eChapters

Agricultural extension is a term that has long been used to describe a non-formal educational system aimed at improving the livelihood of farmers. Extension education aims at three main types of behavioural changes in relation to knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt) and skills (how to implement the things). This can be achieved through persuasion and motivation for the changes. The core activities in extension are education and training. Extension is now being regarded as a much wider task of integrating indigenous and new skills and techniques, derived from study or research, into an overall framework of discussion and cooperation between the people and the extension organisation. The extension worker is primarily engaged in the ‘selling’ of ideas to bring about changes in the knowledge, attitudes and skills of the individual. Functions of extension in a broader sense include

ABSTRACT

The global market for baked products has reached up to $495 billion in the year 2019. It is estimated that its value will reach up to $580 billion by the end of 2025 with a growth rate of 2.7 % between 2020 to 2025. Ovens are operated with the help of LPG/diesel/electricity. The hybrid ovens can give higher energy efficiency along with targeted quality parameters. The previous data such as oven temperature, heat supplied per unit time, the moisture content and variety of the raw material used can be provided to a specific computer programme. The heat recovering unit is a unit which captures the escaping hot air and the same may be reused by pumping the hot air to the front of the oven to preheat the incoming cold air. The biogas can be generated from the bakery waste. There will be 45 % or more methane production from bread and biscuit waste in the retention time of about 12 to 55 days in a biogas plant. To make the bakery fully operated on green technology, solar renewable energy can also be utilized.

ABSTRACT

The ancient fruit “Jackfruit” is one of the most remunerative and important underutilized native fruits of India. It is extremely versatile sweet tasting fruit and vegetable rich in nutritional value. Modern technologies are evolved for the development of value-added products from jackfruit is studied in the present study. To prevent from post-harvest losses the wine production from jackfruit juice which is a very good substrate for fermentationcan be done at larger scale. Popularity of jackfruit from the limited regions can be explored over the country. There is a good scope and possibility of marketing the value added products in the country. Value addition is carried out by minimal processing by changing its form to a valuable product having more shelf life. The developed products enhance good income opportunities for farmers and also entrepreneurship opportunities for small and medium enterprises for the popularization of jackfruit to a wider region.

Keyword: Jack Fruit, Value Addition, entrepreneurial opportunities.

Introduction

Natural resources, especially those of soil, water, plant and animal diversity, vegetation cover, renewable energy resources, climate, and ecosystem services are fundamental for the structure and function of agricultural systems and for social and environmental sustainability, in support of life on earth. Historically the path of global agricultural development has been narrowly focused on increased productivity rather than on a more holistic integration of natural resource management with food and nutritional security. A holistic, or system-oriented approach, is preferable because it can address the issues associated with the complexity of food and other production systems in different ecologies, locations and cultures. Modern agriculture largely depends on the use of fossil fuel-based inputs, such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and energy intensive farm machinery. While the applications of such high input technologies have undoubtedly increased production and labour efficiency. There is a growing concern over their adverse effect on soil productivity and environmental quality which is emerging to recognize that the farmer has a great social responsibility as a land owner than merely agribusiness considerations. Therefore, there is need to develop agricultural techniques that are ecologically sound, economically viable, and socially responsible. Sustainable agriculture in the context of development helps to achieve production efficiency, protect ecosystem functions, enhance resilience to climate change, ensure healthy communities, satisfies basic needs and ensures optimum use/conservation of natural resources. Organic/biodynamic farming is among the various types of sustainable agriculture. Traditionally these methods has been playing very vital role in the conservation of natural resources in terms of soil health sustenance, environmental protection, food safety, waste recycling, biodiversity conservation with an economically viable approach. The chapter discusses the role of organic/biodynamic agriculture in natural resource conservation.

Introduction

Attaining food and nutritional security for a growing population and reducing poverty while sustaining agricultural production under the current scenario of depleting natural resources, increasing cost of inputs and impending negative impacts of climatic change are the major challenges the country is currently facing (FAO, 2009). In addition to these challenges, decline in soil organic matter, consequent deterioration of soil health, large scale erosion of fertile top-soil are the other bottle-necks for increasing agricultural productivity from a finite land resource base. These constraints are evolving mainly due to: (1) intensive tillage induced soil organic matter decline, soil structural degradation, water and wind erosion, reduced water infiltration, surface sealing and crusting, soil compaction, (2) insufficient return of organic material to soil owing to prevalent crop residue removal and burning (Prasad et al., 1999) and (3) mono-cropping. Conservation agricultural (CA) is a panacea to address these challenges the farming community of this country is presently facing. The CA system incorporates a holistic approach to agriculture that results in improved soil health and water quality, lower water and nutrient consumption, reduced soil loss, strategic land use and healthy biodiversity. It involves minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover through crop residues or cover crops, and crop rotations for achieving higher productivity (Hobbs et al., 2008).

Introduction

Increase in population in our country with decrease in cultivable land is putting the challenges to the scientists and policy planners for increased food supply. There is very little scope for horizontal increase in cultivable land. Hence, the way to meet the need for providing food to ever increasing population is to increase the production of food per unit area of cultivable land.

Farmers, generally apply fertilizer to soil on blanket recommendation. Sometimes, the addition of nutrients is inconsistent. Sometimes, the application of fertilizer is much higher than the recommended dose. Imbalanced application of fertilizer to soil results in low nutrient use efficiency and low crop yield. There is need of site specific nutrient management for increased crop yield and for achieving higher nutrient use efficiency. Proper care should be taken for selection of fertilizer, method of application of fertilizer, rate of fertilizer application and also time of nutrient supply to the soil. Excess application of fertilizer has an adverse effect on soil health.

Traditional tillage may affect physico-chemical as well as biological properties of soil. Change in tillage practice from conventional tillage to conservation agriculture method may have an impact on soil properties and nutrient dynamics. Conservation agriculture affects soil health, proper fertilizer application, both rate and time, along with efficient use of soil moisture improves nutrient use efficiency. For obtaining a good crop yield nutrient should be available for plants in adequate quantity and in right proportion. Nutrients removed by the crop should be replenished by application of inorganic fertilizers alongwith incorporation of organic manures. Soil test is an important tool for determining the quantity of nutrients available in the soil. Based on soil test values and nutrient requirement of the crop rate of fertilizer to be applied in the soil for the plant is determined. Ample quantity of farm yard manure is not available nowadays. Hence, other organic manure such as town waste, green manure etc should be used.

