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Homestead is a small scale, supplementary food production system; it has the potential to produce high value crops including various spices condiments by and large for the household members. A typical home garden is an adjunct to the house, where selected trees, shrubs are grown, not only edible fruits / vegetables, but also for medicinal, ornamental, socioeconomic and ecological benefits. Homestead exhibit a multi tired canopy structure somewhat identical to the tropical evergreen forest formations. The vertical stratification provides a gradient in light and relative humidity, which creates different niches for enabling various spices/groups to exploit them .Mostly shade tolerant crops constitute the lower stratum, the shade intolerant trees the layer and spices with varying degree of shade tolerance in the intermediate strata .These multi strata system are structurally and functionally the closest mimics of natural forests yet attained The structural and floristic diversity of tropical home gardens are perhaps aided by the biophysical environment, socio-culture factors and economic consideration. 

Introduction

Rapeseed-mustard is attacked by more than 43 insect species. Out of which, mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach); mustard sawfly, Athalia proxima (Klug); painted bug, Bagrada hilaris (Burnmerister); pea leaf miner, Chromatomyia horticola (Goureau) and Bihar hairy caterpillar, Spilarctia obliqua (Walker) are of major importance. Other pests are of sporadic occurrence. Status of important insect pests attacking rapseed mustard in India have been given in detail by Bakhetia and Arora (1993) and Singh 2005. The occurrence of various insect pests on rapeseed-mustard is stage-specific. This has been a gift provided by nature to help avoid inter-competition among them for their fullest exploitation of the host. The insect pests attacking rapeseed- mustard as given in Table 1 and at various stages of the crop in Table 2.

Several fungal and bacterial pathogens that are airborne settle on the foliar tissues of susceptible host plant species and initiate infection which spreads to other plant parts later. Fungal pathogens cause different types of leaf spots, downy mildews, powdery mildews and rust diseases commonly on various crops. The bacterial pathogens induce blights and rot diseases.

Fungal and bacterial pathogens infecting either directly or causing secondary infection of inflorescence may be responsible for greater losses than the pathogens infecting stems or foliage, if they do not cause the death of plants. The extent of earhead infection by the pathogen(s) is directly correlated to the quantum of yield losses.

Diseases are caused by different kinds of microorganisms which may primarily attack specific plant organs initially. They may be either confined to the organs in which infection is successfully initiated and may spread to other organs to cause secondary infection. The plant organs initially affected may not show characteristic symptoms in certain cases as in root rot and wilt diseases. The root infection is recognized much later, when yellowing (chlorosis) of the leaves is observed. It may become very difficult to save the infected plants at this stage, since the pathogen is well established in the deeper tissues of the infected plants. However, the spread of the disease to the adjacent plants may be prevented by protective treatments. Integration of various principles of management of crop diseases has to be followed for successful crop cultivation. The combination of practices that can be applied varies with different types of diseases and the crops affected. Hence, the integrated management of crop diseases is discussed for different groups of diseases affecting primarily different plant organs/ tissues. Fungal and bacterial pathogens remaining in the soil or plant debris left over after harvest of previous crops infect the root system initially and crown or the basal portions of the stem may also be affected later.

Plants have to transport water and nutrients absorbed by the roots from the soil and photosynthetic products from the leaves to other plant parts and storage tissues through the stem tissues. Infection by fungal and bacterial pathogens interferes with the movement of the essential materials leading to the derangement of several physiological functions to varying degrees and even collapse of the aerial plant parts.

16.1 Fungal Pathogens causing Diseases Affecting Stems of Plants

Fungal pathogens cause blight, stem rot, rust, anthracnose, die-back and canker symptoms on the stem tissues of several crops. These pathogens may be soilborne or airborne generally, while some of them may spread through water also.

Pulse crops have a unique position in sustainable crop production as they provide proteinaceous food of high nutritive value and keep the soil alive and productive. India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world which accounts for 32 per cent of global area and 28 per cent of world’s pulse production. But the yield levels of these pulse crops are not satisfactory as it is grown as a neglected crop. Besides, extensive damage caused by insect pests is another major constraint for low yield of pulse crops. On an average annually 2.5 to 3.0 million tonnes of pulses are lost (Rabindra et al., 2004) with a monetary value of nearly Rs.6,000 crores due to ravages of insect pest complex (Reddy, 2009 and Panda et al. 1998). About 250 insects have been recorded feeding on these pulse crops in different parts of India (Narang, 1990) of which maximum damage is caused by the pod borer complex along with some sucking pests and foliage feeders. Sap feeders viz., aphids, whitefly, leaf hopper, thrips ; defoliator viz., leaf roller, hairy caterpillars etc are major threats to the crop during vegetative stage whereas the pod borers and pod sucking bugs are of major concern during reproductive stage. About two dozen insect pests are very important and found occurring on one or the other pulse crop frequently causing variable degrees of damage. A list of the very common insect and mite pests infesting different pulse crops (Table 1) and the extent of loss caused by different insect pests to some important pulse crops documented by the IIPR, Kanpur (Table 2) are furnished below.

INTRODUCTION

Many economically important diseases are caused by Phytophthora spp. There are as many as 60 described Phytophthora species, most of which are primary invaders of plant tissues with limited saprophytic ability. Some important diseases with respect to symptoms, etiology and management have been described in this chapter as given below.

Introduction

The growing interest in agricultural production over the past few decades has resulted in more farming systems that rely on chemical pesticides or chemical fertilizers, which has seriously harmed the soil, water, air, and climate while paying little attention to quality or concern for the agricultural system’s negative effects on ecosystems. But as time went on, scientific research began to focus on sustainable agriculture, organic farming, clean agriculture, and other ideas that eventually evolved into agricultural systems that maintain the balance in all areas of the agricultural and production process, as well as consumer and environmental concerns. These agricultural approaches have attracted the attention of numerous farmers, and many large farms are now interested in organic farming in the context of sustainable agriculture. The idea of sustainable agriculture is simply the production of food, fiber, other plant products, or even animal products using agricultural techniques that protect the environment, public health, and human societies from the detrimental effects arising from carrying out that process using the standard format as well as technology that also takes into account animal welfare, such that this type of agriculture will enable us to produce healthy foods without compromise (Bahlai et al., 2010; Muller et al., 2017, and Palmgren et al., 2015).

