eChapters

23.1. What?

Post harvest and agro-processing refers to activities carried out after harvesting a crop. These include milling, grading, processing and packing of the produce before it reaches the end users. This is also referred to as value addition, as it increases the marketable quality of the harvested produce.

23.2. Milling

It is the process of separating edible portion of the grain after removal of the husk or seed coat. This converts the products into a form that can be readily used for cooking, e.g. rice milling and dal milling.

23.3. Grading

Grading is the process of segregating the harvested produce based on the physical appearance including size and colour. Grading increases the market value of the crop.

Livestock plays a subsidiary role in the farm as far as food production is concerned. Their role in absorbing the huge quantities of crop residues, coarse grains, cereals by-products and farm left-over and returning valuable manure to the soil to sustain their fertility for generation is significant. Livestock in general and dairying in particular is emerging as a driving force in the growth of agricultural sector in India. Dairying is the backbone of the marginal farmers and landless labourers spread over numerous villages scattered throughout the country. It is primary source of income and employment for many of India’s poor. This sector can play an important role in determining future prospects for the employment generation and poverty alleviation in the country.

After the Independence of India, the occupational avenues have undergone a tremendous change. With the spread of education and other amenities of life the traditional occupational structure has considerably changed. The Gujjars who had been a nomadic tribe are extensively becoming sedentary. The Gujjars are one of the important pastoral communities of India. Different social scientists and anthropologists have documented the origin and social aspects of the present Gujjars, who lived a pastoral life. Gujjars have their own Gujri language, which they generally speak among themselves. But they correspond with other people in Urdu generally. The main source of income for Gujjars is dairying. Consumers also prefer milk sold by them, as the quality of milk is good. The role of Gujjars to the rural and urban economy cannot be undermined.

Though information on sociological and anthropological aspects of the pastoral communities has been generated in various studies elsewhere but socio-economic studies are scanty. No concerted efforts have so far been made to study the socio economic of Gujjars, particularly with reference to various important economic parameters like resource structure, family composition, education status, economic status.

The present chapter is an attempt to study the socio economic aspects of one of the well known pastoral communities- the Gujjars of the Jammu district.

Medziphema rural development block is known for producing sweetest pineapple in Nagaland. A few years earlier, farmers predominantly practised indigenous method of pineapple cultivation where productivity was less. Under horticulture technology mission, farmers have been trained to grow pineapple scientifically. Therefore, a study was conducted to know the scientific orientation of pineapple growing farmers in Medziphema rural development block of Nagaland. Sample pineapple growing farmers were selected as respondents from three purposively selected villages under Medziphema rural development block. Respondents were selected following random sampling procedure. A structured and pretested interview schedule was used for collection of primary data from the respondents. Data analysis was done using SAS software. Findings of the study revealed that, majority of the pineapple growing farmers possessed medium level of scientific orientation, followed by high and low level of scientific orientation. The variable ‘scientific orientation’ was significant and positively associated with the ‘entrepreneurial behaviour’ of the pineapple growers and it was found as an important predictor variable influencing the entrepreneurial behaviour of the pineapple growers. It was inferred from the study that off late, farmers are realising the importance and benefits of growing pineapple scientifically. Scientific orientation can promote the pineapple based entrepreneurial activities which can bring about the socio economic development of the rural people.

Traditionally, agriculture in India was practiced on a subsistence basis; the villages were self sufficient, people exchanged their goods, and services within the village on a barter basis. But, with the development of means of transport, storage facilities and other infrastructure, agriculture has become commercial in character. The hills of India produces a wide range of goods starting from temperate fruits like apple to subtropical fruits like guava and cash crops like saffron, kala zeera, buckwheat etc. that are demanded at every corner of the country and even the world. The hills in India lacks infrastructure because of which farmers are not able to fetch a better price for their produce.

Agriculture is the dominant activity in the hill economy, which confronts multiple risks and uncertainty. The low yield of food and cash crops, fodder, fuel and other minor forest produce and their stagnant growth affected the agrarian economy and in particular the household food security. The scattered land holdings, traditional mode of production, low use of modern inputs and lack of market incentives are the primary causes of the poor performance of agriculture in J&K. Increase in Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) of major crops, Popularization of hybrids, Soil and Water conservation measures, and Public-private partnership are important aspects need to be considered for agriculture development in hilly areas of J&K. Strengthening of markets, Innovative marketing techniques and On-line trading can help in a big way for solving the problems of marketing in such areas.

1. SEED GERMINATION

The process whereby seeds sprout and begin to grow is known as germination.