Introduction

Conservation tillage is a model of sustainable agriculture as it leads to profitable food production while protecting and even restoring natural resources. Conservation agriculture benefits farmers because it reduces production costs and increases yields, but it also has positive impacts on the whole society: enhancement of food security thanks to a better soil fertility, improvement of water quality, reduction of erosion and mitigation of climate change by increasing carbon sequestration. Conservation agriculture (CA) systems are also less sensitive to extreme climatic events and therefore contribute to the adaption of climate change and the resilience of agricultural systems. Hence, CA becomes a fundamental element of sustainable production intensification, combining high production with the provision of environmental security.

CA is based on healthy functioning of the whole agro-ecosystem with a maximum attention and focus on the soil. The soil is the entry point and it has to be considered not only as simple physical support to roots and plants, but as a living entity with its physical, chemical and biological characteristics. The focus of CA embraces not only the nutrient contents of the soil but also its biological and structural status, which are determinants of sustained productivity.

The paradigm of CA is that an undisturbed soil has the opportunity to develop and produce healthier plants. Soil life can develop in a stable habitat in quantity and quality better than on tilled soils, the structural integrity of soil is maintained, so continuous vertical macro-pores are not destroyed and remain as drainage channels for rainwater into the soils. Seeding under conditions of minimum soil disturbance is achieved by direct seeding through the mulch cover without tillage.

Fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, plantation crops and spices, medicinal and aromatic plants, tubers, are the major horticultural crops contributing to the economic growth in India. Even though the horticultural sector is growing fast, with India being the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, the productivity and quality have to be improved in order to meet the demand of increasing population. Under these circumstances, ecofriendly techniques needs to be adopted which could ensure food security and sustainable production. Indiscriminate application of agrochemicals and chemical fertilizers in horticultural crops and their residues could harm the human health, soil and environment. Horticultural crops need an ecofriendly technique, as most of the horticultural products are directly consumed. Hence, there should not be any residues of agrochemicals in food products. In the current context, use of ecofriendly, cost effective and organic-based inputs like biofertilizers can maintain health of the soil and good quality in horticultural crops. The application of biofertilizers offers an attractive and sustainable means of improving the quality of food products. Biofertilizers like Azotobacter, Azospirillum and AMF and PGPRs not only supplies the required nutrients to plants, but improves the fruit quality and quantity (Pathak et al., 2017).

Introduction

Plasticity is a unique attribute by which the otherwise sessile plant species are capable of adjusting to environmental vagaries by changing their phenotypic and morphological characters. Any plant population will be able to survive only if it can respond to an extremely variable environment by becoming more plastic and more genetically variable. To achieve this, plants should be able to suitably change their morphology anatomy and physiology or any one of these parameters based on environmental changes so as to improve their adaptability and survival in the altered environment. When such changes are genetically heritable, then they lead to species evolution.

Plasticity helps plants to adapt to new environmental conditions, after migration to new geographical areas, by genetic assimilation of traits that can help to improve their performance under a new set of conditions. Understanding plasticity is important for predicting and managing the effect of climate change on native species as well as crop plants. Response of plants to modified environmental conditions is critical for their persistence.

Phenotypic plasticity has been defined as the ability of an individual genotype to produce different phenotypes when exposed to different environmental conditions (Pigliucci et al., 2006). This includes the ability of a plant to modify its development in response to environmental cues and also its ability to bring about changes in its metabolism which increases the chances of survival of an organism under a specific condition.

In 1965, Urist demonstrates that the implantation of demineralized bone at extra skeletal sites induced de novo formation of cartilage and bone and proposed that the decalcified bone matrix possess high osteoinductive property and the inductor is a unique chemical that differentiates mesenchymal type cells (pericytes) into new bone. Urist and Starates (1971) reported that the inductor is a protein and termed it bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) . BMP is the bone induction principle.

Sources: Bone morphogenetic protein isolate from bovine as well as human bone and designated as bBMP and hBMP respectively. The molecular cloning of the bone morphogenetic proteins and their subsequent expression in recombinant system, resulted recombinant bone morphogenetic protein designated as rhBMP. BMP has been extracted from dentin and bone matrix, as well as from bone tumours, by enzymatic and nonenzymatic methods. The sources of BMP, thus far explored are rabbit dentin, rat, rabbit and bovine bone, human bone, mouse or human osteosarcoma and human placenta.

BMP circulates in the blood and it can be detected by BMP-radioimmunoassay. BMP levels higher in growing children (20-72 ng/ml) and patients with Paget’s disease (over 259 ng//ml) than in normal adults (14-18ng/ml). Crude and partially purified BMP has been extracted with the aid of collagenase, ethylene glycol, calcium chloride urea and Guanidine hydrochloride (GuHCL) solution. Wang et al (1988) purified BMP factor that induces bone formation> 300,000 fold from Guanidine chloride extracts of demineralized bone. As littlie as 50ng of this factor can induce the formation of cartilage and bone in an in vivo assay, though only 40µg could be obtained from 400kg of bovine bone powder.

INTRODUCTION

In biology, fertility is de?ned as capacity to produce off-springs; however, in Soil Science a ?ne difference is made between a fertile and a productive soil. Soil Productivity is the ability of a soil to produce a crop using the entire spectrum of its physical, chemical and biological attributes, while Soil Fertility refers to the capacity of a soil to supply all essential plant nutrients in the desired amounts. Thus, soil fertility management is basically the nutrient management. To put it in simple words, a productive soil is always fertile, while a fertile soil may not be productive for a variety of factors, such as lack of adequate moisture in drier regions or lack of adequate air due to water-logging for most upland crops. Of late, a term ‘ Soil Health’ has been introduced. Soil Health is an assemblage of chemical, physical and biological parameters that closely relate to native or acquired production capacity and sustenance of ecologically important regulatory role (Katyal et al., 2016). It is measured against prede?ned parameters of soil’s status of fertility, compact ability, erodibility and biology. This again tends to relate soil fertility to nutrient content, availability and management.

