenditure on labour was the major component of cost and was 81% under goat farming.

Abstract

From the vedic time itself goat is popularly known as a poor man’s cow in India. It has the proven potential to make significant contribution to the poor man’s economy thus livelihood with minimal requirement of care. It can be easily managed by women and children in spare time as it is small-sized animal. Other maintenance requirement like feeding, milking and care of goats do not require much equipment and hard work. Capital investment and feeding costs are also quite low. It not only supplies nutritious and easily digestible milk but goat meat has high demand and price in the market thus can act as regular source of additional income for poor and landless or marginal farmers. Also the role of women in goat keeping is very significant in the poor rural families and goat is the most important means through which rural women are able to contribute meaningfully to the cash needs for their family members. Thus, goat rearing can play very important role in balanced socio-economic development of the country as there is a close relationship between the status of women and the socioeconomic development of any country (Alam, 2001 and Ahmed, 2017).

Gujarat state blessed with rich goat genetic resources. Recognized goat breeds in the state are Kutchi, Surti, Zalawadi, Mehsanba and Gohilwadi which have been the integral component of small, marginal farmers, landless labourers and significantly contribute rural livelihood. These breeds excel in drought capacity, disease resistance and better adapted to harsh local climatic conditions under extensive production system. The population status and breeding tract of goat breeds are given in Table 1.

The goat genetic resources (AnGR) of state may be important assets for having the valuable adaptive traits that they have developed over long periods of time, such as:

Introduction

Uttarakhand has a mix of almost all domesticated species of livestock, very large in number and very low in productivity across the board. In economic terms they are a wealth indeed, low productivity not with standing, as the sector supports livelihoods of nearly 80 percent of the rural households in the state, at least in part in the majority of cases and in full in some (tribal and nomads exclusively living off livestock).

Livestock production in Uttarakhand is the endeavor of the small holder (marginal, small and landless) and takes place in millions of small and tiny holdings scattered across the state. The predominant farming system is mixed crop livestock farming, both in the plains as well as the hills, irrigated in the plains and rainfed in the hills.

Historical background of dairy goats

Small ruminants sector plays an important role in the national economy. This enterprise is associated with social and cultural fabric of millions of resource poor farmers. Small ruminant especially goats gain importance mainly on account of their short generation intervals, higher rates of prolificacy and the ease with which they can be marketed. They are very useful in semi-arid and arid zone where they can sustain themselves on sparse vegetation and esteemed climatic conditions.
 
There are four main breeds of dairy goats commonly found in Western Country, namely, Alpine, Nubians, Saanens and Toggenburgs. They are considered to be the best milking breeds of the world. All these four breeds have recently been introduced in India for improvement of milk quality of local goats. These breeds have been improved by selection, upgrading, and the wise use of pedigree records and registration over a period of more than half a century in Europe and North America.

Our nation happens to be the largest producer of goat milk globally and it is high time that we use this to our advantage. India happens to be one of the fastest growing economies of the world and the IMF projects our GDP is set to rise at a healthy rate of 5.9 % in 2023, the highest among all other economies.

Goat Production in Field Conditions

We are an agro-based nation with 70% of our population residing in rural areas. As we deliberate today on the best possible ways to facilitate natural goat farming, we have to remember that such traditional agrarian practices is the essence of our Indian ethos, from ancient times. Such wisdom has been passed on for generations and it is great to witness that the world is waking up to the benefits of the natural versus the synthetic be it in clothing or food or lifestyle in general.

Abstract

Goat farming was the important part from the economy point of the view; especially in the Mediterranean and Middle East region where goat is also called as “Cow of poor man”. Goat milk have unique compositional characteristics like, lower ethanol stability, higher content of short- and medium-chain fatty acids. It is a rich source of calcium, phosphorous, chlorine, and vitamins. It is highly digestible and has a mild laxative effect. Along with these, who are suffering from anemia, osteoporosis and malabsorption, they should consume Goat milk. Goat milk is a functional and nutraceutical property as it both nutritional and additional health benefit such as easily digestible, boost immunity and metabolism, anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic to consumer this lead to increasing demand for goat milk and derived dairy products. Goat milk can be used to manufacture a wide variety of products, including fluid, fermented, frozen, acid coagulated, and dehydrated milk products.