Germination is the onset growth of a seed, often following a period of dormancy, in response to suitable environmental conditions. During germination (the growth and development process) of a seed, the water is absorbed through micropyle, and the formerly dormant embryo resumes growth and emerges from the seed.

1. DEFINITION

Seed village definition is to see that the aim right from the start is to make a holistic transformation in the village. Seed village concept is a “Win-Win model”, says Deepak Mullick, one of India’s foremost professionals in agribusiness. It is also known as “Compact area approach”. Seed village area should be suitable for crop or varieties. Seed in compact area, whole village should be involved. The whole farmers in the village cultivate same crop, same variety and follow same cultivation practices.

1. LAND REQUIREMENTS

Land should be fertile with selected irrigation and good drainage facilities. It should be free from volunteer plants. The field should not have been grown with the same crop in the previous season. If grown, it should be the production of same class of seed for the same variety.

1. TECHNIQUES OF HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION

1.1. Field crops

Table 1: Techniques of hybrid seed production in field crops

1. INTRODUCTION

Green Revolution Technologies (GRT) such as greater use of synthetic agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient responsive high yielding varieties, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials etc. have boosted the production output in most cases. However, continuous use of these high energy inputs indiscriminately now leads to decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of soil health and environment. The most unfortunate impacts of GRT on Indian Agriculture are imbalance in production, dependency on synthetic chemical fertilizers, increase in secondary and micronutrient deficiencies, increase in pesticide use, unscientific water management and distribution, reduction in productivity, reduction in quality of the produce, extinction of gene pool, environmental pollution and imbalance in social and economic status.

Moreover, today the rural economy is now facing a challenge of over dependence on outside inputs and day-by-day increase in price of these inputs. Further, Indian Agriculture will face the market competition due to globalization of trade as per World Trade Organization (WTO). Thus, apart from quantity, quality will be the important factor. Such varieties of concern and problems of modern Indian Agriculture gave birth to various new concepts of farming such as organic farming, natural farming, biodynamic agriculture, do-nothing agriculture, eco-farming, etc. Therefore, for sustaining the productivity of the crop, maintaining the soil health and healthy ecosystem, there is a need for adoption of an alternative farming system, may be the organic farming.

Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community. Several forms of organic farming are being successfully practiced in diverse climate, particularly in rainfed, tribal, mountain hills and resource poor areas of the country. It safeguards/improves quality of resources and environment. It is labour intensive and provides an opportunity to increase rural employment.

For a product to be called and labelled “organic”, it should have been produced from start (seed) to end (the produces, the consumer is buying) in an organic way. International Federation of Organic Movement (IFOAM) has clearly laid down the condition that in order to get organic certification to the produces, the seed used for sowing should also have been produced organically. To enter into organic agriculture, timely research has been warranted to study the strategies and efficacies of organic seed production to fulfill the global organic seed demand.

Organic seed production system involves use of organic seed quality enhancement treatments, integrated organic nutrient management practices viz., organic manures, green manures and biofertilizers etc., and integrated organic plant protection viz., agronomic practices, crop rotation, growing border/trap crops and use of botanicals, biopesticides and biocontrol agents apart from encouraging natural parasites, predators and parasitoids etc.

2. METHODS OF HARVEST

The seed can be harvested either manually or mechanically. In mechanical harvesting, single harvest is possible, but care should be taken to avoid mechanical injury. In manual harvesting, crops can be harvested either as single harvest or as periodical harvest. The crops having continuous flowering habit are to be harvested in different harvests/ pickings.

2.1. Manual harvesting

Harvesting any crop can be done manually. Manual harvesting is done by the hand of harvest worker. Multipicking in pulses and vegetables is done by manual methods.

1. SEED LOT

A specified quantity of seed which is physically identifiable to the types of which certificates may be issued.

2. SAMPLING

A sample is obtained from the seed lot by taking small portions at random from different position of the lot and combining them. It is a representative sample of a seed lot.

The objective of sampling is to obtain a representative sample of a size suitable for test. When the sample originates from seed lot, it is expected that the results reflect the average quality of the seed lot.

1. GERMINATION TEST PROCEDURES

Although several methods are available for germination testing it is suggested that use one of the two major methods described here because these are adaptable to most environments and in general give uniform results Select 400 seeds randomly and used for germination in 4 replications.

1.1. Top of Paper (TP)

Seeds are placed on one or more layers of moist filter paper or blotter paper in petriplates These petriplates are covered with lid and placed inside the gemination cabinet This is suitable for those seeds which required light Cut the paper to the size and shape of the dishes (Fig. 1).