All life on planet Earth is carbon centered; hereditary characters are controlled by DNA and RNA, growth by proteins and activities by energy from carbohydrates and fats – all these are carbon compounds. Not only this, but the life also ends as carbon compounds CO₂ or CH₄, depending on aerobic or anaerobic decomposition. Incidentally soil fertility also depends very much on soil organic carbon (SOC). In ancient days, farmers used to apply manure to maintain soil fertility and even now, urea, the nitrogen fertilizer used in the largest amounts, is a carbon compound. All living forms on the Earth including all plant and animal species and their activities are a part of global carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.

Introduction

Nitrogen constitutes 78% of the atmospheric gases and there is about 75,000 Mg N on each hectare of land. However, 99% of the atmospheric N is as N₂ and is inert and non-reactive, while the rest 1% or even less is the reactive-N. Reactive-N is linked with H, O and C and is responsible for the creation and sustenance of all life on the planet Earth. Nitrogen is the key nutrient that separates proteins from carbohydrates and fats, the three major macronutrients for humans. As a component of proteins, N is present in DNA and RNA, which carry the hereditary characters and then as the major constitute of the body muscles of humans (and animals). Plant growth and crop production are also very much dependent on the adequate availability of N in soil.

Fertilizer N has been the key input in increasing cereal production throughout the world. In India, it made possible to achieve the yield potential of high-yielding dwarf varieties of wheat that led to ‘Green Revolution in 1968’. Nitrogen fertilization also increases protein content in wheat grains (Rajeswara Rao and Prasad, 1987) and leads to increased production of proteins in cereals (Prasad and Shivay, 2015). Cereal production in India increased from 42.4 million tonnes (Mt) in 1950–51 to 259.6 Mt in 2017–18, while fertilizer N application increased from 0.05 Mt to 16.96 Mt. However, the average agronomic ef?ciency of N (AEn) in India for cereals is only 9.5 kg grain kg–1 N (Sharma and Batra, 2011) as compared to global average of 24 kg grain kg–1 N for maize, 22 kg grain kg–1 N for rice and 18 kg grain kg–1 N for wheat (Ladha et al., 2005). Besides this, more disturbing is the fact that in irrigated areas the AEn declined from 13.4 to 3.4 kg grain kg–1 N during 1970–2005 (Biswas and Sharma, 2006). This is due to poor N management. Bulk of fertilizer N is applied broadcast on surface in most crops.

Out of the three primary plant nutrients (NPK), potassium (K) is taken up by crop plants in the largest amount, yet as compared to N and P, only a tiny fraction of it goes in the grain or seed. For example, Shivay et al. (2015) reported from a study on rice that about 20 kg N, 6 kg P (13.7 kg P2O5) and 46 kg K (55.2 kg K2O) was taken up by the crop to produce each Mg or tonne (1,000 kg) of rice kernel; however, only 4.3% of K taken up by the crop was found in the rice kernel as compared to 44% of N and 66% of P taken up by the crop. Some information on N, P and K removed per tonne of grain/ seed for some crops is given in Table 9.1.

Before the discovery of chemical fertilizer in early 20^th century, organic manures and growing of legumes were the ways of replenishing soil fertility. The only other way was leaving land fallow for a few years before its re-cultivation, a practice followed in shifting cultivation (jhuming) (Garbyal, 1999). This was also true for India, where although the ?rst single superphosphate plant was set up in 1906 in Ranipet (Tamil Nadu), the real use of fertilizer started with the manufacture of urea, the ?rst plant for which was set up in 1959 at Sindri (Bihar) (Tandon, 2014). Organic manures could meet crop-nutrient needs in early days because the average grain yield of most cereals was about 1.5–2.0 t ha^–1, while the average yield of pulses was 0.5–0.75 t ha^–1. However, the crop production scenario changed rapidly after the introduction of dwarf, high-yielding varieties of wheat from Mexico, which led to the “Green Revolution” (Swaminathan, 2013). This was followed by the development of semi-dwarf, high-yielding varieties of rice and hybrids of maize, sorghum and pearl millet. These varieties/ hybrids of cereals needed 100–150 kg N ha^–1 in one growing season, and this could be met only by urea or other N fertilizers; organic manures had no chance and their use became almost nil over a period of next 25 years or so. Well-off young farmers cannot even think of making manure heaps or compost pits, the job is too hard and not a clean one. However, what is ignored is the fact, that organic manures not only supply plant nutrients but also build up soil organic matter, which improves soil physical properties, helps in storing moisture and is the elixir of life for the soil biota (Lal, 2014). A large numbers of reports are available on the effect of adding organic manures and crop residues on improving soil physical (Hati et al., 2007; Brar et al., 2015) and chemical and biological properties of soil (Prasad et al., 1999; Prasad and Mishra, 2001;Sharma et al., 2009; Prasad et al. 2014). Thanks for the organic farming (Prasad, 2005), the interest in organic manures and composts has increased in India and it is now a sought after material. However, it has not entered the main stream of crop production.

Fertilizer recommendations are generally made on the basis of soil test. Recommendations of fertilizer for top-dressing are best made on tissue testing.

SOIL TEST

A number of approaches have been adopted to increase the precision of soil-test values in making fertilizer recommendations. Four most important ones are discussed.

Low-Medium-High Approach

Making fertilizer recommendations based on soil test for a nutrient involves conducting a large number of ?eld experiments on soils similar to those which are intended for making recommendations. For an individual nutrient (say P for example) experiments are conducted with graded doses of P on a crop for which the fertilizer recommendations are to be made. Thus, agronomic experiments are to be conducted for each crop on each kind of soil. The response curve can then be divided into three sections: a, low soil-test value and high response to fertilizer zone; b, medium soil-test value and medium response to fertilizer zone; and c, high soil-test values and no response to fertilizer zone. In India, this was done

Taxonomy (biological systematics) is the branch of science which deals with classification of units or individuals on the basis of similarities and differences. The classification, nomenclature, and identification are three interrelated components of bacterial taxonomy (Cowan, 1965).

Classification: Classification is the arrangement of bacteria into groups (taxa) based on the similarities of certain characteristics. Presently 11,000 bacterial species is classified. At the current rate of 600 bacterial species / year it is estimated to take 1000 years to classify all the bacteria!

Nomenclature: It is the assignment of specific names to the taxonomic groups following the regulations mentioned in ‘International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria’ (Euzeby, 1997). International committee on systematic bacteriology (International committee on systematics of prokaryotes, ICSP) standardizes the code. The committee is helped by a number of taxonomic subcommittees on different groups of bacteria. The Code can be amended by the Judicial Commission. The Code contains general considerations, principles, rules and recommendations on the naming of prokaryotes (bacteria) up to the rank of ‘Class’.

