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Guava, Psidium guajava is one of the important fruits of tropical- sub-tropical regions of the world. It is a native of American tropics and probably originated from Peru north to Mexico and the Caribbean. The major producing countries include India, Brazil and Mexico, of which, Brazil is the largest producer of guava in the world. In India, it is grown over an area of over 2, 05,000 hectares with a production of 2.46 million metric tonnes. The fruit is rich in vitamin C and A. It is used both for processing and for table purpose world over. More than 80 insect pests have been reported to inflict varying degree of damage at different stages of crop growth. The important ones of these are discussed hereunder;

Guggul (Commiphora wightii Arnott.) commonly known as guggul, is a much branched shrub yielding gum-resin generally obtained by incision of the bark. Its plant is drought hardy and can  be grown in wasteland,  gravelly, desertic soils of arid parts of the country. This resin, normally referred as guggul, has been shown to have diverse medicinal properties like lowering of lipid activity anti-inflammatory  activity , diuretic, expectorant, diaphoretic  activity, etc (Atal et al.,1975). Its description and uses is mentioned in ancient literatures Ayurvedic treatise Charak (1000 B.C.), Sushruta Samhita (600B.C.). It has  a historical use in  folk medicine and today it ‘s highly commercially important target species .In the last few decades there has been  a sharp  decline in natural population of this species. There is hardly any commercial cultivation of this species. However, at Mangliavas near Ajmer in  Guggul Herbal Farm, more than 15,000 plants have been planted on the rocky site and the material  so  established  is being used for  research purpose on tapping of guggul and other related aspects.

Introduction

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a global federation of national standards bodies. Its primary goal is to promote the development of standardization and related activities worldwide, thereby facilitating the international exchange of goods and services. Additionally, ISO focuses on fostering cooperation in intellectual, scientific, technological, and economic fields. The outcomes of ISO’s technical work are published as International Standards.

ISO 9000 The

ISO 9000 family of standards represents an international consensus on good management practices, aiming to ensure that organizations consistently deliver products or services that meet clients’ quality requirements. These practices are condensed into standardized requirements for a quality management system, applicable regardless of the organization’s nature, size, or whether it operates in the private or public sector. The ISO 9000 standards family includes:

1. Introduction

Organic farming is gaining a lot of importance in recent years owing to raising awareness among the consumers of the agricultural commodities about the health concerns of the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Anonymous 2015; Lakhsman et al., 2024). The increasing demand for organically produced agricultural commodities and the premier prices have attracted the farmers’ interest and motivated them to switch over to organic production systems. The shifting to organic farming by the farmers needs careful consideration of several issues starting from the suitability of soils, selection of crops, adoption of package of practices, processing, storage and marketing. There are several finer aspects which the farmers have to gloss over before they decide to change their production system to organic farming. Although the broad contours are known to all the farmers, there is a need to look into the research findings in the areas of farmers’ interest for changing over to organic farming. The research evidence on the practical viability in a newer area will boost the confidence of the farming community for undertaking the organic farming. It further helps in systematic planning by the policy makers. The traditional research carried out with the modern agricultural practices may not be appropriate for organic farming. There are fundamental differences in the approaches followed in the organic farming research where the emphasis is on using all the natural resources in a complementary way so that there is hardly any need for synthetic inputs in the form of fertilizers and pesticides. It calls for systematic inventorization of resources available and additional organic inputs needed to make organic farming successful. It begins with assessing the suitability of soils, agro-climatic conditions, selection of crops, adoption of management practices, harvesting, processing, storage and marketing of organically-produced food commodities. The practical feasibility, economic viability and social acceptability of organic farming in newer areas need to be established through sound organic farming research before it is taken to the farming community.

Introduction
For setting up a fruit processing plant, the following cost and non-cost factors affecting the plant’s location are considered. Cost factors include raw material cost, transportation cost, cost of land, building and machinery, utilities cost, taxes, and insurance costs. At the same time, non-cost factors consisting of wages, salaries and incentives, market potential, community attitude, cost regulation, quality of life (school, living, recreation for workers, etc.), and environmental impact are taken into consideration. The main objective for the selection of the site for the processing unit is to minimize the sum of all costs. To minimize the cost, one should think not only the today’s costs but about long-term costs as well.
Plant Layout
The advantages of good plant layout are: -
i. Saving in floor space
ii. Increased output
iii. Fewer production delays
iv. Reduced material handling cost
v. Greater utilization of machine and manpower
vi. Easier and better supervision
vii. Less congestion and confusion
viii. Better appearance and more sanitary condition of work areas
ix. Reduced risk to the health and safety of employees