Place a layer of paper in each dish If the paper is too thin use a double layer Label the top and bottom of each dish with the accession number number of the replicates and date of the test Moisten the paper with water (Fig. 2)

1. DEFINITION

Sum of those properties of seed, which determine the potential level of activity and performance of the seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence. i.e., rapid and uniform production of healthy seedling and stand establishment under a wide range of field conditions is considered as seed vigour.

In a vigour test, the seed is introduced to a stressful environment unfavorable to seedling development. This environment can be cool, cold or warm, or a combination of either high humidity and high temperatures, or heavy moisture at low temperatures. A vigor test cannot replace a germination test, but rather supplements it with more information about seed quality.

Weight loss: For grains or grain legumes in the tropics, a weight loss in the range of 10-30 per cent might be expected over a full storage season.

Loss in quality/market value: Infested seed is contaminated with insect debris and has increased dust content. Seeds are holed and often discoloured, which fetch low price.

Promotion of mould development: In humid conditions, without adequate ventilation, mould development and caking can spread rapidly, causing severe losses.

Reduced germination in seed material: Damage to the embryo of the seed will usually prevent germination. Some storage pests prefer to attack the embryo.

3.1. Soil colloids

Clay fraction of the soil contains particles less than 0.002 mm in size.

Particles less than 0.001 mm size possess colloidal properties and are known as soil colloids.

Rerd. L.L.Langstroth (Father of modern bee keeping) discovered movable frame hive in 1851.

In 1882, beekeeping was introduced in India.

In 1911, Rerd. Newton introduced beekeeping to South India.

1.1. Floral biology

1.1. 1. Types of inflorescence

Group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches.

10.1. Seed Act (1966) and Seed Rules

To ensure the availability of quality seeds, GOI has enacted Seed Act in October 1966 and Seed Rules in September 1968.

Seed Act passed by the Indian Parliament in 1966.

13.1. Storage pests

13.1.1. Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae, S. zeamais, S. granarius

1. Host range: Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, paddy.

2.1. Rice

2.1.1. Rice root knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola)

1. Symptoms

7.1. Farm planning

Decision making process in farm business

Involves organization and management of limited resources to realize specified goals continuously.

Selecting most profitable course of action from among all possible alternatives.

1.1. Concept and definition

1.1.1. Marketing

Process of getting right goods or services or ideas to right people at right place, time, and price using right promotion techniques and utilizing appropriate people to provide customer service associated with those goods, services, or ideas.

3.1. Marketing efficiency

Degree of market performance.

Whether it fulfills objectives assigned or maximizes fulfillment of objectives with given level of resources (or costs)

Whether it is responsive to impulses generated through environmental changes and whether impulses are transmitted at all levels in the system.

For example

Farmers expect quick market clearance and higher prices for their produce

Consumers expect ready availability of products in form and quality desired at lower prices

Traders and other functionaries expect steady and increasing incomes

Government expects system to safeguard interest of all three sections to maximize welfare of society.

3.1. Marketing efficiency

Degree of market performance.

Whether it fulfills objectives assigned or maximizes fulfillment of objectives with given level of resources (or costs)

Whether it is responsive to impulses generated through environmental changes and whether impulses are transmitted at all levels in the system.

For example

Farmers expect quick market clearance and higher prices for their produce

Consumers expect ready availability of products in form and quality desired at lower prices

Traders and other functionaries expect steady and increasing incomes

Government expects system to safeguard interest of all three sections to maximize welfare of society.

3.1. Communication

Leagans (1961) refers as process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of meaning, intent and use of messages.

Communis is Latin word - meaning common.

Act of getting a sender and a receiver tuned together for a particular message, or a series of message.

Winfield (1957) refers as whole learning process; encompasses

º Teacher - message or material to be taught

5.1. Diffusion

Process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.

Mycotoxins are the secondary metabolites produced by moulds, which grow on food and feedstuffs causing pathological or physiological changes to humans and animals. They are toxic to vertebrates in low concentrations. Symptoms depend on the amount of toxin in the feed, the period for which the infested feed is ingested, the nutritional status of the feed and the susceptibility of the animal species. Toxic effects of chronic consumption of mycotoxins in human are carcinogenicity, hepatotoxicity, oestrogenicity, genotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunosuppression, reproductive disorders and dermal irritation (Anfossi et al., 2010). The most extensively studied mycotoxins viz., Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON, vomitoxin), T-2 toxin, zearalenone, fumoninsins, mycophenolic acid, cyclopiazonic acid and ergot toxins are produced by the moulds Aspergillus, Fusarium, Pennicillium and Claviceps (Iqbal et al., 2015).