Microscope is the primary instrument of a microbiology laboratory and it produces enlarged images of small objects which are invisible by naked eye. With a microscope the operator can get a close view of minute structures which helps in examination and analysis. Examination of minute objects with a microscope is called ‘microscopy’. In microbiology, measurement of the microbial dimension observed under microscope is known as ‘micrometry’.

Types of microscopes

There are two types of microscopes i.e. light / optical and electron microscope depending on the sources of energy to create the image. The optical microscopes use the lenses and light (artificial or sunlight) to make an image. Following types of optical microscopes are available.

Normal bacterial flora is the bacteria which live on another living being (human or animals) or inanimate object without causing infection

Opportunistic bacteria are part of normal bacterial flora which can produce infection during lowered immunity (immunosuppression) of host or when transferred into other parts of the body

Saprophytic bacteria live on dead or decaying organic matter Infection

Infection can be defined as a pathological condition occurred due to multiplication of microbes.

Intoxication can be defined as pathological condition due to ingestion of microbial toxin (e.g. aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus fungus).

Mycetism is the pathological condition due to ingestion of fungus (e.g. toxic mushroom) which produces toxicity within the body of the host

Guillame de Baillou (1673), a physician, described an outbreak of recurrent severe cough that could induce vomition and suffocation in human in Paris. The infection was described as ‘Quintan^tussis which was later confirmed as ‘whooping cough’. The causative agent Bordetella pertussis was discovered by Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou in 1906 in Paris. The Gram-negative bacilli were isolated from sputum of Jules Bordet’s son. Bordetella bronchiseptica was first isolated by Ferry (1911) and M’Gowan (1911) who considered the bacteria as the cause of distemper in dogs. Later B. bronchiseptica was known as primary cause of ‘kennel cough’ infection along with the Canine Adenovirus and Canine Parainfluenza virus. Moreno- Lopez named the bacteria B. bronchiseptica.

The genus Moraxella was named after Morax who first isolated the bacteria from human conjunctivitis in 1896.

Fruits and Vegetables are highly perishable in nature due to which huge spoilage (damage) takes place during the period between harvesting and consumption. Fruits and Vegetables after harvesting are often poorly handled and in many cases neither cleaned nor washed. Improper handling may cause physical damage due to tissue breakdown which results mechanical damages and physiological changes in harvested fruits and vegetables. Mechanical losses include bruising, cracking, cuts, microbial spoilage by fungi and bacteria and physiological losses include changes in respiration, transpiration, pigments, organic acids and flavour.

Packaging

Packaging is a mean or system by which a fresh or processed product will reach from the production center to consumer in safe and sound condition at an affordable price.

Objectives of packaging and packaging materials

The primary objective or packaging is to protect the contents during storage, transportation and distribution against deterioration. It may be physical, chemical or biological. However, followings are objectives of packaging and packaging materials.

Definition of Virus

According to Luria and Darnell (1968), Viruses are entities whose genome is a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, which reproduce inside living cells and use their synthetic machinery to direct the synthesis of specialized particles- the virions, which contain the viral genome and transfer it to other cells.

Nature of Virus

The physical and chemical nature of viruses eluded scientists until the 1930s. Stanley (1935) announced crystallization of Tobacco mosaic viruses, a feat for which he got a Nobel Prize. Stanley thought the crystals to be pure proteins. It was the pioneer work of F.C. Bawden and N.W. Pirie of England which showed that the viruses consists of proetein and nucleic acid. The chemical nature of viruses was settled. It consisted of nucleic acid and protein. The viruses chemically were proved to be nucleic acid. The mature particle of a plant virus is generally called virion and the whole infective particle is called as Nuclcocapsid.

Introduction

Resistance to disease in a host plants is a condition in which the plant conquer the pathogen’s attack and thus suffers small or no injury. Resistant hosts prevent or slow the development and reproduction of the majority of pathogen propagules that they come into contact with. Different plants defend themselves in different ways. Each kind of plant, probably, employs different defense mechanism against each of the pathogens that attack it. The defense barriers erected by plants are a co-ordinated system of molecular, cellular and tissue-based responses to pathogen attack.

Introduction

Cultural management is defined as manipulation /or adjustment of crop production techniques for management of plant diseases. Cultural practices have been as old as possibly agriculture itself. In early stage of agriculture development, the growers through their experiences and observations had known that repeated cultivation of a particular crop species or variety on a piece of land often resulted in crop sickness. As a matter of fact, in the present day agriculture, cultural practices are being considered as essential backup methods for management of plant diseases. Adequate adjustment in crop production techniques can modify the environment in such a manner that it becomes unfavorable for the pathogen and pathogenesis. Based on this the disease control affected by cultural practices are preventive, these practices aim at reducing the activity and density of inoculum. It offer the opportunity to alter the environment, the condition of the host, behavior of the causal agent to achieve economic management of disease.

Introduction

Cultural management is defined as manipulation /or adjustment of crop production techniques for management of plant diseases. Cultural practices have been as old as possibly agriculture itself. In early stage of agriculture development, the growers through their experiences and observations had known that repeated cultivation of a particular crop species or variety on a piece of land often resulted in crop sickness. As a matter of fact, in the present day agriculture, cultural practices are being considered as essential backup methods for management of plant diseases. Adequate adjustment in crop production techniques can modify the environment in such a manner that it becomes unfavorable for the pathogen and pathogenesis. Based on this the disease control affected by cultural practices are preventive, these practices aim at reducing the activity and density of inoculum. It offer the opportunity to alter the environment, the condition of the host, behavior of the causal agent to achieve economic management of disease.

Classification of Vegetable Crops

Vegetables are defined as herbaceous plant origin product with no calorific value and providing micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidants, fibre and alkaline reaction inside human body. Vegetable crops are not only botanically different but also their cultural and climatic adaptation also shows wide variability. It is, therefore, necessary to classify the vegetable crops for their easy recognition. Vegetable crops can conveniently be classified “Botanically” for the purpose of vegetable breeding and according to “Method of culture” from the point of crop husbandry.