In India, the procurement and disposal of food grains are governed by several guidelines to ensure food security and fair market practices. Procurement is typically managed by government agencies like the Food Corporation of India (FCI), which purchases grains directly from farmers at minimum support prices (MSP) to stabilize market prices. Farmers are encouraged to sell their produce through designated government procurement centers, ensuring fair prices.
The quality of food grains is a key consideration in procurement. Grains are tested for moisture content, cleanliness, and pest infestation before being accepted. Once procured, the grains are stored in government warehouses, with regular inspections to prevent spoilage and pest damage. For disposal, food grains are distributed through public distribution systems (PDS) to ensure availability to consumers at subsidized rates. Any surplus grains may be sold in open markets, or occasionally exported, to maintain a balance in supply and demand. Effective management ensures food security and minimizes wastage.
PROCUREMENT POLICY OF WHEAT AND RICE
State Government agencies and the Food Corporation of India (FCI) are responsible for purchasing wheat and paddy within the designated period, ensuring that the products meet the prescribed Fair Average Quality (FAQ) specifications and are procured at the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for the Central Pool. This procurement supports the distribution of food under the National Food Security Act (NFSA) and other welfare schemes (OWS).
The Government of India (GoI), in consultation with State Governments and FCI, finalizes procurement estimates for wheat and paddy before each marketing season. These estimates are based on anticipated production, marketable surplus, and the agricultural crop pattern. The procurement of paddy and wheat is carried out under both the Decentralized Procurement System (DCP) and the Non-DCP system.

11.1 Planning

• Upon receipt of production program verify that crop sowing dates fall into crop windows identified for the particular area and allot accordingly. Check the quality of lots produced in previous season, if available.
• Assign crop location (Open field, Green house, Insect Proof Net / Cage etc) according to crop needs, site conditions and degree to which these conditions can be manipulated efficiently to meet the crop needs. Always adhere to optimum crop conditions.
• Identify material and personnel needs based on the production program and coordinate timely arrival of both. Material and personnel must meet standards established by the production site.
• Identify material quality like A, B, D (First, Second and Dirty) based on the specs.
• Refer standard procedures or formulate some of them. Do not proceed if proper documentation does not exist.
• Plan training for laborers regarding crossing, flower morphology, anthesis, time of stigma receptivity etc.

1 Introduction

The purpose of these Guidelines on Audit Quality is to assist Supreme Audit Institutions assure the high quality of their work and the resulting products. This Section describes the background of the document, provides key definitions applicable to these guidelines, discusses the types of SAIs and audits to which the guidelines apply, lays out the form in which the guidelines are presented and identifies some other sources of useful guidance for assuring quality. Section 2 then deals with quality control as the “hot review” ofthe audit process. Subsections 2.1 — 2.6 set forth some basic premises for establishing effective quality controls, discuss the nature of the controls required to assure quality in the areas of selection and timing of audits, planning specific audits, executing audits, reporting the results of audits, and following up on audits, respectively. Section 3 describes the procedures necessary to assure that needed quality controls are in place and operating effectively, that is it presents the characteristics of post-audit quality assurance. Finally, Section 4 focuses on institutional measures to enhance quality, especially management of human resources (recruitment, training, staff development and ethical standards), institutional risks and external relations. The Annexes provide other information that was considered potentially useful, including reference material, checklists and excerpts regarding quality controls from other guidance documents. The list of reference documents is contained in Annex A.

Audit quality is obtained by a process of identifying and administering the activities needed to achieve the quality objectives of an SAI. All types of SAI need to understand the benefits that can be realised once audit quality is made a priority. Improving audit quality requires a systematic SAI- wide approach. Piecemeal efforts by individuals and individual audit teams are not enough and will not work. There are no quick fixes to be obtained where audit quality is concerned. SAIs needs to proceed methodically in an organised way to fix each quality issue and problem in turn. As new problems will always emerge, this should be a continuous process for the SAI. It is also evident that most audit quality related problems are mainly the result ofpoor management of the audit process or the SAI itself.

Introduction

The present world wide situation of food items calls for a broad range of poultry alternatives to meet increasing demand of quality protein. Besides, complication involved in managing chicken, emergence of new diseases, increase in feed cost and increasing demand of poultry meat bound us to search for alternative species of poultry. In this circumstance rearing of Guinea fowl framed for centuries to meet poultry production requirements of diversified agricultural milieu. The traditionally reared Guinea fowl could become a significant source of food and also a source for substantial supplement income.

History
 
Guinea fowl a bird of West African origin came to India during mediaeval age. Now guinea fowl are being raised in the districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh and in some parts of Tamilnadu. The birds are very popular with marginal farmers and poor classes and are being largely kept as foragers and insectivorous under semi-range and range conditions.