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by different types of moulds which are present in soil, plant and feed ingredients. Ingestion of toxins will result in reduced growth and production performance due to reduced nutrient utilization, illness or death of animals. Analysing the presence of mycotoxin and its concentration in grain and feeds is necessary to eliminate the adverse health effects of mycotoxins in animals. Estimation of mycotoxin in feed ingredients is a challenging task because the concentration of toxin is at µg/kg or parts-per billion levels. At the same time, analysing inappropriate samples is a waste of resources. Mycotoxins are not evenly distributed in feeds or grains. If the specimen collected for analysis includes contaminated grain, the mycotoxin will be detected. If not, the mycotoxin will not be detected.

Sample collection for mycotoxin analysis

The objective of sample collection is to collect the specimen samples from as many parts of the feed lot as possible. The size of the collected specimen depends on the size of the load received. Sample collecting probes can be used to collect the samples from bags.

Abstract

Yak milk is unique as it is rich source of nutrients and is the main source of milk derived nutrition in hilly areas, where the availability of bovine milk is very limited. It is considered as a concentrated source of nutrients with a total solids (TS) content of approximately 16.9-17.7%. The nutritional profile and physico-chemical properties of yak milk is very different from that of conventional source of milk. Though, the production of yak milk and milk products is not organized and is limited to the custom of high altitude regions only. However, yak milk and milk products like churpi, kurut, orom, paneer, churkam, serkam, butter etc. are gaining attention of consumers due to their significant nutritional and therapeutic value. Owing to this, it has further increased the interest of researchers for the development of new array of yak milk based organic dairy products. Therefore, with growing demand of natural functional foods, yak milk could be valuable product to meet the demand of functional foods.

The aim of this chapter is to highlight the nutritional profile of yak milk including, amino acid profile, lipid profile and mineral composition. Yak milk based regional products are also discussed in order to provide some basic information regarding the value addition of yak milk.

Abstract

Now-a-days non bovine milk become an area of interest for their potential to provide nutrients along with beneficial health effects. Deer belongs to cervidae family, is one of the source of non bovine milk. Two thousand years ago, the people of Soviet Union along the borders of Russia, Mongolia, and China used to consume deer milk and milk product. Deer milk is a plentiful source of milk solids. The proteins of deer milk is more digestible than bovine milk owing to their unique profile and characteristics. Deer milk being rich in highly digestible protein offers beneficial health effect through bioactive peptide production. The distinctive physico-chemical properties being quite similar to sheep milk shows the milk product manufacturers a scope to use deer milk for production of various dairy products. Although there is immense opportunity to use deer milk for development of diversified functional products, further research work is needed to be carry out to find out the type of biopeptides produced during protein hydrolysis, role of fatty acids, effect of different unit processing on its constituents etc. This chapter delineates the nutritional profile and physico-chemical properties of deer milk along with the significance of it in terms of its therapeutic roles and potential to be used for product development.

Introduction

In India, the history of agriculture dates embarrassed to Indus natural depression Civilization Era and even before that in some locations of Southern India. Today, India ranks more familiarized in surface area output. Agriculture and related sectors like biology and fisheries accounted for 137% of the value concerning 500^th of the manpower in 2013. The livelihood buildup of agriculture to India’s value is steady breakdown with the country’s broad-based livelihood growth. Still, agriculture is demographically the broadest and highest livelihood across and plays a strong role within the all-inclusive socioeconomic attachment of India. India exported $38 billion service of scientific discipline on-line symbols, authentic it the seventh larger scientific discipline business person used to and therefore the sixth larger web businessperson, plenty of its agriculture exports serve developing and developed nations as in 2013. Indian agricultural/horticultural foods squarely determined and exported to further more than 120 countries, primarily within the geographical area, environmental region, SAARC countries, the EU and United States. As per FAO (2010), agriculture statistics India is that the world’s larger agent of in great quantity of fruits and vegetables, milk, spices, base crops that as jute, staples as millets and vegetable oil seed. India is that the further larger agent of wheat and rice in the world.

India stratified within the world’s five larger producers of over 80^th of scientific order ending things, as well as in large numbers banker’s invoice crops feels affection for unusual crops including cotton, in 2010. India is one in every of the world’s five larger producers of farm animal including dairy products and plenty of meat, with one in every of the quickest advanced rates, as of 2011.