Botanical Classification

Botanical classification involves grouping of plants into kingdom, division, sub-division, phylum, sub-phylum, class, sub-class, order, family, genera, species, sub-species and variety. The broadest group in which vegetables are discussed is family. The genus and species constitute the scientific name. Scientific names are accepted worldwide and there cannot be any confusion as per their nomenclature. All vegetable crops belong to the division Angiospermae. The division Angiospermae has two classes: Monocotyledoneae and Dicotyledoneae.

The crops used for vegetable purpose in the world belong to 1200 species under 78 families and of them, more than 860 species under 59 families belong to dicotyledoneae and about 340 species under 19 families belong to monocotyledoneae. In the tropical and subtropical parts of the world, about 90 species of vegetable crops are cultivated, but hardly 25 of them are commercially important in terms of market demand, development of variety/hybrid and seed production. In the present botanical classification, over 140 different kinds of vegetable crops under 7 monocotyledoneae and 20 dicotyledoneae families have been included.

The term ‘Phyto-hormone’ was coined by Thimann in 1948. Phyto-hormones are organic compounds, which are produced naturally in plants, synthesised in one part and usually translocated to the other part where in every small quantity affect the growth and other physiological function of the plants. Auxin was the first hormone to be discovered in plants. At one time, auxin was considered to be the only naturally occurring plant growth hormone however, four other classes of phyto-hormone viz., gibberellins, cytokinin, ethylene and abscisic acid was later discovered. Plant growth regulators include both five specified classes of phyto-hormones (auxin, gibberellins, cytokinin, ethylene and abscisic acid) and other synthetic organic compounds (for example, polyethylene glycol, dinoseb-2-sec butyl 4,6dinitrophenol, proteins and/or amino acids, carboxylic, phenolic acid, humic acids, etc.) having properties of bio-stimulants or bio-inhibitors. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) modify plant physiological processes either by stimulating or inhibiting specific enzymes or enzyme systems to help regulate plant metabolism and thereby enhance yield and product quality. They normally are active at very low concentrations in plants.

Importance of PGRs was first recognized in the 1930s. Since then, wide array of natural and synthetic compounds that alter function, shape and size of crop plants have been discovered. Of the many uses of PGRs, effects on yield are often indirect. A wide range of beneficial effects of PGRs on crop growth and yields are: 1. promotion of germination and/or emergence, 2. stimulation of root growth, 3. promotion, mobilization and translocation of nutrients within plants, 4. modification of flowering, 5. increase in stress tolerance and improvement of water relations in plants, 6. promotion of early maturity, 7. increase in disease resistance, 8. retardation of senescence and 9. improvement of crop yields and/or quality.

Methods of crop disease management are based on the principles of exclusion, eradication and immunization. Various methods of excluding the pathogens primarily through establishing plant quarantines and production of disease-free seeds and asexually propagated planting materials have been discussed earlier (Chapter 8). The pathogens that have been introduced and those that have established in a geographical location have to be eradicated by employing different methods for removal of infected plants, plant debris and alternate and alternative host plants for reducing pathogen inoculum and consequent reduction in disease incidence. Other methods may be broadly divided into two classes as chemical and nonchemical methods. The chemical methods involve the use of chemicals that may act indirectly by creating conditions unfavourable for the development of the disease (Chapter 9) or chemicals that have direct inhibitory activity on the pathogens (Chapter 11). Pathogen populations may be kept under check by adopting cultural practices either alone or in combination with chemical and nonchemical methods (Chapter 10). Biological agents have been employed for reducing pathogen inoculum or for inducing resistance in host plants resulting in different degrees of reduction in disease incidence. The methods involving the use of biological agents as a strategy of crop disease management are discussed in this chapter.

Biological control methods aim to reduce the pathogen inoculum or disease producing activity of a pathogen by employing live microorganisms or using products of biological origin. Use of antagonistic microorganisms, avirulent strains of pathogens, cross-protection induced by mild strains of pathogens in susceptible host plants and induction of resistance in the susceptible crop cultivars are some of the approaches made to reduce the adverse effects of infection by microbial pathogens.

Among the microbial pathogens, viral and phytoplasmal pathogens primarily depend on various vector species for their spread from infected plants to healthy plants in the same or distant locations. Hence, management of these diseases depends on the reduction of vector populations, in addition to the disease management strategies applicable to diseases caused by fungal and bacterial pathogens that are not transmitted by vectors.

19.1 Diseases caused by Viruses

Plant viruses are transmitted through seeds, propagative plant materials and vectors such as mites, insects, nematodes and fungi. Hence, the strategies to manage these diseases vary depending on the nature of vectors involved in the transmission of viruses.

INTRODUCTION

The goal of the libraries is to provide an effective combination of print, non-print and electronic resources, and the integration of the use of these resources in support of teaching, learning and research at the university. Electronic resources, however, pose challenges not encountered with the acquisitions of traditional library materials, such as access, interface, technical support and licensing. The libraries therefore need to formulate separate Electronic Resources Collection Development policy to address these issues. The purpose of this policy is to provide guidelines in choosing appropriate electronic resources and to establish consistency and priorities in managing this important part of the libraries’ collection.

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

“Electronic resources” refer to those materials that require computer access, whether through microcomputer, mainframe, or other types of computers, and that may either be locally mounted or accessed remotely via the Internet. These resources cover both free Internet resources and electronic resources purchased or licensed by the libraries from a commercial source, a non-profit organization, a professional organization or any external institution.

INTRODUCTION

The emergence of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has made the libraries more powerful in the collection development, processing and retrieval of information. The advent of internet has not only made it possible to connect the libraries over the world, but also to search a huge repository of databases. The technology has developed to online system to connect commercialize vendors as well as learned societies with the databases to seek and obtain the needed information. The use of computer and digital technologies in teaching and learning has been evolved not just through the increase of distance learning or virtual courses but through the use of cyber education as an adjunct to the traditional classroom. This increased the trend of access to technology in Library and Information Centers and has given the opportunity to use those resources and improve the skill. In order to acquaint themselves with the new technological environment, the users are required to be more conversant with those skills.

Libraries & Information Centers play an important role in supporting the teaching, learning, research and extension programme of universities. These are made possible by building and developing good collection of selected documents both in print as well as digital form and by supporting it with various services for their dissemination. There is such an exponential growth of information in today’s era that students, faculties, research scholars often lack the scope of getting proper education or instruction to use those resources to the optimum possible limit. To overcome this difficulty and to maximize the use of such resources proper library instruction must be imparted to the user community which is otherwise known as Library User Education.