Introduction

Guinea fowl has been domesticated in the recent past as a meat producing birds. Guinea fowl species are found across sub Saharan Africa. Guinea fowls found fairly in large numbers in wild type. Guinea fowl is from the family Numididae in the order Galliformes. They are endemic to Africa and rank among the oldest of the gallinaceous birds. Guinea fowls are hardy, sociable in habit, move in flock and thrive well in tropical as well as in temperate climates. They survive well even under the subsistence agriculture through scavenging. Guinea fowls are resistant to some of the diseases which may fatal to chicken. Guinea fowl meat is tender but slightly darker than that of chicken. Its special gamey flavor makes it a special table delicacy. Guinea fowl meat is drier and leaner than chicken meat and has a gamy flavor. They have marginally more protein than chicken or turkey roughly half the fat of chicken and slightly fewer calories per gram. Their eggs are substantially richer than those of chicken.

Guinea fowl are the insect and seed eating, ground nesting birds with featherless head. Under natural condition, they are monogamous in nature. Wild guinea fowl are strong flyer. Their breast muscle are dark, enabling them to sustain themselves in flight for considerable distances if hard situation. Guinea fowl hens are not known for good mother, but in the wild the guinea fowl cock may help the young keets during the day by keeping them worm and finding feed. Sometime more than one cock will help to raise the young.

Gujarat grows more than half a dozen pulse crops on  7.84 lakh hectares  area with an annual production  of 6.09 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 777 kg/ha. Amongst these, pigeonpea, chickpea, greengram, blackgram, cowpea, mothbean and clusterbean are the important pulse crops grown in the state. Mothbean, greengram and clusterbean are the predominant pulse crops grown in arid region of North Gujarat, though other pulses are also grown on a sizable area. Despite this distinction of being the largest producer, the availability of pulses is far from satisfactory which is evident from the fact that per capita availability has not kept pace with the population increase and has declined to merely 28 g/capita/day as against the mandated minimum and optimum quantity of 80 and 104 g/capita/day, respectively, as per WHO standards. As a result, with 11 per cent of the world’s import, it is also the largest importer of pulses.

The plant gums are the neutral salts and complex polysaccharide acids which contain methyl pentose, pentose, hexose and uronic acid residues joined glycosidically by linkages involving various carbon atoms within one molecule to form branched chain structure. Uronic acid is generally present in all cases. The sugars include L-fructose, D-xylose, L-arabinose, D-rhamnose, and D-galactose.

General Properties of Gums

They have high molecular weight. Some are linear while some are branched. They are generally viscous in nature. Some forms a gel also. They have tremendous commercial application in food industry. Gums may be an exudates gum produced by the plant or may be a seed gum, which is accumulated during the seed maturity. Gums of polysaccharide origin are obtained from Acacia spp. (gum Arabic), Cymopsis tetragonolobus (guar gum), Guggle gum, Ficus indica, chia gum etc (Table 7.1).

Diabetes mellitus is a severe endocrine illness that affects almost 10% of the world’s population and is a serious public health concern. In its most severe form, the disease affects major body systems, resulting in multiorgan problems. Oral hypoglycemic medicines such as sulphonylureas and biguanides are the most commonly used treatments, although their negative side effects are a significant drawback. Herbal medications are gaining popularity as a result of their superior outcomes and safety when compared to commercially available drugs, as well as their ability to address health problems more effectively.

Plants with anti-diabetic qualities are of particular interest to the ethnobotanical community since they are known to contain useful medicinal properties in various parts of the world, and a number of them have demonstrated variable degrees of hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic action. Several plant species that are high in terpenoids, flavonoids, phenolics, coumarins, and other bioactive compounds have been found to lower blood sugar levels.

Gudmar (Gymnema sylvestre Retz) is a valuable medicinal woody climber from the Asclepiadaceae family. The medicinal climber is well-known for its antidiabetic qualities. Its formulations have potent taste modifying properties, reducing sweet taste sensations in particular. Gymnema sylvestre is known in Hindi as gurmar, which means “sugar destroyer.” The plant has become vulnerable as a result of increased demand and destructive harvesting. The genus is classified into 40 species, some of which like G. sylvestre, G. montanum, G. yunnanense, and G. inodorum have medicinal properties. The leaf extracts contain gymnemic acids, the major bioactive constituents that interact with taste receptors on the tongue to temporarily suppress the taste of sweetness.

Introduction

Improvement of growth rate and feed efficiency through formulating effective diets are mostly considered for its effect on gut health. Several factors need to be well thought-out such as genetic makeup of the birds, feed source and quality, environmental condition and disease incidence. Apart from these factors, maintenance a good gut ecosystem or enhancement of it is essential for the welfare, optimum performances and productivity of birds. 

21.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to tropical Asia and China

• Widely growing in tropics of Africa, Asia and Malaysia.

• In India, it is grown in forests of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Bihar.