Introduction

The need of the agricultural community was the force of motivation for the development of broad-spectrum pesticides towards the management of pests and diseases of cultivated crops. Advances in pesticide were measured exclusively by the assessment of its efficacy in management alone. But today food production has ceased to be a major concern, due to stable population levels and success of innovative agricultural technologies. At this juncture, the agrochemical industry that primarily recognized the farmers as their customers has failed to acknowledge the public as an important client. Perception of the public reflects that, the negative aspects of pesticides seem to outnumber their benefits. The increased reflection on environmental concern over pesticide use has been instrumental in a large upsurge of biological disease control. Development of fungicide resistance among the pathogens, ground water and foodstuff pollution and the development of oncogenic risks has further encouraged for the exploitation of antagonistic microflora in disease management

Introduction

Advances in pesticide were measured exclusively by the assessment of its efficacy in management alone. But today food production has ceased to be a major concern, due to stable increase in population levels and success of innovative agricultural technologies. At this juncture, the agrochemical industry that primarily recognized the farmers as their customers has failed to acknowledge the public as an important client. Perception of the public reflects that, the negative aspects of pesticides seem to outnumber their benefits. The increased reflection on environmental concern over pesticide use has been instrumental in a large upsurge of biological disease control. Development of fungicide resistance among the pathogens, ground water and foodstuff pollution and the development of oncogenic risks has further encouraged for the exploitation of antagonistic microflora in disease management.

Biological control of plant pathogens can be broadly defined as the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant state by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of environment, host or antagonist or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists. The decades of laboratory experiments have led to the explosion in the field of bio-control and introduced more than 50 commercial formulations comprising of fungi and bacteria. To have a successful management of plant diseases and to have a pollution free environment, the biocontrol agents has to be ensured for its availability for commercial use by the end users. To harness the potential of biopesticides by the stakeholders and end users the product has to be registered under Central Insecticide Board authorities concerned of the respective countries.

Introduction

Corcyra cephalonica commonly called as rice meal moth or rice moth is a pest of stored foods, viz., cereals, cereal products, oilseeds, pulses, dried fruits, nuts and spices. Many of the natural enemies mass-bred in the laboratory for use in field against crop pests are dependent on either egg or larval stages of Corcyra due to the simple reason that it is easier and cheaper to produce natural enemies on different stages of Corcyra than on their original hosts.

Morphology and Biology of Corcyra

The eggs are oval and measure 0.5 x 0.3 mm. The white surface is sculptured and has a short nipple-like structure at one end. The larvae are generally creamish – white except for the head capsule and the prothoracic tergite, which are brown. There are well-developed prolegs on abdominal segments 3-6 and 10. A fully matured larva measures 15 mm. The last-instar larva spins a closely woven, very tough, double-layered cocoon in which it develops into a dark-brown pupa. The anterior portion of the cocoon has a line of weakness through which the adult emerges. The adults are small. The hind-wings are pale-buff, and the fore-wings are mid-brown or greyish-brown with thin vague lines of darker brown colour along the wing veins. The males are smaller than the females.

Sexual activity usually begins shortly after adult emergence. There is a preoviposition period of about 2 days. Egg-laying mainly occurs during the night. The greatest numbers are laid on the second and third days after emergence, although oviposition may continue throughout life. Eggs take about 2-3 days to hatch. Optimum conditions for larval development of C. cephalonica are 30 – 32.5 °C and 70 per cent RH, at which, the period from egg hatch to adult emergence is only 26-27 days. There is considerable variation in the number of larval instars; however, males generally have 7 and females have 8. The last-instar larvae pupate within the food. The adults emerge through the anterior end of the cocoon, where there is a line of weakness. The sex ratio is 1:1. The adult moth is nocturnal and is most active at nightfall.

The culture of colored and attractive fish in glass aquariums for aesthetic use is called ornamental fish culture. The beautiful, tiny fishes or ornamental fishes are peaceful in nature and suitable for keeping in captivity. These lovely fishes are usually kept in a glass made aquarium and decorated with toys, plants, ceramic structures etc. for beautification. It displays the attractive fish that live in a natural environment decorated with accessories while maintaining environmental parameters in tanks/aquariums by using aerators, heaters, filters, lights to control water movement, temperature, suspended organic matter, illumination etc. besides feeding. Keeping ornamental fish in a glass tank is a very old and popular hobby. More and more people are getting attracted to this hobby and due to growing interest in aquarium keeping; it has resulted in a steady expansion in its trade in more than 125 countries. Household aquariums are more popular; therefore, less than 1% of the global market for ornamental fishes belongs to the public aquaria sector. Most of the ornamental fish is available from developing countries in the tropical and sub-tropical regions. The international trade in ornamental fish breeding and culture provides employment opportunities for thousands of rural people in developing countries. Ornamental fish is becoming an important component in Indian fisheries too, along with food fishes, for both income and employment generation. As a result of advancements in breeding, transport and rearing technology, more and more fish species are being recognized as ornamental fish almost every year. The ornamental fishery is recognized by many developing countries for employment generation and livelihoods. Ecologically suitable culture systems must be developed by evolving micro, small and medium enterprises for sustainable growth.