INTRODUCTION

Information has now become one of the basic needs of human being in addition to air, water, food and shelter. There is no human activity in the world without information. It is a basic raw material for right decision making from the governmental level to the personal level. It is an indispensable tool for teachers and research scholars.

Now-a-days, ICT advancements and developments have changed the libraries from mere store house of printed materials into gateways to knowledge of the world of information. The collection of modern library is not restricted to print media only but libraries are adding e-resources to their existing collections. Users need not come to library to meet their information needs. They may use online catalogue, web based database, online e-journals etc remote from library. In view of the above, information need and seeking pattern of users particularly research scholars are likely to change. Based on this, an attempt has been made to study on use pattern of electronic resources by Physics and Chemistry research scholars.

INTRODUCTION

‘Library is to Education’ as ‘Soul is to Body’. Library has always been central to education and self-improvement. Library is like an ocean of knowledge. One can find information in a library in almost all areas, be it history, politics, economics, geography, science, fiction, computers, or technology a library has it all. A library is like the whole world encompassed in one room. It is very essential to the education and school system. Libraries are an integral part of the education system and one is incomplete without the other. Francis Bacon quoted that Libraries are the shrines where all the relics of the ancient saints, full of true virtue without delusion or imposture, are preserved and reposed.

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA

India consists of 28 states, 6 union territories and a national capital territory having a rich and diverse culture spanning many years. The Constitution of India distributed the powers between the Union and the States in three lists such as Union list, State list and Concurrent list. Education is in the Concurrent List. Under the State list, state governments are exclusively responsible for education in their respective states. Union government is responsible for maintaining national and integrative character of education under the Union list. But both state and central government share responsibility for education in case of partnership under the Concurrent list.

Citizens’ Perceptions And City Revival : An Approach To Regeneration

Regeneration Strategies To Be Case Specific And Based On Citizens Perception

It is important to realise the driving force of the inherent potential of a city. In case of Allahabad, the Master Plan guidance was framed since 1950 but it is surprising that the role of the city as a cultural and educational node has not been sufficiently recognized and reflected in the Plan document. We still witness the development of the city like any other city of the state where special areas or historic precincts are surrounded by non-descript structures. It was essential to reach out to the citizens of Allahabad and to know their views on the growth and decline. The perception of citizens would give an idea about their belief regarding the degree of amendments needed in regenerating the city.

1. INTRODUCTION

To over come the problem of glut of perishables and to regulate the market, storage of such commodities is a 'common' practice. Storage of fruits and vegetables also makes available these commodities in the off-season. Needless to say, storage is a powerful tool in the prevention of postharvest losses and to give remunerative prices to the farmers. The management of temperature and relative humidity are the most important factors determining storage life of horticultural produce. The natural means like ice, cold water, night temperature have been used for long time for protecting food materials from spoilage and these are still common. However, with the development of innovative technologies, it is possible to achieve optimal environments in the insulated stores. All these aspects are discribed in this chapter.

1. INTRODUCTION

Preservation of foods by drying is perhaps the oldest method known to mankind. Drying is a thermo-physical action and its principles are governed by heat and mass transfer laws inside and outside the product. The weight of the product is reduced to the extent of 1/4^th to 1/9^th of its original fresh weight. Drying of foods and biological products is a widely applied process for different purposes such as increasing the shelf-life, reducing packaging costs, lowering shipping wastes, encapsulating flavours, making food available during off-season, adding value by changing the phase structure of the native material and maintaining nutritional value. Drying or dehydration of fruits and vegetables can be accomplished with low capital while maintaining high quality and obtaining less perishable food products.

1. INTRODUCTION

India is blessed with all types of vegetation because of the diversified climatic and physiographic factors like tropical, subtropical, temperate and alpine. Due to its wide ranging environmental regimes and diverse biological communities, it is one of the world’s 12 “Mega diversity” nations. Out of nearly 425 families of flowering plants in the world, 328 families with 21,000 species are found in India. Further, in India about 20.64 % area is under forest where various species of trees are found, depending upon the climatic conditions.

There are about 29 species of pine which produce edible nuts and utilized at least by indigenous tribal culture in the world. Most of these nut bearing pines are haploxilon (soft) pines, although several species are of diploxilon (hard) pine group. Spain is the largest producer of Pinus pinea and China is the largest producer and exporter of Pinus koriences and Pinus sibrica nuts. Some of the famous edible pine nut species are listed in Table 1. Chilgoza (P. gerardiana Wall.), commonly known as ‘chilgoza’ or ‘Neoza’ is a member of genus Pinus that maintains a very unique position of being an integral part of the vibrant, but fragile ecosystems of the great Himalayas in the Indian sub-continent. The chilgoza pine is the only pine which is of immense social forestry importance. The earning for the bread and butter of most of tribals in HP is from the chilgoza nuts. Further, it also forms an important part of their diet as well as an item essential for some social obligations. Tribals are still adopting the age old practices for chilgoza nut extraction and further their selling to the agents at throw away prices during peak season of nuts.

5.1 Elements of Landscape Gardens

5.1.1 Introduction

Elements of a garden are the basic units of any visual design which form its structure and convey visual messages. Elements are based on the art principles of landscaping. Process of landscape design includes concepts and elements of landscape designing. Generally, elements of a garden are divided into 2 types

Molecular diagnostics has witnessed groundbreaking technological advances in recent times, starting from automated sample preparation to real time amplification technology. Possibility to develop and run assays for ever increasing number of clinical queries has become effortless due to the technological advances. However, the state of the art in quality assurance and quality control practices for molecular diagnostics has seldom been up to the expectations if one considers accuracy for once in a lifetime genetic tests or new genetic test targets appearing almost every single day. In the face of such issues, clinical laboratories are struggling to develop appropriate quality assurance programs for the molecular diagnostic tests they conduct. In addition, legislation and government policies threaten to increase oversight of genetic tests to a level not seen before in laboratory medicine, for example, FDA’s guidance on in vitro diagnostic multivariate index assays (IVDMIA).