The Future of Sustainable Agriculture

The adoption of sustainable agriculture was made to raise awareness of their significance and to support the governments of plantations and businesses that operate within the parameters of sustainability, in particular organic agriculture, which is clean and recently devoted a lot of studies and research as well as major scientific conferences on sustainable agriculture, as were a lot of major exhibitions for organic goods and food made from organic ingredients around the world. Specifically, the potential role that organic agriculture could play in reducing the adverse effects of climate change, reducing deforestation rates, maintaining biological risk, and also arranging the steady increase in the world’s population, attracted attention to the level of international policy.

A wide variety of fungal and bacterial pathogens cause postharvest disease in fruits and vegetables. Some of these infect produce before harvest and then remain quiescent until conditions are more favourable for disease development after harvest. Other pathogens infect produce during and after harvest through surface injuries. In the development of strategies for postharvest disease control, it is imperative to take a step back and consider the production and postharvest handling systems in their entirety. Traditionally fungicides have played a central role in postharvest disease control. However, trends towards reduced chemical usage in horticulture are forcing the development of new strategies. Controlling or reducing disease relies on integrated crop and postharvest management, with attention to fungicide application, crop hygiene and nutrition, and the management of ripening, to optimise advantages conferred by the plant’s natural resistance factors that prevent and delay disease development. Agricultural production and food distribution systems have evolved over many years to a complex system which allows for nearly year-round supply of most fresh commodities through longterm storage and long distance shipments to consumers. The expectation of year round supplies has resulted in increased challenges for postharvest handling systems. The availability of fungicides for disease management likely played a major role in the evolution of our current system of food distribution (Mitcham, 1999). With the recent loss of registration of many postharvestfungicides and more expected under the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), as well as consumer pressure to reduce the amount of chemicals used on food, the challenge to maintain our current system of food distribution increases.

Postharvest diseases caused by fungal pathogens are more numerous than those due to bacterial pathogens. Infection by these pathogens may be initiated in the field before harvest, during transit or storage. These pathogens may remain dormant and become active, when the physiological conditions of the produce and environmental conditions become favourable. Symptoms characteristic of the diseases are observed as the produce age or ripen.

INTRODUCTION

Plants are susceptible to different types of pathogens, which are responsible for production of varied symptoms and causing losses. In the absence of the crops pathogens perpetuates in different manners and survival in the soil is one of the most important amongst these. Because of the constant presence of the pathogen in the soil, these become more destructive. These may reduce the plant growth, results in rotting of different plant parts, reduce yield or may cause the death of the plant. The destructiveness of soil borne pathogen increases because of the ability to survive in the soil as dormant structures for several years. Efficient control of soil borne diseases is thus difficult but can be achieved by employing various disease management practices in an integrated manner (Verma and Varma, 1992; Gupta, 1996, Gupta and Sharma, 1999).

Introduction

Many insets inhabit the soil and participate in different activities which will result in changes in soil physico-chemical properties. Thus soil is a very good habitat for some insects. Several insects spend either complete or few stages of their life cycle in soil. Soil provides protection from predators for many soil dwelling insects especially in immature stages. Few insects also undergo diapauses in soil. Soil insects include phytophagous, scavengers, predators and parasites. Among these, soil macro fauna especially termites and white grubs are very important pests of many crops and their activity also brings many changes in soil ecosystem.

Termites

Termites (Order: Isoptera) are eusocial, polymorphic and live in small to large colonies. The colony consists of different castes viz., functional reproductive (queen and king), sterile workers and soldiers, which are morphologically distinct.  The tasks of the latter two castes include foraging, nest building and care of eggs and young ones and defense. All species maintain symbiotic relationships with microorganisms, which aid in digestion. Few species build the often-spectacular mounds or arboreal nests and others build subterranean nests. They constitute important group of soil fauna and play a major role in the arid and semiarid tropics. Worker castes are dominant and are responsible for major functions in the colony. During the process of food collection, the workers generally attack the plants that are weakened due to some internal growth factors or environmental causes such as drought or poor soil conditions (Roonwal, 1978).

Among the microbial pathogens, viral and phytoplasmal pathogens primarily depend on various vector species for their spread from infected plants to healthy plants in the same or distant locations. Hence, management of these diseases depends on the reduction of vector populations, in addition to the disease management strategies applicable to diseases caused by fungal and bacterial pathogens that are not transmitted by vectors.

19.1 Diseases caused by Viruses

Plant viruses are transmitted through seeds, propagative plant materials and vectors such as mites, insects, nematodes and fungi. Hence, the strategies to manage these diseases vary depending on the nature of vectors involved in the transmission of viruses.

3.1. Definition

Systems approach to reduce nematode to tolerable levels through predators and parasites, genetically resistant hosts, natural environmental modifications and appropriate nematicides.

1. INTRODUCTION

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has become a widely practiced Hi-tech horticulture practice. It refers to maintenance of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. Another important aspect of INM is for enhancing of the fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) by proper placement of fertilizer in close proximity to the rhizosphere of the highest root activity. Today, Integrated Nutrient Management has become one of the common practices among progressive horticulture producers.

INM involves proper combination of chemical fertilizers, organic manures, crop residues, nitrogen fixing crops and bio-fertilizers suitable to the system of land use under ecological, social and economic conditions. INM involves maintenance or adjustment of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity.

Today a number of countries have moved away from the inorganic or chemicalised farming to organic farming yet it is not possible for India to depend entirely upon this system of farming due to increase in human population. As total availability of plant nutrients from different organic sources is projected to 7.75 MT by 2025 against the total requirement of 37.50 MT for 1504 million populations, so it means if we depend on organic sources there would be deficiency of about 30 million tonnes of nutrients.