The aim of this chapter is to highlight the physical and chemical properties, nutritional and health benefit of Goat milk. Goat milk based some popular products are also discussed in order to provide some basic information regarding the value addition of Goat milk.

Synonyms : Variola capra

It is a malignant disease of goats characterized by high rise of body temperature and generalized pock lesions.

Distribution : Goat pox has been reported from all parts of the world. Various workers have reported the  outbreaks of the disease from different states of India. It is widely prevalent in W.B. and may attain epidemic proportion with mortality rate of 80% in kid and ~50% in adults.

India is home to rich animal resources; it is a source of sustainable livelihood and support during the subsistence crisis of farmers. As per the “First Revised Estimates of National Income, Consumption Expenditure and Capital Formation for 2020-21” released by National Statistical Office (NSO), MoSPI the Gross Value Added (GVA) of livestock sector is about Rs. 11,14,249 crores at current prices during FY 2020-21 which is about 30.87% of Agricultural and Allied Sector GVA and 6.17% of total GVA. At constant prices (2011-12), the GVA of livestock sector is about Rs. 6,17,117 crores during FY 2020-21 with a growth of 6.13% over previous financial year. It contributes about 3.9% to national GDP and 24.8% to agricultural GDP (At 2011-12 Prices) in 2013-14 (GoI 2022). According to the report Situational Assessment of Agricultural Households by the NSSO, a compounded annual income growth rate of 13.7% was observed between 2003 and 2013. Restructuring agriculture processes & policy interventions required to increase the income in real terms (ICFA, 2016). About 29% rural population in the country is below poverty line .Major source of livelihood of rural people is crops, however, it is largely restricted by uncertain and erratic precipitation and low input production system, compelling them for poverty and distress migration. Whereas, small ruminants possess an mechanism for coping up draught because of better adaptability and mobility as compared to crops and large ruminants. Livestock particularly sheep and goat rearing in India is closely interwoven with crop farming. Households cultivating less than 2.0 ha of land (marginal and small) are the main custodian and possess more than 76% goat and 70% of sheep population of the country respectively.

Origin and Domestication of Goat

Goat is a cloven-hoofed, hollow-horned ruminant which is comparatively smaller in size and belongs to class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae and genus either Capra (2N=60) or Hemitragus/tahrs (2N=48). The distinction between these two genera was previously based on horn structure but the distinction has been confirmed genetically. The domestic goat (Capra hircus/Capra aegagrus hircus) belongs to the genus Capra and has possibly developed from five wild ancestors. On the basis of available information, it is most likely that bezoar is the main ancestor of most domestic goats. However, there is slight likelihood that Markhor has been involved in the parentage of some of the Indian goat breeds.

Evolutionary biology indicates that domestication of goats started during Neolithic age and it was perhaps the first ruminant and first animal after dog to be domesticated by the man around 9000-7000 BC. Domestication was associated with three of the oldest civilizations namely- (i) the Nile in northeast Africa, (ii) the Tigris-Euphrates in west Asia, and (iii) the Indus in the Indian subcontinent. Archaeologists indicate that the goat was first domesticated in the “Fertile Crescent” (landmass which extends between the Black and Caspian seas along the coast of Palestine and forms arc like a quarter moon towards the Persian Gulf) of the eastern Mediterranean. Since their domestication, goats remained associated with variety of functions in various aspects of human life including food, employment, economics, folklore and religion.

Gomphrena (Gomphrena globosa), commonly called globe amaranth, globe flower or bachelor’s button, is an important loose and dry flower crop. Its spherical, long-lasting flower heads make it particularly valuable in the dry flower industry. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important cultivars. Gomphrena is also notable for betalain pigments and its C4 photosynthetic pathway, which contributes to heat tolerance and moderate drought resistance. Production practices covered include climate and soil requirements, propagation, nursery management, land preparation, nutrient management, irrigation and intercultural operations. The chapter also addresses pest and disease management, harvesting for fresh and dried flowers, postharvest handling and yield.