To relate patient results to previous test results or to absolute values in clinical practice guidelines, those results need to be comparable across time and methods. This may either be achieved by designing the identical value across methods and test versions or by using reliable and stable conversions. Therefore, the establishment of international standards and reference materials is of paramount importance. Monitoring molecular test system outputs and statistical analysis might provide a good way to obtain such standards; however, such traditional QC (Quality Control) strategies can be slow to take root in molecular diagnostics.This chapter highlights general and specific issues relevant for quality assurance and quality control in the routine molecular diagnostics laboratory and guidelines for designing quality manuals for a molecular diagnostic laboratory.

16.1 Introduction

Littoral drift is a geological process by which sediments such as sand or other materials, move along a beach shore.Long Shore Drift is the movement of eroded material, in a zig zag way, along the coast. The process arises when waves approach the shore obliquely. That is to say, at an angle other than 90°. The effect of this is determined by factors such as the direction and fetch of the present wind and, in the long term, of the prevailing wind.

Waves striking the shore at an angle as opposed to straight on will cause the wave swash to move up the beach at an angle. The swash moves the sediment particles up the beach at this angle, while the backwash brings them, solely under the influence of gravity, directly down the beach. Some geologists consider a beach to be merely a shoreline feature of deposited material, but William Bascom (1980) has argued that a beach is the entire system of sand set in motion by waves to a depth of ten meters or more off ocean coasts. Submerged, longshore bars are therefore also part of the beach, and thus beaches can be viewed as either:

9.1 Introduction

The sum total of genes in a plant species is called as plant genetic resources (also called germplasm, gene pool, or genetic stock). In other words, plant genetic resources refer to a whole library of different alleles of a plant (crop) species. Germplasm is the lifeblood of plant breeding without which breeding is impossible to conduct. It is the genetic material that can be used to perpetuate a species or population. It not only has reproductive value, but through genetic manipulation (plant breeding), germplasm can be improved for better performance of the crop. Germplasm provides the materials (parents) used to initiate breeding programme. Sometimes, what a plant breeder does is to evaluate plant genetic resources and make a selection out of existing biological variation. Promising genotypes that are adapted to the production region are then released for cultivation by the farmers. Other times, a plant breeder generates new variability by using different methods such as hybridization, mutagenesis and more recently gene transfer. This base population is then subjected to appropriate selection methods, leading to the identification and further evaluation of promising genotypes for release as cultivars. When a plant breeder needs to improve crop plants, he has to find a source of germplasm that would supply the genes needed to undertake the plant breeding programme. To facilitate the use of genetic resources (germplasm), germplasm (gene) banks are given the responsibility of collecting, evaluating, cataloguing, storing and managing large numbers of germplasm. This strategy allows a plant breeder ready and quick access to genetic resources when he needs it. The fact that Sir Otto Frankel coined the term ‘genetic resources’ only in 1968 shows that the plant breeders, though aware of the gradual loss of germplasm, failed to recognize the urgency of protecting the genetic resources of crop plants prior to a point of no return.

28.1 Introduction

The stress that is caused by biological agents or factors such as diseases, insect-pests and parasitic weeds is called biotic stress. The term disease can be broken into two words: “dis” (means negative, reverse or opposite) and “ease” (means comfort, or freedom from pain or discomfort). Hence, plant disease can be defined as any harmful alteration from the normal functioning of physiological processes. Diseases may be bacterial, fungal or viral. A wide range of insects infests various crop plants. The extent of damage caused to crop plants by various organisms is usually in the order fungi > bacteria > viruses > nematodes = insects. But the relative importance of these organisms varies to a great deal in different crops. Breeding of cultivars resistant to diseases and/or insect-pests is the cheapest, safest and most dependable means of limiting the losses due to them. Resistant cultivars form an important component of integrated management of diseases and insect-pests.

28.2 Breeding for Resistance to Biotic Stresses-Diseases

Agrios (1970) has defined disease as: “Disease is a series of invisible and visible responses of plant cells and tissues to a pathogenic microorganism or an environmental factor that result in adverse changes in form, function or integrity of plant and may lead to partial impairment or death of the plant or its parts.” The organism causing disease is called pathogen, while the plant affected by the disease is called host.

The principles underlying breeding for resistance to diseases are much the same as for other characters, except for one important difference, i.e., the diseases caused by pathogens are the product of interaction between two genetic systems, that of the host and that of the parasite. Both systems are capable of variation and evolution and affect the interaction between host and pathogen. Here the breeder is required to deal with the heritable traits of both the host plant and the pathogens invading it.

1. Introduction

The world’s temperature has already warmed up to almost 1.2ºC since the preindustrial levels and this warming impact is visible in the form of extreme weather events, sea level rise and diminishing Arctic sea ice. Heat waves and drought in Europe and China, forest fires in the U.S., dust storms and extreme rainfall in India (including the Kerala floods 2018) and high precipitation in Japan and other island nations are all examples of the disasters which have occurred within a single year of 2018. With a further 0.5ºC warming, these effects would be even more pronounced than the scientists’ previous predictions. A 1.5ºC warmer world will see higher temperatures, increase in frequency and intensity of precipitation, higher sea levels, and floods, droughts and heat waves (Venkatesh, 2018). The climate change induced economic damage has been increasing in the past few decades and is likely to continue growing because of population growth, urban development and changing land use pattern (IPCC, 2012). Kerala encountered the most disastrous floods in its history since 1924, between June 1^st and August 19^th of 2018. As the torrential rainfall and associated storm thrashed the state, the entire state got buried under water with only few areas remaining above water. The combined precipitation received by the state during this period was 42 per cent in excess of the typical normal. The exceptional spell of rainfall inflicted heavy damage on the life and properties of thousands of people in the state.

Since 2012, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has considered gender and climate change as a stand-alone agenda item under the Conference of the Parties. This is because it has been already understood that climate change has a greater impact on those sections of the population which are more reliant on natural resources for their livelihood. People who have the least capacity to respond to natural hazards are also affected

more. Majority of women, who are considered among the poorest of the poor are at a greater disadvantage because their income is mostly derived from informal natural resources dependent livelihoods. Globally, more than 400 million women engage in farm work in more than 90 countries. Agriculture being a climate sensitive sector, climate change takes a huge toll on this area. Women are usually engaged in subsistence agriculture and labor-intensive works which worsens their susceptibility to climatic change (Lambrou and Piana, 2006). Hence, during extreme weather events, women experience greater impacts and vulnerability than men and become economically insecure following disasters.