Protected cultivation of horticultural crops offers the best choice for diversification from traditional agriculture production system for a number of reasons. Production of crops under protected structures has great potential in augmenting production and quality of vegetables, flowers and in some fruit crops in main and off-season and maximizing water and nutrient use efficiency under varied agro-climatic conditions of the country. This becomes relevant to growers in India who have small land holding. They would be interested in a technology, which helps them to produce more crops each year from their land, particularly during off-season when prices are higher. The commonly protected structures are polyhouses, poly-tunnels, floating row covers, clotches, shade-net, insect-proof net and plastic-mulches (Chandra et al., 2000 ; Singh et al. 2010). These protected structures act as physical barrier and play a key role in integrated pest management by preventing spread of insect-pests and viruses which causes severe damage to the crop (Singh et al., 2003). This technology has great potential especially in periurban agriculture in near future, since it can be profitably used for growing high value vegetable crops like tomato, cheery-tomato, coloured peppers, parthenocarpic cucumbers, cut-flowers like rose, carnation, Berbera, lilium and fruits like strawberry, grapes etc. and for off-season cultivation of vegetables and their healthy and virus-free seedling production.

Protected cultivation is intended to mean some level of control over plant micro-climate to alleviate one or more of abiotic stresses for optimum plant growth. The microclimatic parameters being referred here are temperature, light, air-composition and the nature of rooting medium.

1. Introduction

India is known as seed spices hub because as far as International level of concern, our country is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of seed spices. Seed spices contribute about 51.79 % of total area and 19.06 % of production of total spices in the country. The area under seed spices is about 1.74 million hectare and production is about 1.45 million tons (Lal, 2018). In our national economy, seed spices are play an important role, the demand is increasing not only due to its large domestic consumption, but also for export. Since long, huge demand of seed spices and importing countries in global market look at India for quality produce of seed spices. The ISO has been listed a total of 109 spices, out of which 63 spices are being grown in India and 20 spices are being classified as seed spices. 

Introduction

The Indian hot arid zone occupies an area of 0.32 million km to forming a continuous stretch in the north western states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and scattered land masses in the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, 70 per cent of it falls in western Rajasthan. Low and erratic rainfall, extreme temperatures, long sunshine duration (6.6-10 hours), low relative humidity (30-80 per cent), high wind velocity (9-13 km/h) and high evapo transpiration (1600-1800 mm) and characteristic features of the region. Moreover the soils are poor in nutrients and scarcity of water and recurring droughts are perennial constraints. Despite hostile conditions, the western arid Rajasthan supports a large human and livestock population and a variety of flora and fauna. However, the ever increasing human and livestock population and development activities exert enormous pressure on the natural resource in the region. These areas experience an annual rainfall between 100 and 500 mm with a coefficient of variation varying from 40 to 70%. The region is characterized by low and erratic rainfall with extremes of temperature (1–48 °C), high wind velocity and sandy soils. In dry and arid region, wind erosion affects 13.5% in India (Sehgal et al., 1994, Kar et al.,1959). Wind erosion is very active in the Indian Thar Desert and poses severe multifaceted problems (Dey et al., 2016). Loss of nutrient-rich particles from agricultural fields has been occurring due to suspension of fine particles in air and deposition of eroded soil. Among terrain properties, soil aggregate distribution, surface roughness, soil moisture and vegetation cover are important factors influencing wind erosion. Indiscriminate grazing in the region also further destroys vegetation and exposes the land surface, thus making it more vulnerable to wind erosion.

All the states have some area under irrigation. Thus the term ‘irrigated ecosystem’is rather loosely defined, and the states having distinctly large net irrigated area may constitute this ecosystem. Two such areas can be easily carved out i.e., Indo-Gangetic Plain region representing five states namely Punjab, Haryana, U.P., Bihar and West Bengal, and coastal areas of two southern states i.e., A.P and Tamil Nadu. About 56% of the net irrigated area of the country exists in these states, and the cropping intensity is also much higher (144%) as against national average of 132%. With demographic viewpoint also, these areas are densely populated. Of late agriculture in this ecosystem has become unsustainable owing to over-exploitation of natural resources. Studies have conclusively established the superiority and worth of integrated nutrient management in restoration of soil health and sustenance of crop productivity and profits.

The basic concept underlying the principles of integrated nutrient management (INM) is the maintenance, and possibly improvement, of soil fertility for sustaining crop productivity on long-term basis. This may be achieved through combined use of all possible sources of nutrients and their scientific management for optimum growth, yield and quality of different crops and cropping systems. INM is not a new concept, but an age-old practice. Its importance was, however, not realized earlier due to low nutrient turn over in soil-plant system and almost all the nutrient needs were met through organic sources, which supplied secondary and micronutrients also besides major nutrients. INM has now assumed great significance mainly because of two reasons. First, the need for continued increase in agricultural production based on increase in per hectare yields requires growing application of nutrients, and the present level of fertiliser production in india is not enough to meet the total plant nutrient requirement. Second, the results of a large number of experiments on manures and fertilisers conducted in india and other countries reveal that neither the chemical fertilisers alone nor the organic sources exclusively can achieve the production sustainability under intensive cropping systems (Hegde and Dwivedi, 1993). Even the so called balanced use of chemical fertilisers would not be able to sustain high productivity due to emergence ofthe deficiencyofone ormore ofthe secondaryandmicronutrients (Swarup and Wanjari, 2000). The interactive advantages of combining organic and inorganic sources of nutrients in INM have proved superior to the use of its each component separately. The advantages of INM can be broadly enumerated as following:

Introduction

The term “Integrated Nutrient Management” refers to the process of ensuring that the fertility of the soil and the delivery of plant nutrients are kept at an optimal level in order to maintain the desired level of production. This is accomplished by using an integrated approach to maximize the advantages that may be obtained from all conceivable sources of organic, inorganic, and biological components. Due to the fact that it supplies plants with anchoring, water, and nutrients, soil is an essential component for crop development. It is common for soils to have a certain amount of organic and mineral nutrient sources; but, in order to improve plant development, it is often necessary to supplement these soils with external treatments, sometimes known as fertilisers. It is common practice to apply fertilizers in order to boost the fertility of the soil, encourage the development of plants, increase crop yields, and provide support for agricultural intensification. Generally speaking, fertilizers may be categorized as either organic or mineral. Manure, compost, seaweed, and cereal straw are all examples of organic fertilizers. Organic fertilizers are created from components that are either plant or animal based. In general, organic fertilizers have lower amounts of plant nutrients because they are coupled with organic matter, which enhances the soil’s physical and biological features. This results in the soil having better qualities. Mineral fertilizers that are based on nitrogen, potassium, and phosphate are the ones that are used the most often. According to the International Food Policy Research Institute (1995), in order to satisfy the ever-increasing demand for food throughout the world, it will be of the utmost significance to make the most efficient and well-balanced use of nutrient inputs from mineral fertilizers. Since 1960, the usage of mineral fertilizer has expanded by approximately fivefold, which has greatly supported the expansion of the world population. According to Smil (2002), nitrogen-based fertilizer has contributed an estimated forty percent to the gains in per-capita food production over the previous fifty years. In spite of this, mineral fertilizers should not be the only means by which crop nutrient needs are satisfied. This is because environmental issues and economic limits make this situation impossible. As a result, Integrated Nutrient Management has to be used in order to encourage the efficient utilization of all nutrient sources, which includes organic sources, recyclable wastes, mineral fertilizers, and biofertilizers (Roy et al, 2006).

Various studies have demonstrated that the cashew tree responds to the application of mineral nutrients, though the responses are significantly affected by plant age, the genotype utilized, the conditions of cultivation, soil and climate and of the crop management (Barros et al., 1984; Ghosh, 1990; Ximenes, 1995; Bezerra et al., 1999; Crisóstomo et al., 2005). The crop develops well under semi-arid conditions, in which the problems associated with water availability and salt excess in the root environment are common. These two factors interfere with the acquisition of nutrients, in that the levels of nutrients in the plants are affected both by direct effects on absorption and transportation processes and by indirect effects associated with a reduction of growth of the various plant organs including the root system. The effect of salinity on plant nutrition depends on the types of salts that predominate in the cultivation environment which can result in a deficiency of essential nutrients and an excess of toxic ions. These changes under salt stress are accompanied by a loss of structural and functional integrity of the cellular membranes, a reduction in activity of various vital enzymes, and a diminished capacity of the roots to absorb nutrients (Zhu, 2001). On the other hand, water deficit reduces the extraction of nutrients from the soil, limiting the solubilization of nutrients in the root environment and altering the morphology of the root system (Kramer and Boyer, 1995). It should be added that the effects of excess salt and water deficit depend on various factors, including the species under study and the stage of development at which the plants are submitted to these.

Integrated plant nutrition system conceptualized by food and agriculture organization is the maintenance or adjustment of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients viz. organic manures, fertilizers, crop residues, compost or nitrogen fixing crops etc. in an integrated manner.

Mineral Nutrition and Nutritional Deficiency

The normal green plant is autotrophic that means it can synthesise all its organic substances; provided it is supplied with all the inorganic elements and growth under normal condition. The nutrition of green plant is therefore, solely inorganic. It is, in fact, commonly called mineral nutrition. Element absorbed from the soil by the roots are generally known as Plant nutrition or Mineral nutrients.

Introduction

Fruits are an essential component of the human diet, and India holds the position of the second-largest fruit producer worldwide. The nation’s agricultural sector produces banana, papaya, and mango, contributing approximately 13% of the global fruit production. Nevertheless, the present fruit output in India falls short of satisfying 46% of the total demand. Fruits provide a substantial amount of vitamins and minerals that are crucial for sustaining good health and immunity. In addition, they include oils, lipids, and proteins that are used in different metabolic processes.

The overutilization of synthetic fertilizers to enhance fruit yield has resulted in problems such as economic inefficiency, ecological degradation, and potential injury to both plants and consumers. This has resulted in significant issues. In order to meet the requirements of plants and enhance productivity, a significant quantity of nutrients must be supplied to the soil. Continual crop production may result in the gradual depletion of nutrient reserves in the soil, which ultimately leads to soil degradation. Due to the exorbitant expense of inorganic fertilizers, there has been a growing focus on using bio-fertilizers and organic matter with inorganic fertilizers. Farmers are now exploring the use of the Integrated Nutrient Management system for cultivating fruit crops. This system incorporates innovative techniques such as deep fertilizer application and urea coatings to enhance plant absorption of nutrients and minimize nutrient wastage. Ultimately, fruits are essential components of human meals, although their over use has resulted in economic inefficiencies, environmental harm, and land deterioration.

Indian horticulture has shown impressive impact on production, productivity and profitability. Currently, the total production of horticultural produce is 214.7 million tones from the 9% of total cultivated area in India, which contribute 30.4% to GDP of agriculture (Singh, 2010). In world perspective, India is second largest producer of fruits (68.5 mt) from 6.10 m ha area and contributes 11.2% in global fruit production. Vegetable crops occupying 8.0 m ha have the production of 129.1 mt (Table 1). However; India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products in the world and produce more than 50 spices. The spice production in India is the order of 4.14 mt from an area of about 2.63 m ha. India is also the leading producer of plantation crops in the world and contributes 22.34% in coconut, 25% in cashewnut and 55% in arcanut. Commercial floriculture sector has recorded fast pace of growth during the last decade. During the last decade area under floriculture has expended to 1,67,000 ha with production of 9,87,000 MT of loose flower and 4.8 million cut flowers (Singh, 2010). The over all percent share of fruits and vegetables to their total production and contribution of different states for production of fruits and vegetables are repicted in Fig. 1 & 2. From the above fact, it is indicated that the production of horticulture produce has increased manifold but the gap in demand and supply continues simultaneously and is hardly sufficient and meets only 46% of national demand. Hence, there is a strong need to increase the production and productivity through crop diversification.