Soil Density

The density of a soil, as any other matter, is its mass per unit volume. However, in case of soil, because of its unique nature, the density can be expressed by two terms, viz., bulk density and particle density. Soil density is typically expressed in mega gram per cubic metre (Mg m^-3) which is numerically equal to g cm^-3.

Horticulture deals with the art, science, business and technology of cultivation and management of horticultural plants. The word Horticulture is derived from two Latin words viz. ‘Hortus’ (means garden) and ‘Culture’ (means growing). Horticulture is an aesthetic science that deals with cultivation of fruit, vegetable, spice, plantation, medicinal, aromatic and flower crops. There is a vast therapeutic use of horticulture wherein gardening and aroma therapy are used to deal with new age maladies like depression and various addictions.

In ancient times, huge gardening spaces to grow large number of fruits, vegetables and flowers were available and these areas were demarcated with the help of high walls. This enclosed area was referred to as garden. This led to the term garden culture. The land area is decreasing due to industrialization and population growth, at the same time, there is a drastic increase in demand for horticultural produce. To meet the increased demand for horticultural produce and to cope up with the space constraints, multitier cropping systems, vertical gardening and other intensive cultivation practices are being resorted to. Hence, horticulture may also be described as the “Practice of growing and manipulating plants in a relatively intensive manner”.

Presently, fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals are grown not only within the home premises, but also in large quantities on a commercial scale. In other words, many horticultural crops throughout the world are grown primarily as business enterprises. Thus, horticulture has two aspects in general i.e., the amateur and the professional. In addition, with the establishment of horticultural experiment stations as an integral part of colleges and universities, comparatively a large amount of scientific information on the behaviour and cultivation of horticultural plants and products is freely available. This information or literature, constitutes the science of horticulture, and the application of this scientific information constitutes the “Technology of Horticulture.” Thus, present day horticulture may be defined as the science and technology of production, processing and merchandising of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals where each crop has its own science and technology. Consequently, horticulture may appear differently to different people. To a teacher, professor, research scientist, extension official and landscape architect, it is an applied science and a profession, while to a commercial producer, wholesaler, a retailer of horticultural products, or to the manufacturers or seller of horticultural products, it is a business. It is also a fascinating hobby for connoisscur.

Pot mixture is the media, used in the pots for propagation of nursery plants. It is the combination of different materials in a particular proportion to create better environment for rooting, growth and development of plants.

The most commonly used ingredients to make potting mixture areas follows

The term growth refers to an irreversible increase in size and weight of the plant. It normally reflects an increase in protoplasm, which may occur through increase in size of the cell and number of cells. Hence, the process of cell elongation and cell division provides the basis for growth. Cell division and enlargement are complicated processes involving synthesis of many organic compounds such as protein, cellulose and nucleic acid, besides the physical force required, which results in cell enlargement. The growth of the whole plant is compartmentalized into areas called ‘meristem’ where cell division and cell elongation are localized. The meristem cells such as shoot apex, root apex, cambium and the intercalary zones undergo repeated mitosis resulting in replication of DNA and nuclear material and finally the cell mass increases. Adjacent to this area of meristematic activity is the region of cell elongation, which phases in to the region of differentiation and maturation.

The increase in protoplasm (occurring in cell division and elongation) is brought about through a series of events in which water, carbon - di-oxide and inorganic salts are transformed into living materials. These events include (a) photosynthesis (production of carbohydrates) (b) nutrient absorption and translocation (uptake of water, nitrogen and other mineral elements) and (3) anabolism (synthesis of various materials produced in plant from the carbon fragments produced by photosynthesis and from the inorganic nutrients and water absorbed from the soil). The energy required for all these processes is provided by a catabolic process viz., respiration (degradation of sugars and fats to release energy). The net balance of anabolism and catabolism results in growth of the plant.