• Due to raising demand in South East Asia, plant is endangered particularly in Tamil Nadu.

21.2. Economic importance

• Madhunashini - Important medicinal climber acclaimed for its anti-diabetic properties.

• Preparations - Profound actions on the modulating taste suppressing sweet taste sensations.

Key Points

• In dairy cows, anestrus is a prevalent reproductive condition.

• In dairy farm animals, infertility, pyometra, and repeat breeder cows are the main reproductive syndromes.

Introduction

Farm animals have been raised and chosen specifically for the production of meat and dairy over the years. The livestock business suffers significant f inancial losses as a result of farm animal infertility. If the open span is extended by one estrous cycle as a result of infertility, this explains the 20–25 day loss of output in addition to the expense of treatment, missed work, etc. Farm animals can become infertile for a variety of reasons, including nutritional deficiencies, physiological disorders, and viral infections. These factors can act alone or in concert.

Introduction

Climate change and pollution are the two major concerns that retard growth in animal sector particularly in a developing country like India. Pollution is directly contributed by human beings, while the former is also an after effect of continuous abuse of nature and natural resources. Hence these two areas are to be looked into seriously for country’s growth in general and animal production in particular.

Stress Effect

Stress is nothing but inability of an animal to cope with its environment, a phenomenon that is often ends up with a failure to achieve the full genetic potential. Stress may be from any origin and can even be a disease itself. There exists a variety of endocrine regulatory points of stress which limits the efficiency of production and reproduction. A simple transport produces an immediate constant increase in arginine, vasopressin and corticotrophinreleasing hormone secretion in animals. However, adenocorticotrophic hormone reaches a maximum in the first hour, while cortisol is highest during the second hour. Contrastingly, the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal response is delayed occurring only after glucose decreases below a threshold in an insulin treated animal. Negative feedback effects appear to operate mainly at the pituitary level during transport but at the hypothalamus during hypoglycaemia.

Gypsophila is herbacaeous annual or perennial flowering plant belongs to family Caryophyllaceae. It contains several ornamental species of which Gypsophila paniculata L. is the only species used as a cut flower (Zvi et al., 2008) and it is applied as filler in flower arrangements (Jones, 1995 and Rehman, 2002). Gypsophila derived from “gypson” meaning chalk and “phylos” meaning lover, an etymology which alludes to its preference for calcareous soils (Vettory et al., 2013). Mainly found in temperate or warm-temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere, best developed in the Mediterranean region and Near East (Ataslar et al., 2009 and Cronquist, 1981). It is a perennial plant often grown commercially as an annual crop. Root is rich source of triterpine saponins (Henry, 1993, Hostettmann, 1995 and Gevrenova et al., 2010) which are used for commercially in medicines, detergents, adjuvents and cosmetics (Hostettmann, 1995, Tschesche and Wulff, 1973 and Gevrenova et al., 2010).

Gypsophila is herbacaeous annual or perennial flowering plant belongs to family Caryophyllaceae. It contains several ornamental species of which Gypsophila paniculataL. is the only species used as a cut flower (Zvi et al., 2008) and it is applied as filler in flower arrangements (Jones, 1995 and Rehman, 2002). Gypsophila derived from “gypson” meaning chalk and “phylos” meaning lover, an etymology which alludes to its preference for calcareous soils (Vettory et al., 2013). Mainly found in temperate or warm-temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere, best developed in the Mediterranean region and Near East (Ataslar et al., 2009 and Cronquist, 1981). It is a perennial plant often grown commercially as an annual crop. Root is rich source of triterpine saponins (Henry, 1993, Hostettmann, 1995 and Gevrenova et al., 2010) which are used for commercially in medicines, detergents, adjuvents and cosmetics (Hostettmann, 1995, Tschesche and Wulff, 1973 and Gevrenova et al., 2010). G. paniculata is one of the ten best selling cut flower species worldwide and thus becomes for the genetic improvement and selection of new varieties of commercial interest. Main regions of gypsophila production are Italy, Israel, Belgium, Germany and Holland while currently its cultivation is spreading across to other countries such as Ecuador, Egypt and Kenya due to lower labour costs. Infact, Gypsophila is among one of the most important varieties of cut flowers in Israel, where it is grown in more than 200 hectares of greenhouses and is almost entirely exported. For these reasons, the competition has increased dramatically, making the world market increasingly difficult for companies which feel the need to introduce new varieties that respond better to characteristics desired by consumers and florists.

The H.C.F and L.C.M are very important and many questions are asked in almost all competitive examinations to judge the students ability and also capability to solve the problem. This concept is useful in the chapters of time and distance, time and work, pipes and cisterns, etc. The tricks used to find L.C.M and H.C.F of two or more numbers help in finding out quick solutions and thus reduce time during exams. L.C.M concept is important to solve problems related to racetracks, traffic lights, etc. H.C.F. concept is useful in calculating the largest size of tile/room in particular area, largest tape to measure the land, etc.