Oilseeds serve as rich source of food, feed, energy, employment and commerce. The productivity of oilseeds in India (1006 kg ha^-1 during 200809) is very low when compared with the world productivity (1878 kg ha^-1 during 2008). The oilseeds production in the country often sufers from a high degree of variation in annual production owing to their predominant cultivation under low and uncertain rainfall situations which is further handicapped by input starved conditions with poor crop management. Nutrient and water are the key inputs for crop production. Improving efficiency and factor productivity under complexities of diminishing quality resources and increasing ecoawareness are critical for sustainable oilseeds production.

The vegetable oils consumption in the country is steadily rising and has sharply increased in the last couple of years touching around 14.1 kg head^-1 year^-1 during 2009-10. As per DAC-Rabo Bank, India’s per capita consumption is likely to reach at least 16.38 kg year^-1 by2020 and for a projected population of 1331 million, vegetable oil requirement will be 21.8 million tonnes. This is equivalent to about 66 million tonnes of oilseeds assuming that there is no change in the proportion of different oilseeds produced in the country in the next ten years. Assuming about 20% of vegetable oils contribution from sources like ricebran, cotton seed, coconut, oilpalm, etc., still the country needs to produce about 55 million tonnes of oilseeds by 2020. Considering that the oilseeds production during 2008-09 was just 27.56 million tonnes, the country needs to double oilseeds production in next 10 years requiring a growth rate in excess of 6%

Rice-wheat is a dominant cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic Plains covering approximately an area of 10.5 million ha. Modern agricultural production practices have emphasized the widespread use of fertilizers as a source of nutrients. The continuous use of high levels of chemical fertilizers over a prolonged period, decline in area under legumes and reduction in the use of organic manures has resulted in soil degradation and environmental pollution. It is estimated that the gap between nutrient removal by crops and addition through fertilizers in India will remain at level of 8-10 million tones per annum. Such negative nutrient balances are depleting the soils of their nutrient reserves resulting in acute deficiencies of nutrients. Integrated plant nutrient supply (IPNS) is an important component of sustainable agricultural intensification. The goal of integrated nutrient management (INM) is to integrate the use of all natural and man-made sources of plant nutrients, so as to increase crop productivity in an efficient and environmentally benign manner, without diminishing the capacity of the soil to be productive for present and future generations. The INM is made up of components which possess great diversity in terms of chemical and physical properties, nutrient release efficiencies, positional availability, crop specificity, and farmers’ acceptability. Since organic manures cannot meet the total nutrient needs of modern agriculture, integrated use of nutrients from fertilizers and organic resources seems to be a need of the time. For INM to make desirable progress and find wide acceptance, nutrient supply packages for important agroecological environments need to be developed. These should be technically sound, practically feasible, economically attractive and socially acceptable. Integrated plant nutrient systems can ensure long-term sustainability of agricultural growth through improvement in soil health and will significantly reduce the needs for chemical fertilizers. The complementary use of chemical fertilizers and organic fertilizers may increase the efficiency of chemical fertilizers in order to maintain a high level of crop productivity. Because of low primary nutrient content and thus the need for large applications per unit area, farmers and policy makers are often reluctant to adopt and promote the use of organic fertilizers. The different components of INM possess great diversity in terms of chemical and physical properties and nutrient release patterns.

Introduction

Seed spices include group of annuals whose dried fruit or seeds are used as spices. These are characterised by pungency, strong odour, sweet or bitter taste. Coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek occupy largest area among the seed spices. However, ajowan, dil, celery, anise, nigella and caraway having secondary place as far as area and production is concerned. Major area under seed spices is in Rajasthan and Gujarat, and other seed spices producing states are Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. The seed spices account for about 36% and 17% of the total area and production of spices in country. The export of seed spices from India during 2008-09 was 4.71 thousand tonnes worth Rs. 54914.8 million rupees. The per cent export growth rate during 1995-96, 2000-01, 2005-06, 2007-08 and 2008-09 was 12.0, 11.0, 8.0, 36.0 and 19.0% in terms of value and 13.0, 3.0, 8, 13.0 and 6.0 in respect of quantity, respectively.

Integrated plant nutrient management includes use of organic manure/ compost, bio-fertilizer, chemical fertilizer, green manuring, residue management, legume based cropping system, use of nutrient-responsive varieties, proper method and time oforganic manure and fertilizer application, soil and water management to minimize the nutrient losses occurring through volatilization, denitrification, runoff and leaching. Application of plant nutrients in proper balance form is also a part of Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNS) system. Supply of nutrients to seed spices in appropriate quantities and at the correct times is essential for economically and environmentally sustainable agriculture. Soil organic matter, crop residues and manures play a vital role in the supply of macro and micronutrients and the transformation between the various organic and inorganic forms often control availability, both for plant uptake and loss to the environment (Aishwath and Vashishtha, 2008; Lal, et al., 2009).

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] is the leading oilseed crop in the world. Its area and production are far ahead of other oilseeds at the global level (Table 1). The commercial cultivation of this crop in India started in the early 1970’s. Within a span of 4 decades its spread has been phenomenal and today it occupies around 9.67 million hectares with a production of about 10.22 million with an average productivity of around 1006 kg ha^-1 (DSR, 2010) (Table 2). It is now the fourth largest among field crops after rice, wheat and maize (GOI, 2007) in India and has become the leading oil seed crop surpassing groundnut and mustard and rapeseed. It is contributing nearly 37% to the total oilseeds produced in India. The central India comprising the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan account for more than 95% of the total area under this crop. Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh etc account or the bulk ofthe rest ofthe area. It is predominantly a rainfed crop with only about 3% of the total area getting some assured irrigation facility. Further, it is concentrated in areas which receive lesser rainfall in its early vegetative phase. A large number of crops have been replaced by soybean to a variable extent in its march towards achieving its present position. Badal et al. (2000) have reported that a large number farmers switched over to this crop from sorghum, groundnut, maize, cotton etc in the state of Madhya Pradesh owing to greater yield potential even under adverse conditions (Table 3). Further, it has become an integral part of several cropping systems including both intercropping and-sequential cropping systems in different parts of the country.