Micro propagation in also called as in vitro propagation. In vitro is a Latin word, meaning ‘in glass’. It refers to procedures done in controlled artificial environment, outside a living organism. These procedures naturally occur in the living system. Opposite to in vitro is in vivo which is also a Latin word, meaning ‘in living’. Biological processes that occur within the living system.

Micro propagation refers to the multiplication of plants, in aseptic conditions in containers under controlled nutritional and environmental condition. Micropropagation is done in artificial growth medium from various plant parts like meristem tip, embryos, anthers, axillary buds, leaf section, shootlips etc. It is a method by which a true to type and disease free plant can be regenerated from a miniature piece of plant throughout the year. Some popularly grown crops from tissue culture are as follows

Ornamental plants - orchids, lilium, gerbera, cordyline, begonia, ficus, etc.

This fruit plant is fast-growing when young, but soon become slow-growing tree thrive well under tropical, sub-tropical and temperate region. Mostly this crop is being cultivated for rearing of silkworm and wind break rather than fruit crop. This crop not specific with climatic requirement so can be grown in arid, marginal soil, barren land without much care.

The different plant parts viz., stem, bark, twigs, leaf, fruit etc are being utilized in different ways. Stem use for making agricultural implement, house artisans’, sports items, fodder for animals and fruits use as fresh dessert and in processing for making of different value added products like jam, beverages etc. Apart from these, its different plant parts also have medicinal properties use mainly in folk, ayurvedic and unani medicines.

Phalsa is an important minor fruit crop of India. It is a sub tropical fruits, which is also known as star apple. It is known by different vernacular names in different parts of country for example Dhamini in Bengali, Phalsa in Punjabi and Shurkhi in Hindi.

Phalsa is a shrub or small tree of Indian origin. Phalsa has been mentioned in Vedic literature as having certain medicinal qualities. Phalsa is a bushy plant of arid and semi- arid region. It is also cultivated in subtropical region. It is very hardy, tolerant to drought and suitable to grow on wastelands. Phalsa is best suited for small area as it is manageable by pruning. Its cultivation is favoured around big cities where fruits find a ready and quick sale. It has a poor keeping quality. It is also grown as an intercrop with mango, aonla, bael and ber. It is capable of growing under neglected and water scarcity conditions where only a few other crops would survive.

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii Bolus), commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Barberton Daisy or African Daisy, belongs to the family Asteraceae is one of the most important cut flowers in domestic as well as global market. It ranks sixth among the top ten cut flowers. Gerbera can successfully be grown in the plains as well as in the hills. In India, its cultivation is confined mostly to Kalimpong, Bangalore and Pune. The flowers are known for long vase life (Chauhan, 2005) and good rehydration capacity suitable for long distant transportation. It is a diploid species with somatic chromosome number 50 (n=25).

Importance and Uses

Gerbera is very fashionable and widely used as a decorative garden flower and cut flower (Kanwar and Kumar, 2008). It is ideal for garden decoration as a bedding plant, pot plant and suitable for growing in rock gardens. It is also used in interior decoration in vases, flower arrangements and in bouquets.

Gerbera viridifolia is referred as ‘the herb of milk’ in the eastern Cape and is probably used to stimulate milk production in cattle (Dold and Cocks, 2002).

Botanically aster belongs to the family Asteraceae and scientifically known as Callistephus chinesnsis which is basically native to China aster and annual aster. It is native to China and Japan and it is cultivated worldwide as cut flower, loose flower, bedding plant, for flower decoration and for making floral ornaments. It can easily cultivate in the open fields and green houses for the production of cut-flowers. The genus Callistephus derives from two Greek words that is ‘Kalistos’ and ‘Stephos’ meaning ‘most beautiful’ and ‘a crown’, respectively. The name Aster comes from the Ancient Greek word acx^p (aster),, meaning “star”;, referring to the shape of the flower head (Janakiram, 2006).Among various flowering annuals, China aster is having an important position in Indian floriculture industry. It holds the position next to chrysanthemum and marigold among the traditional flowers. In fact, it has widely replaced an already grown annual Chrysanthemum up to greater extent in Indian floriculture industry.

This flower is most preferred for wide cultivation by virtue of its wide variation in attractive color and longer vase life. It is also very much used for beautification in landscape gardening which create mass effect. In India it is cultivated in about 1,020 ha with a production of flower 800 million tonnes. It is commercially cultivated in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra. In Karnataka it account for 6 % of the total area and 8.8 % of the total flower production.