Half life: The time required for the disappearance of one half of a given component of a system.

Halochromism: It occurs when a substance changes color as the pH changes. This is a property of pH indicators, whose molecular structure changes upon certain changes in the surrounding pH. This change in structure affects a chromophore in the pH indicator molecule.

Halomorphic soil : A suborder of the intrazonal soil order, consisting of saline and sodic soils formed under imperfect drainage in arid regions and including the great soil groups Solonchak or Saline soils, Solonetz soils, and Soloth soils.

Hatch-Slack pathway: It is one of the carbon fixation pathway used by certain group of plants (C₄ plants) where the first stable compound is oxalo acetate, a C₄ dicarboxylic acid compound. In the first carboxylation reactions, atmospheric CO₂ combines with phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) to oxalo acetate and then to malate. These plants posses kranz anatomy with mesophyll and bundle sheath cells.

Halerpestes tricuspis (Maxim.) Hand maz. (Ranunculaceae): LadakhiChitaka [W] Annual herb of alpine zone of above 3500 m altitudes. Whole plant used as stomachic and for gastrointestinal problems.

Halo effect: When making an observation, some observers may be influenced to rate an individual on one aspect of the interaction by the way he was rated on another. This is similar to something that can happen in teaching when a teacher’s assessment of the performance of a student in one subject may influence his rating of that student’s performance in another.

HACCP: The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market. or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety throughout the food chain under consideration.

Haemagglutinins: A group of proteins of plants that are not antibodies and do not originate in an immune system but bind specifically to carbohydrate containing receptors on cell surfaces (red blood cells). It is also known as Phytoagglutins / lectins.

Haem: Iron-containing compounds in which the iron is complexed in a porphyrin ring. Component of pigments such as haemoglobin, myoglobin and cytochromes. The iron atoms can bind oxygen in a reversible fashion or conduct electrons. Alternative spelling heme.
Haemoglobin: Oxygen-carrying protein which is found in the blood of animals. Haem groups within the protein bind oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin, which is carried to oxygen-depleted cells where the oxygen is released. Other inorganic compounds, including carbon dioxide, can also be bound by the haem groups. Alternative spelling hemoglobin.
Haemoproteins: General term for haem-containing proteins, including haemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes, catalases and peroxidases.
Halal foods: Foods permitted under Islamic dietary law, particularly meat from animals that have been slaughtered according to accepted Islamic procedures. For foods to be certificated as halal (lawful), they must be free from haram (unlawful, prohibited) substances, such as pork and swine by-products, carrion and intoxicants such as alcohol.
Half butter: Butter product with a low fat content of approximately 39-41%.
Half cream: Cream product with a fat content of approximately 12%.
 

Objective: To study the habitat, habits, and key morphological characteristics of Dermaptera (earwigs).

Objective: To study the habitat, habits, and key morphological characteristics of Embioptera

ABSTRACT

Tropical wet evergreen and tropical moist deciduous forests were the preferred habitats of the Brown-hawk Owl. Detection rate and response to the broadcasted calls were highest during the breeding season and in all the census points, more than one individual i.e. either in pair or three individuals were detected. Besides conspecific species, some heterospecific species were also found to respond to the broadcasted calls of Brown-hawk Owl, where the Brown-hawk Owl was not detected during the Initial Quite Listening survey. Moreover, approach of the sympatric species was observed only in the riparian strip and in rest of the habitats they responded only with calls. No significant seasonal difference was observed in the habitat utilization but seasonality was observed in the response and the approaching distance to the conspecific calls broadcasted. Additionally, the response to the conspecfic calls indicated that the owls were responding to the conspecfic calls throughout the year.

Habitat is the most valuable variable in ornithological studies as it provides food and cover essential for the survival of the population (White and Garrott, 1985). Habitat is an area containing or influenced by the suitable resources and environmental conditions that determine the presence, survival and reproduction of a population (Morrison et al., 1998). Cody (1985) described habitat as areas where an organism’s need for food and shelter are met. Habitat selection and use by birds is fundamental in understanding their biology and management and it has been one of the most well studied aspects of avian biology, particularly as habitats are altered by human activities (Pain and Pienkowski, 1996).

According to the optimal foraging theory, animals may use the areas offering higher food extensively (Stephens and Krebs, 1987). By using the most productive patches, birds may have a high ingestion rate, allowing to reduce the time exposed to predators and having more time to other activities. However, some authors have obtained contradictory results also. They have not found clear relationship between bird abundance and food availability (Wiens, 1984 and Herrera, 1988). The ability to exploit food resources is one of the most frequently suggested reasons for habitat selection by birds (Caraco, 1980) and would be expected to be primary basis for selection of foraging habitat.