Pulses are known for their soil fertility restoration value. Deep rooting, nitrogen fixation, leaf shedding ability and mobilization of insoluble soil nutrients are some of the unique characteristics of pulses. By improving chemical, biological and physical environment in the soil, pulses can arrest the declining trend in productivity of cereal-cereal system. Inclusion of pulses in intensive cereal based system itself is a component of integrated plant nutrient supply system. Therefore, pulses have become viable alternative to improve the soil health and conserve the natural resources and agricultural sustainability. Pulses in the cereal/oilseed based cropping systems are introduced to break the monotony of crop rotation. Pulses being rainfed low input crop provide safeguard against crop failure due to scanty rainfall and adverse weather conditions. Apart from enriching soil fertility, introduction of pulses in cropping system also improves nitrogen economy. Early pigeonpea-wheat sequence was evaluated and found promising than traditional rice-wheat cropping system in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, central and western Uttar Pradesh.

Integrated nutrient management is considered to be the key for achieving higher yield of crops and cropping systems. In general, the productivity of pulse crops has remained low mainly for two reasons: cultivation on agriculturally marginal soils and little if any crop inputs. Among production inputs, fertilizer plays a key role in pulses too like other crops for enhancing productivity levels. Most of the pulses fix atmospheric N, which is the predominant mechanism to meet their N requirement. It can enrich soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. It has been estimated that chickpea can fix (convert atmospheric nitrogen to organic nitrogen which would be available for subsequent crops)up to 140 kg nitrogen per hectare in a growing season, although measured values are usually in the range of about 20-60 kg nitrogen per hectare (Reddy 2004). It has been well established that long duration pigeonpea in northern India can fix nitrogen in the order of 200 kg/ha when grown over a 40 week period. Pigeonpea can also have substantial residual effects on subsequent crops. For example, medium-duration pigeonpea grown at the International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) (Asia Centre) could benefit a subsequent maize crop to an extent equivalent to 40 kg nitrogen per hectare. However, this capability is jeopardized through insufficient supply of other plant nutrients. General recommendations for phosphorus (P) fertilization are made in most states. However, K application is generally neglected, resulting in imbalanced nutrient supply and lower crop yields. Under intensive cropping systems, large amounts of K are removed, leading to serious depletion of soil K reserves. Pulses such as chickpea and pigeonpea remove about 60 and 52 kg K₂O/t of grain, respectively. Information compiled from various sources on integrated nutrient management in pulse/pulse based cropping systems in different agroecological regions of the country suggest that there is a wide scope for practicing integrated plant nutrient (IPN) practices in pulses and pulse based cropping systems. Practicing of INM not only economize inorganic fertilizer use but also helps in balanced fertilization and improving soil health and productivity through complimentaryeffects of fixed N by pulses and applied phosphorus and potassium.

3.1. Integrated nutrient management

Maintenance of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of all possible sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner.

3.2. Concepts

Regulated nutrient supply for optimum crop growth and higher productivity.

Improvement and maintenance of soil fertility.

Zero adverse impact on agro – ecosystem quality by balanced fertilization of organic manures, inorganic fertilizers and bioinoculants in an integrated manner.

The introduction of high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice, the development of intensive cereal–cereal rotations (rice–wheat, rice–rice, hybrid maize–wheat), application of high doses of N (above 100 kg N ha^–1 to each crop) without adequate P and K application, increased use of high-analysis fertilizer (urea and diammonium phosphate in place of ammonium sulphate and superphosphate) and ignoring the application of organic manures led to heavy depletion of P, K, S, Zn and other plant nutrients, which led to wide-spread de?ciencies of P, S and Zn in Indian soils. These de?ciencies of nutrients led to focus on integrated nutrient management.

10.1 Introduction

• In case of integrated nutrient management, all types of nutrients are supplied in the form of organic or inorganic manures and fertilizers to maintain uniform soil fertility.
• Continuous use of fertilizers spoils the soil structure and soil becomes unproductive in due course.
• Fertilizers applied along with sufficient quantities of organic manures will improve the efficiency of the fertilizers. Green manuring should be done every year or once in two years during the rainy season.
• Suitable bio-fertilizers should also be applied from time to time.
• Plants need adequate supply of sixteen essential nutrients for their normal growth and production, out of which carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) are needed in larger quantities and are referred as macro-nutrients, whereas, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl) are required in smaller quantities and thus called as micro-nutrients.
• An essential element is distinguished from a non-essential one on the basis of following criteria:
  1. The plant is unable to grow normally and complete its life cycle in the absence of the element.
  2. The function of the element is specific and cannot be replaced by any other element.
  3. The element plays a direct role in the metabolism of the plant.

Farming system approach addresses itself to each of the farmer enterprises; inter relationship among enterprises and between the farm and environment. Thus farming system research has the objective of increasing productivity of various enterprises in the farm. Farming system approach introduces a change in farming technique for high production from a farm as a whole with the integration of all the enterprises. The farm produce other than the economic products for which the crop is grown can be better utilized for productive purposes in the farming system approach. A judicious mix of cropping system with associated enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, sericulture etc. suited to the given agro-climatic conditions and socio economic status of farmers would bring prosperity to the farmer.

Combination of Integrated farming system (IFS) along with organic farming so called integrated organic farming system (IOFS)appear to be the possible solution to the continuous increase of demand for food production, stability of income and improvement of nutrition for the small and marginal farmers with limited resources. Integration of different enterprises with crop activity as base will provide ways to recycle products and waste materials of one component as input through another linked component and reduce the cost of production of the products which will finally raise the total income of the farm. This becomes quite essential as crop cultivation is subjected to a high degree of risk and provides only seasonal, irregular and uncertain income and employment to the farmers. With a view to mitigate the risk and uncertainty in agriculture, IOFS serves as an informal insurance.