1. Introduction

Adequate nutrition is the fundamental keystone of any individual’s health. It is especially crucial for women because it causes havoc not only on the woman’s health but also on their children’s health and in turn the community. Malnutrition causes a variety of risks to women. It undermines women’s ability to survive childbirth, makes them more susceptible to infections, and leaves them with fewer reserves to recover from illness. Children of malnourished women are found to face impaired cognition, short stature, decreased resistance to infections, and an increased risk of disease and death throughout their lives. The increasing number of malnourished population in any country is a threat to its technological and economic development. Moreover, a chronically undernourished woman in every probability will give birth to a baby who is likely to be undernourished as a child.Thus malnourishment in women perpetuate the cycle of under-nutrition to be repeated over generations.In other words, women’s nutritional status impacts the countries nutritional status.

Despite economic progress, India has failed to combat malnutrition that adversely affects the country’s socio-economic progress. This is reflected in the hunger score of 27.2 which categorized India in ‘serious’ hunger category. The Global Hunger Index (GHI) rank of the country is 94 among 107 countries in 2020 and was 102 out of 117 countries in 2019. In fact, GHI is calculated based on the four indicators viz. undernourishment, child wasting, child stunting and child mortality. Estimates also suggest that more than one-third of the world’s malnourished children are in India. Among the varied causes of malnutrition in the country, major ones include mother’s nutritional status, lactation behaviour, women’s education and sanitation. These in turn affect children in several forms and get manifested as childhood illness, stunting, and retarded growth. Therefore, addressing the nutrition of women population at all levels is essential to safeguard the future generations, and in turn the human capital and economic development of any nation.

1. The Context

Poverty continues to be a major issue the world over. Over the last decade there has been a significant reduction in the number of the extremely poor. Extreme poverty rates fell from 10.1 per cent in 2015 to 9.2 per cent in 2017 (https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/global-poverty-reduction-slowing-regionaltrends-help-understanding-why). However, despite these achievements, we still have 689 million people living on less than two dollars a day and estimates by the World Bank in 2020 indicate that if one takes an account of higher poverty lines we have 24.1 percent of the world living on less than $3.20 a day and 43.6 percent on less than $5.50 a day in 2017 (http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview). The disturbing aspect of this analysis are the facts that half of this poor are children and in most areas where poverty is encountered women represent a sizeable chunk of them. Poverty in real life is translated into lack of access to education and consumption of diets that are both quantitatively and qualitatively deficient in crucial micro nutrients and vitamins, placing them at higher risks on account of protein energy malnutrition, vitamin A deficiency and the all pervading problem of anaemia. The social consequences of such diets and implications for human capital of the world in the later part of this century would be devastating.

Poverty among women has huge repercussions for the citizens of tomorrow. It is in this context that the role of livestock products assumes crucial importance. Milk, eggs and meat have some of the highest bio-availabilities of crucial protein, iron and vitamin A. Berrazaga et al. (2019) observed that though plant proteins are beneficial in terms of the advantages that they offer from environmental and health points of view, the anabolic effect of plant proteins is generally lower than that of animal proteins. This is on account of their lower digestibility, relatively lower contents of essential amino acids such as leucine and the lack of sulphur amino acids such as lysine. The authors further observed that food protein quality was assessed by digestibility, net protein utilisation and biological value and these

1. Introduction

Much of humankind has either at least interacted with forests or benefited from forests for their lives and livelihoods. Approximately 1.6 billion rural people worldwide, mainly in tropical regions, depend upon forests in one form or the other. People rely on forests or forest services as sources of food, shelter, energy, building materials, fiber, fodder, income, medicine, and inspiration (Gabay and Rekola, 2019). The earlier efforts of international forest development practices were focused only on the production and industrial sector. Nonetheless, in the late 1970s and 1980s, this focus shifted to better understanding the links between people and forests. The same period has witnessed the birth of community-led (social/participatory) forest management in many countries. Women’s role in the forestry sector has also started to receive more attention and understanding during this time (FAO, 1986; Ginsburg and Keene, 2020; Kristjanson, 2020). Thus, gender roles have remained an area of interest in forest management, especially in developing countries, and the perspectives have evolved over the years. The agenda 2030 of the sustainable development goals (SDG) encompasses strategies designed to tackle gender inequities and protecting ecosystems, including forests, biodiversity, and oceans (UN, 2015). In fact, the interlinked trajectories of women and the environment have led to the emergence of the theory of ecofeminism and women environment and development (WED) in the late 1970s (Tyagi and Das, 2017). It integrates the ethics of ecology with feminism to explore the intangible interconnections between environmental degradation and sexist oppression (Warren, 1993). Though feminist discussions are not new to the forestry sector, attempts to generate gender-disaggregated data exclusively on forestry management perspectives have been scarce.

1. Introduction

India Economic Survey (2018) reported that agriculture sector employed more than 50 per cent of the Indian work force. Women accounted for about 33 per cent of cultivators and 47 per cent of agricultural labourers excluding livestock, fisheries and various other ancillary forms of food production in our country (Rao, 2006). There are also reports on gender assessment which indicated that 75 percent of all women workers and 85 percent of rural workers in India are employed in agriculture (Agarwal, 2003). These suggest that the participation of women in the various fields such as agricultural professionals, entrepreneurs, cultivators, and laborers are on a steady increase. Urban migration by rural men for reasons of better economic opportunities has been identified as a major cause that gave this visibility to women as farmers and agricultural labourers. This indicate the emergence of agriculture as a viable livelihood alternative especially among rural women. It has been widely reported that the major difficulty experienced by the farm women has been the lack of control and ownership of the land resources, which rendered them inaccessible to credit, technology and training. Findings of FAO (2011) indicated that, if women farmers had equal property rights, access to scientific knowledge, monetary services, education and training facilities as their male counterparts, agricultural production would have increased to that extent that the number of persons in acute hunger in the world could be reduced by 100-150 million.

A study conducted by Ghosh and Ghosh (2014) on the share of women in agricultural activities across Indian states revealed that majority of women residing throughout the country generate their financial gains through farming and ancillary enterprises. Deviation of this trend could be observed only in Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal where women were actively engaged in non-farming enterprises related to the well-developed service sector of these states. In the

states of Himachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Rajasthan and Bihar more than 80 per cent of women were engaged in agriculture. The study also observed that wages of agricultural labour, income from farming, price volatility of agricultural produces and unpredictable weather conditions had significant influence on the livelihood options of majority of women headed households in India.