In this chapter utilisation of habitat by the birds of the Silent Valley National Park has been analysed. Usually three questions are asked in the habitat utilisation studies (1) whether the species form well defined assemblages, quite apart from the geographical distribution patterns? (2) Whether ecologically or taxonomically similar species segregate by habitat? (3) Whether habitat characteristics attribute for the variations in the distribution or abundance (Wiens, 1989).

METHODS

Whenever a bird was observed in the period of study, its exact location and activities were recorded. The concept of habitat as described by Odum (1974), “the habitat of an organism is the place where it lives or the place where one would go to find it” is adopted for this study. Four main habitats were identified in the study area, depending on the vegetation type namely, Evergreen Forest (EF), Moist Deciduous Forest (MDF), Coffee Estate (CE) and Agricultural Area (AA). In each of the above habitats, “microhabitat” of birds was also recorded (Odum, 1974). Microhabitats identified at Silent Valley were the tree trunk, foliage, branch, bushes, dead tree, ground, grass and open area. Microhabitats identified at Mukkali were tree trunk, foliage, branch, bushes, ground, rocky areas and open area.

Introduction
A significant aspect of an animal’s existence is their adaptability to changing circumstances and their willingness to adapt their behaviour. An animal becomes more intelligent the more it learns. Associative and non-associative learning are the two main categories into which learning can be divided. Whereas associative learning involves classical conditioning, non-associative learning involves sensitization and habituation. When a stimulus
occurs frequently, an individual develops a gradual familiarity with it. This is known as habituation. Sensitization, on the other hand, is the increased response to the same stimulus that may or may not be related to other variables. In order to get the desired response, training is required for the behavioural responses to two independent stimuli that are kept associated during the conditioning process. In general, non-associative learning stems from an animal’s perception of its environment or circumstances, whereas conditioning is based on training-based learning.

Introduction

Over centuries, spices have been used as an important addendum for colour, flavour and preservation of foods. In addition, their medicinal and cosmetic utilities have been widely recognized (Purseglove et al., 1981; Srinivasan, 2005). All these benefits made them extremely desirable with an ever growing demand in the international market. India holds the title of the largest producer and exporter of spices with major share for pepper, capsicum, turmeric, ginger cardamom, seed spices, curry powders, spice oils and oleoresins. The other primary producers of spices includes China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Egypt, Turkey Brazil and Mexico while USA, Europe, Japan, East Asian and Middle East countries are their major importers.

Spices are made from diverse plant parts viz. rhizomes, barks, leaves, fruits and seeds and hence its processing methods vary depending on the raw material. However, the basic unit operations namely harvest, pre-treatment, drying, cleaning, particle size reduction, packaging and microbial decontamination in sequence remains common for the production of most of the spices. Inappropriate conduct of basic unit operations often lead to high microbial load, aflatoxin contamination, losses of valuable compounds, change in sensory characteristics, physical damages and incorporation of contaminants in spice products (Table 1). Moreover, spices being natural products, they may be fraught with a large number of microorganisms including several pathogenic species of bacteria and fungus depending on the prevailing conditions in their cultivation areas. In addition, poor food sanitation awareness and practices in spice producing countries may worsen their microbiological safety. Although spices are nonperishable in nature due to their low moisture contents after drying, they may act as a source of microbial populations upon contact with moist food products with no further thermal treatment. The outbreak of ‘salmonellosis’ in Germany (1993) due to contaminated paprika and paprika-powdered potato chips is an example. The aforesaid disadvantages related to conventional spice production may confound their international trade unless desired objectives of food safety management schemes such as International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) are met. Moreover, international agencies have set standard to guarantee safe spices and augment business interests of their adherents. For example, both the European Spice Association (ESA, 2015) and American Spice Trade Association have set a maximum level of 1% w/w extraneous matter in spices (ASTA, 2017). These challenges associated with the conventional production system may be effectively addressed by preventive risk management strategy by which suitable control measures are enforced at earlier phases of food chain prior to consumption. The control measures must guarantee that the level of contamination has not exceeded the maximum permissible limit at every phase of spice production from farm to table.

Principle
Some viruses like Orthomyxo, Paramyxoviruses etc. have the property to clump the erythrocytes of certain species of birds or animals. This is not an antigen-antibody reaction but a network of erythrocytes formed by the bridging virions. These virions on their envelop have peplomers that binds with the receptors on the erythrocytes. If large quantities of virus are used for HA and allowed to act on red blood cells
for a long period of time, the agglutinated red cells shed the virus particles which then float freely in the suspending fluid and neither attach to the same red cells nor agglutinate them. This process of dissociation of virus from the red cells is known as elution, and is due to the destruction of receptors on red cells by the virion associated receptor destroying enzyme - neuraminidase. The red cells freed from the virus particles are known as stabilized red cells. The elution will occur most rapidly if the temperature is raised to 37°C as the enzyme neuraminidase will be more active at this temperature.