Production of agricultural crops, vary in response to changes of the seasons. In the recent period stable income of agricultural crops has become unstable. Redressing these by integrating crops with agro-based industries like livestock farming is essential. An integrated organic farming system applies the concept of “Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture” (LEISA) and this system develops the livestock business and the crop business in one location or area using local resources to optimize inputs. Designing a farming system to tie together principles of sustainability and productivity is complex. Organic farmers must consider how the various components of their system - rotations, pest and weed management, and soil health - will maintain both productivity and profitability. This section outlines the major principles incorporated into organic farming systems.

Most of the insect pest and disease (insects, mites, diseases, nematodes, etc.) management problems arise from relying entirely on pesticides for control. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a strategy that draws on a range of management tools with the goal of using the least ecologically disruptive techniques to manage pests within economically acceptable levels. IPM considers the production system in a holistic manner and looks at all aspects of the farming enterprise as potentially increasing or decreasing pest numbers and, where possible, enhancing the activities that reduce these pest populations.

Strategy for Integrated Pest and Disease Management

The basic IPM strategy involves routine crop monitoring to ensure that pesticides are only applied when needed, as well as to ensure appropriate timing of pesticide applications. The most developed bio-intensive IPM relies primarily on beneficial organisms to manage insect pests. When greater pest control is needed, interventions chosen are complementary to the survival of these beneficial organisms. As other pests are incorporated more and more prevention strategies are adopted which reduces the need for direct control practices.

14.1 Introduction

Sugarcane, basically a tropical crop in nature, requires a suitable high temperature, a lot of sunshine and rainfall ranging from 1250-2500 mm for its growth and yield. Relatively speaking, it is an intensive user of water as compared to rice and other crops. The total water requirement to mature the crop is about 64-80 acre inches.  Although globally but Brazil and Mexicos in Americas, India, Pakistan, Thailand and China in Asias, Australia and Africa, the Caribbean and to a smaller degree in southern Europe and the Middle East are major sugarcane growing areas in the World (Khan and Jamil, 1983). Historically famous for sugar, this crop has now attained a significant nadir for biofuel production (Mino, 2010).

Sugarcane, a perennial grass, is exposed to all sorts of biotic and abiotic adversaries. The variation in weather parameters like sunlight, temperature, rainfall, humidity and solar radiation affect the different phases of growth like germination, tillering, cane formation and cane stalk elongation, as well as the maturity and ripening phases of plant (Malik, 2009).

16.1 Introduction
According to Howard (2001) the major world crop palms are coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L), African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) and date palms (Phoenix dactylifera L). Many other palm species provide products for international commerce and also grown as ornamentals. Some palm species are of local or regional importance and have great potential for expanded development and distribution. In general, commercial production of palms regularly starts on or near natural habitats with little agricultural development.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally friendly step towards pest control based on a combination of common practices. IPM programs use up-to-date and comprehensive information about the life cycle of pests and their interactions with the environment. This information, along with existing pest control methods, is used to control pest damage in the most cost-effective manner and with the least possible risk to people, property and the environment. The IPM methods can be used in agricultural and non agricultural areas, including homes, gardens and workplaces. IPM uses all pest control options, but not limited to the appropriate use of pesticides. In contrast, organic food production shares many of the same concepts as IPM, but limits the use of pesticides to those that come from natural sources rather than synthetic chemicals.

IPM is a set of pest management assessments, choices, and actions rather than a single approach of pest control. Growers using integrated pest management (IPM) that recognize the possibility of insect invasion employ a four-tiered strategy including establishing action levels, keep a look out for and recognize pests, its prevention and control.

IPM establishes an action threshold—a point at which insect populations or environmental circumstances suggest that pest control intervention is necessary—before implementing any pest control measures. It’s not always necessary to take action when one pest is seen. Future decisions about pest treatment must take into account the degree to which pests will pose an economic risk. Set thresholds through systematic, regular, and consistent monitoring. Develop thresholds that are appropriate for your circumstance. Modifying thresholds, management and monitoring techniques if necessary. For the majority of pest monitoring techniques, quantitative thresholds can be created, such as treating when specific circumstances are favorable for the onset of a disease or when the number or percentage of invertebrate pests or damaged plant parts surpasses predetermined limits. A good monitoring procedure involves knowledge of pest and beneficial species likely to be present, awareness of the critical crop development stages, good sampling and recording techniques and an estimate of infestation level.

1.1 Introduction

Over the centuries, farmers experimented and developed pest management practice to minimize the damage caused by pests. Paul Muller (1939) discovered insecticidal properties in DDT, which resulted in ushering the synthetic pesticide era. The period from the late 1940s through to 1960s has been called the ‘Dark Ages’ of pest control (Newsom, 1980). Calendar based pesticides schedules were developed by the scientists and disseminated to farmers by extension workers. During this period other control measures were not even considered for further research by the agriculture scientists. The intensification of agriculture with the excessive and indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides (DDT) in the 1940s and 1950s resulted in dysfunctional consequences like the resurgence of target pests, the appearance of new pests, and the development of tolerance to individual pesticides in many species (van Emden, 2002). The period was dominated by the belief that the pesticide was the only solution to pest management. In the 1960s itself, a major change in thinking occurred following the realization that pesticides had serious limitations and in several cases produce undesirable consequences (Norris et al., 2002). A solution to the problem caused by indiscriminate use of insecticide began to be developed by the entomologists through integrated control practices (Zodoks and Schein 1979).