Tuberose is an important half-hardy, perennial bulbous flowering plant. It belongs to the Amaryllidaceae family and having basic chromosome number (n=30). It is one of the important cut flower among the top ten cut flowers due to its beauty, elegance and sweet pleasant fragrance (Sadhu and Bose, 1973). It is cultivated for its long lasting spike as cut flower as well as loose flower purpose. Tuberose also known as Rajanigandha in Bengali, Gulchari and Galshabbo in Hindi, Sukandaraji and Nelasanpengi in Telegu, Nilasompangi in Tamil and Sugandharaja in Kannada. It is suitable under protected cultivation as well as open field condition (Brundell and Steenstra 1985). It has a huge economic potential and more demand for cut-flower purpose (Usman, 2013) and essential oil industry (Singh, 1995). Due to its immense export potential, cultivation of tuberose is gaining momentum day by day in our country.

Origin and distribution

Tuberose is cultivated all over the world and it is originated from Mexico. Tuberose is commercially producing in various countries such as India, China, Bangladesh, Mexico, Kenya, Italy, France, Morocco, USA, Hawaii and South Africa. In India, it is commercial growing in West Bengal, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and North Eastern part of India. At present scenery tuberose is cultivation in India 7. 95 lakh hectare and cut flowers is estimated to be 27.71 ‘000 MT and loose flowers1560.70 lakh (Anonymous, 2013).

Statice, botanically known as Limoniumis very highly demanded ornamental plant. It is also known as ‘Sea Lavender’ owing to its color and place of growth. The genus name Limonium is from Greek name ‘leimon’ which translates to origin ‘a meadow’, most suitable as many species are found growing near marshy lands or salty areas of sea shore. The statice plants have very wide adaptability and can be seen growing under a wide range soil and climatic conditions like sea shores, marshy lands, deserts and plains etc. Statice figures in top 20 cut flowers sold worldwide but information on its trade, volume, export-import and number of stems sold etc. is not available. The reason for this may be attributed to classification systems, data collection categories and frequently changing nature of the assortments in the international flower market. Comprehensive trade statistics are difficult to locate for Statice. However, Statice figured in top 10 imported products in the Netherlands way back during 2013, 2014 and 2015. Though it is presently not among the top 10 flowers category, still it enjoys the immense popularity among the growers owing to its ease in cultivation and other characteristics. It is cultivated as annual as well as perennial crop, as different species have been domesticated for this purpose.

All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on vegetable crops (VC) was started during the IV five-year plan in 1970-71, to provide a national grid for multi-location testing of the vegetable technologies developed by various research institutes and state agricultural universities. The headquarter of the project was at the Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi and the first Project Coordinator (Vegetable Crops) joined the project in July 1971. During 1986, level of the project was elevated to the Project Directorate. Further, in a significant development during 1992, headquarter of the directorate was shifted from IARI, New Delhi to the present day Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR) at Varanasi. In a significant development, in eleventh five-year plan the National Seed Project (Vegetables) was merged with AICRP (VC).

Presently the AICRP Vegetable Crops is a network of 36 regular and 18 voluntary centres. The network is headed by the Project Coordinator and it’s headquarter functions from IIVR (Indian Institute of Vegetable Research), Varanasi, main campus. The AICRP centers are located in different agro-climatic zones of the country. The centers in the network include ICAR institutes, central institutes, state agricultural and traditional universities and a few other public and private research organizations.

The climate, the past weather event that existed over larger region and covering long years of more than 30 years is very important for the emergence and successful sustenance of an organism including human kind. Normally scientists talk about environment and this includes not only the soils but also the climate of the particular region. Based on this, during 1989, the Planning Commission of India divided the entire India in to 15 agro-climatic zones based on physiography and climate. This division is only for planning purposes. Subsequently under NARP, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi in consultation with the Planning Commission, requested all State Agricultural Universities (SAU) to divide their State in to different sub climatic zones considering soils, temperature and other weather parameters preciously with in the major agroclimatic zone of India in which the concerned State falls. Accordingly, each SAU has divided their State into different agro-climatic sub-zones and this resulted in 129 agro-climatic sub zones in India and limited to 127 and these all fall within 15 agro climatic zones of India as done by the Planning Commission of India.

The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP), Nagpur not satisfied with this division, considering soils, temperature, rainfall, vegetation and all factors responsible for ecosystem (bio-climate, length of growing period, moisture index) divided the whole India in to 20 agro-eco regions by 1992 and revised preciously again by 2015 (Mandal et al., 2016) and the revised approach is being considered as scientific tool and taken for micro-level planning in India now and those are discussed at this chapter.