Practical Application of Haemagglutination
a) Spot test: For rapid detection of the presence of a haemagglutinating virus. This can be done by mixing two or three drops of suspected sample (infected chick embryo fluids or cell culture fluids) with equal quantity of 5% chicken red cells in normal saline. The appearance of the clumps of agglutinated red cells, indicate the presence of a haemagglutinating
virus in the sample.
b) Titration of the virus using the haemagglutinating property.

It is a benign tumor of endothelial cells. It is a common tumor of dogs. Solar induction is one of the cause for development of this tumor.

Haemangiosarcoma is a malignant tumour of vascular endothelial cells. It is more commonly seen in aged dogs.

Clinical examination of animals regardless of domestic or wild ones is of utmost significance during the assessment of health status in animals. Prior to collecting samples, it is important to determine the capabilities and submission criteria of the laboratory receiving the samples.

Hyperaemia and Congestion
Definition
Hyperaemia is increased volume of blood in affected tissue or part.
Hyperaemia (Active Hyperaemia)
Occurs in arterioles or arteries
Increased blood flow in capillaries
Congestion (Passive Hyperaemia)
Occurs due to impaired venous drainage
Stasis of blood in veins
classification of hyperaemia

Pfeiffer first isolated and described Haemophilus influenzae as a cause of human influenza (1892). So it is also known as ‘Pfeiffer’s bacillus’. Later other workers isolated and described different species of the genus Haemophilus from animals and birds. In 1903, Friedberger, a research assistant of Pfeiffer, isolated similar kind of organism from prepuce of the dogs. In 1922, Rivers described it as Haemophilus canis. In 1925, Mitchell isolated Haemophilus ovis from the respiratory tract of sheep. In 1931, Lewis and Shope first isolated and illustrated Haemophilus suis from the infected pigs. Glasser found an association between fibrinous serositis, polyarthritis in pigs (Glasser’s disease) and a small gram negative rod as early as 1910, latter became known as Haemophilus parasuis. It was first isolated by Hjarre and Wramby in 1943.  The first recorded isolation of a hemophilic organism from the birds was in 1931 by De Blieck and he called them as Bacillus haemoglobinophilus coryzae gallinarum. He isolated them from the chickens suffering a disease, now known as ‘infectious coryza’.

Introduction
The genus Haemophilus contains small, nonmotile, nonsporing, oxidase positive, pleomorphic, gram negative bacilli that are parasitic on human beings or animals. Haemophilus means blood loving organisms.

Haemophilus species are small (less than 1 pm x 1 to 3 μm), Gram-negative rods, which often appear coccobacillary and may occasionally form short filaments. These motile organisms, which are facultative anaerobes with variable reactions in catalase and oxidase tests, do not grow on MacConkey agar. They are fastidious bacteria requiring one or both of the growth factors X (haemin) and V (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD). Optimal growth occurs in an atmosphere of 5-10% CO2 on chocolate agar which supplies both X and V factors. Small, transparent, dewdrop-like colonies are formed by most Haemophilus species after incubation for 48 hours.

Colonies of H.somnus have a yellowish hue and some isolates are haemolytic on sheep blood agar. The main pathogens in the genus are H.somnus in cattle and sheep, H.parasuis in pigs and H.paragallinarum which is responsible for infectious coryza of chickens.

The haemophili are motile, facultative anaerobes, produce acid from glucose, reduce nitrates and are variable in the oxidase and catalase tests. They are nutritionally fastidious, will not grow on MacConkey agar and grow best on chocolate agar (supplying the X and V factors) under 5- 10 per cent CO2 at 37°C.

The growth of many of the Haemaphilus species is enhanced by 10 per cent CO2, As this is not inhibitory for any of them, CO2 should be used for routine isolation.The inoculated chocolate agar plates are incubated under 10 per cent CO2 at 35-37°C for 3-4 days, although some growth may be seen after 24 hours.

This individualizing examination of a case of disease, for which Dr. Hahnemann give general directions, of which the practitioner will bear in mind only what is applicable for each individual case, demands of the physician nothing but freedom from prejudice and sound senses, attention in observing and fidelity in tracing the picture of the disease.

The patient details the history of his sufferings; those about him tell what they heard him complain of, how he has behaved and what they have noticed in him; the physician sees, hears, and remarks by his other senses what there is of an altered or unusual character about him. He writes down accurately all that the patient and his friends have told him in the very expressions used by them. Keeping silence himself, he allows them to say all they have to say, and refrains from interrupting them (every interruption breaks the train of thought of the narrators, and all they would have said at first does not again occur to them in precisely the same manner after that.) unless they wander off to other matters. The physician advises them at the beginning of the examination to speak slowly, in order that he may take down in writing the important parts of what the speaker says.