Introduction

Food security is an agricultural issue that has political connotations in the world and more strikingly so in the developing world, where systems of governance has assumed and lost power on this issue. Agriculture not only contributes to the overall growth of the economy but also provides a vital livelihood base, employment and food security to the majority of the country’s population. Recent food price hikes have drawn the attention of the world’s policy-makers and news media to food security which triggered a wide variety of policy responses throughout the world. It threatens the food crisis and livelihood of millions of peoples suffering from hunger and poverty.

Introduction

Remarkable increase in fruit and vegetable crops cultivation under arid region of western India lead to drastic changes in the pest population dynamics. The productivity is concern, it is low because of harsh environment (high temperature, low precipitation, high PET, high wind velocity), poor soil fertility and salinity. Beside these, the biotic pressure like pests and diseases also play a critical role, which cause significant loss and adds to the cost of production.

The integrated pest management is a set of effective and environmentally safe pest management practices that takes advantages of all appropriate pest management options including, but not limited to, the judicious use of pesticides. The comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment, and the available pest control methods are used to manage pest damage by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment. 

Introduction

The development of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was a response to the steadily increasing use of pesticides, which led to crises in pest control (outbreaks of secondary pests and pest resurgence following the development of pesticide resistance), as well as an increase in evidence and awareness of the full costs that the intensive use of pesticides imposes on human health and the environment. The term “Integrated Pest Management” (IPM) refers to the process of carefully considering all of the available methods of pest management and then subsequently incorporating suitable strategies that prevent the growth of pest populations. It integrates biological, chemical, physical, and crop-specific (cultural) management tactics and practices in order to cultivate healthy crops and avoid the use of pesticides. This helps to reduce or eliminate the hazards that pesticides cause to human health and the environment, which is essential for sustainable pest control. IPM is a dynamic process that makes use of an ecological systems approach and encourages the user or producer to examine and employ the complete range of optimal pest management choices available given economic, environmental, and social factors. IPM is accomplished via the use of an ecological systems approach. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is founded on ecology, the idea of ecosystems, and the objective of maintaining ecosystem processes. Additionally, it stimulates the use of natural pest management techniques, which in turn promotes the establishment of a healthy crop while causing the least amount of damage to agroecosystems as feasible.

Introduction

Banana (Musa sp; family: Musaceae) is the most popular commercial soft fruit crop grown in equatorial and subtropical regions of the world and also serves as a staple food since the dawn of recorded history in many countries (FAO, 2012). It has bounties of significance to the human beings and is one of the 4th most important food in the world after rice, wheat, and maize. Musa species grow in a wide range of environments ranging from the edible bananas and plantains of the tropics to cold hardy fiber and ornamental plants. They thrive well in an average annual temperature of 20^°C and well distributed rainfall of 200 cm per year (Simmonds, 1959; Wardlaw, 1961). Banana is a large, perennial, monocotyledonous herb 2-9 m in height that arises from large, subterranean rhizomes called ‘corms’. Musa fruits are variable in size, shape, and color. They are generally elongate cylindrical, straight to strongly curved, 7-40 cm long, and 2-8 cm in diameter. The fruit apex is an important attributes in variety identification.

Introduction

Cereal crops are of global importance and the lifeline of the humane civilization. Nutritionally, they are important sources of dietary protein, carbohydrates, Vitamin B complex, Vitamin E, iron, trace minerals and fiber. Major cereal crops produced worldwide include wheat, rice, maize and millets. Among them, wheat, maize and rice together comprise at least 75% of the world’s grain production. More than 70 per cent of the cereal crop produced in developed countries is fed to livestock whereas, in developing countries, 68-98 per cent of the cereal crop is used for human consumption (Chaven and Kadam, 1989). Rice is the most important and widely cultivated crop in the world and is the staple food for about 60% of the world’s human population. It is basically a crop of humid tropics, but it varies widely in physiological adaptability, hence grown successfully both in tropical and temperate conditions. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the another important and widely cultivated food crop in the world and important rabi crop of our country. In India, wheat is the second stable food crop after rice which contains more protein than any other cereals. Maize is an important kharif cereal in hilly, sub-mountained and even in plain regions of our country where it forms staple diet of the people.

13.1 Introduction

Citrus is one of the important fruit crops in India with the production of 111.47 lakh tons from 10.78 lakh hectares with the productivity of 10.34 tons/ha at national level as compared to 25-30 tons/ha in advanced citrus producing countries (NHB, 2013). The productivity and quality of citrus is severely affected by several factors; insect pests being one of them. More than 250 insect pests were reported to attack citrus in India. A total of  22 insect species  in Punjab (Atwal, 1976) ; 50  insect species  in  Karnataka;  42 insect species  in  North-Eastern Hilly region (Pathak and Rao, 1999);  20 insect species in West Bengal and  about a dozen  insect species  in central India have been reported on different citrus cultivars. Further, the pest occurrence and distribution in India indicated that about 21 species are common throughout the citrus growing areas and remaining species may occur in some areas either occasionally or rarely. Of the reported insect pests, Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama), citrus blackfly (Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby), whitefly (Aleurolobus marlatti (Quaintance) and Dialeurodes sp.), leaf-miner (Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton), lemon butterfly (Papilio demoleus Linn.), leaf folder (Psorosticha zizyphi Stainton), aphids (Aphis spp. and Toxoptera spp.), thrips (Scirtothrips spp.), mealy bugs (Planococcus citri Risso), scales (Coccus hesperidus Linn), fruit sucking moth (Eudocima spp.), fruitfly (Bactrocera sp.), citrus trunk borer (Anoplophora versteegi Ritsema), bark eating caterpillar, lndarbela spp.

15.1 Introduction

In recent years, the role of plant secondary metabolites as protective constituents in the human diet has been a growing area of research. Unlike the traditional vitamins, they are not essential for short-term wellbeing, but there is increasing evidence that modest long-term intakes can have favourable impacts on the human health. Teas, coffee and cocoa represent plantation cash crops grown in many of the warmer, less developed regions of the world. They serve as stimulant beverages and their demand is ever increasing day by daily. However, production of these beverages is under the severe threat due to attack from various pests and diseases which cause considerable damage.