He begins a fresh line with every new circumstance mentioned by the patient or his friends, so that the symptoms shall be all ranged separately one below the other. He can thus add to any one that may at first have been related in too vague a manner but subsequently more explicitly explained.

A) Hypothyroidism

Etiology

It is one of the common endocrine disorders of skin of dogs mainly due to deficiency of thyroid hormone followed by cutaneous and non cutaneous signs. It is caused by lymphocytic thyroiditis or idiopathic thyroid necrosis and atrophy. Deficiency of thyroid hormone hinders the metabolic processes throughout the body.

Introduction
Genus Curcuma belongs to the Zingiberaceae family, and containing of about 122 species. These are grown profusely in Asian countries including, India, China, and Southeast Asia, Northern Australia and New Guinea. Like ginger, it is also the popular herb of this family for the utilization of its underground rhizomatous stem by human beings. Botanically it is named as Curcuma longa L. Its bright yellow spicy powder is got from the dried rhizome is termed turmeric powder, which is the final product of this herb. In addition to this curcumin bio-active compound is also extracted by cursing rhizomes of turmeric. The plants turmeric are considered to be a hybrid and sterile leaving vegetative propagation from rhizome as the single mode of propagation. India is recognized as the power house of turmeric production. Along with us, our neighbours in South East and Eastern region, including Malaysia, Thailand, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Philippines, Indonesia and even China are considered major producers.
Floral Biology
All species of Curcuma genus have almost alike flowering spikes that mainly originate from the topmost region of the rhizome (pseudo-stem) or sometimes on a separate stem directly from the rhizome. These two stems differ onlyin the inner portion of rhizome, which differ in colour, i.e., creamy, white, orange, yellow, bluish-green, blue, and sometime black also. The rhizomes exhibit commercial value as a medicine as well as food spice. Curcuma longa L. (Syn. Curcuma domestica Val.), is the common turmeric. It is the top ranking herb based on its economic potential among all the members of this genus and cultivated in India about 150,000 hectares.

India is predominantly an agriculture based country and 65% of the Indians depend on agriculture. To meet the ever increasing nutritional demands of Indian population, production and productivity of vegetables have to be increased manifold within the limited available land and other resources. Seed is the basic and critical input in which the expected dividends from all other inputs depend and it plays a crucial role for enhancing the stability of productivity. With the ever increasing demands for a mechanized, energy efficient type of agriculture, each seed is expected to produce a vigorous plant, which would develop. uniformly under a wide range of environmental conditions.

Seed enhancement technologies have historical basis dating back hundreds to thousands of years. Seed coating was being practiced by ancient Chinese farmers who coated seeds of rice with mud balls to anchor the seeds in water saturated soil . The Greeks presoaked the cucumber seeds in milk or water to make them germinate quicker. Keeping the seeds in moist cloth or soaking in water prior to sowing was a common practice among the farmers of India from time immemorial.

Halophytes are salt-resistant or salt-tolerant plants which thrive and complete their life cycles in terrestrial or aquatic habitats having high salt concentrations. Aronson (1989) compiled a partial list of halophytes containing 1560 species in 550 genera and 117 families. Menzel and Lieth (1999) listed as many as 2600 plants under salt tolerant flora. Although halophytes represent only 2% of terrestrial plant species, they are present in about half the higher plant families and represent a wide diversity of plant forms. Because of their diversity, halophytes are regarded as a rich source of potential new crops. Halophytes are tested as vegetables, fodder and oilseed crops under field trials. The oilseed halophyte, Salicornia bigelovii, yields 2 tones/ha of seed containing 28% oil and 31% protein, similar to soybean yield and seed quality.

Introduction

India is one of the major producers and exporters of honey. Diversity of bee flora and varied agro-climatic conditions in the country offers enormous potential for the development and growth of apiculture. Honey is a supersaturated sugary material produced mainly by honey bees from the sweet substances of plants (floral or extra-floral nectaries) or insect. Honey bee forager (field bee/worker honey bee) collects the nectar and converts the same into honey by a process of regurgitation and evaporation and stores in the honey comb. The sweetness of the honey is largely by monosaccharide viz., fructose and glucose. Honey is either monofloral or polyfloral as it is collected by the bees. The physical properties of the harvested honey depend upon the source from it is derived, water content, temperature, proportion of the simple sugars present and the method of processing. At low temperature (below 17°C), honey gets crystallized. Honey is also hygroscopic, capable of absorbing water from the atmosphere. India produces approx. 65,000 mt of honey per year (Kejariwal, 2015).