eBook Chapters

17.1 Introduction

Cotton is a major fibre crop of global importance and has high commercial value. It is grown commercially in the temperate and tropical regions of more than 100 countries. Specific areas of production include countries such as China, USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Turkey, Australia, Greece, Brazil, Egypt etc., where climatic conditions suit the natural growth requirements of cotton. These include periods of hot and dry weather and adequate moisture obtained through irrigation. Cotton crop is considered as one of the most important cash crops that influenced the industrial and agricultural economy of the different cotton growing countries of world. Thus, cotton is an immensely important crop for the sustainable economy of these countries and livelihood of the farming community. Cotton crop is considered as one of the most important cash crops that influenced the industrial and agricultural economy of the different cotton growing countries of world. Cotton cultivation and textile industry provide livelihood to million persons, therefore any failure of cotton crop significantly influence the economic growth of cotton belt and textile sector.

INTRODUCTION

Cotton is an important commercial crop and plays a key role in the economy of country. Cotton is grown in different states of India viz Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In India the area under cotton crop is 8.76 m ha and the productivity is 436 Kg lint/ha as against the world average of 682 kg lint/ha (Anonymous, 2005). The productivity of cotton is variable in the country in the range of 287 to 720 kg lint/ha (Anonymous, 2005). The major constraints in cotton cultivation in India are as follows
 
MAJOR CONSTRAINTS IN COTTON CULTIVATION IN INDIA
    i.    Abnormal weather conditions 
    ii.    Cultivation of cotton under rainfed condition 
    iii.    Cultivation of large number of susceptible and undescript cultivars with varied growth pattern. 
    iv.    Poor soil health
    v.    Long duration of crop 
    vi.    Long sowing period 
    vii.    Indeterminate nature of cotton plant 
    viii.    Intensive cultivation 
    ix.    Imbalance use of fertilizers 
    x.    Non judicious use of irrigation water 
    xi.    Higher incidence of insect pests due to 

Introduction

India is bestowed with a wide variety of agro-climatic conditions and has unique comparative advantage for growing almost all horticultural crops (fruits and vegetables) in the country. Horticulture has remained as a major sub-sector of agriculture and forms an integral part of food and nutritional security, employment generation and enhancing the farm income. The growing economic importance of these crops could be attributed to increasing demands in domestic as well as in overseas market. The total area under fruit is 6.10 million hectare and total production is 68.47 million tonnes which accounts for 11 per cent of the world total fruit production (Anonymous, 2009).

Since, there is a limited scope to enhance the horticultural production in traditionally growing areas, emphasis has to be laid on harnessing the potential of vast wasteland and dry land spread over more than half of the geographical area of the country. Dry and rainfed area constitutes a major share of wasteland and untapped land resource where several indigenous horticultural crop species can be commercially exploited to strengthen the agro-based industries and providing the livelihood to the masses.

Introduction

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) represents a holistic approach to managing pest populations in horticultural crops, aiming to minimize the use of chemical pesticides while ensuring sustainable and economically viable crop production. IPM integrates multiple strategies—cultural, biological, mechanical, and chemical—within a coordinated framework, emphasizing ecological balance and long-term pest suppression. This article provides a comprehensive overview of IPM principles, methodologies, and applications in horticultural crops, addressing the ecological, economic, and regulatory dimensions of this essential agricultural practice.

Principles of IPM

Ecological Approach

IPM is fundamentally an ecological approach that considers the complex interactions between pests, crops, and the environment. By understanding these interactions, IPM seeks to manipulate ecosystems to favour natural pest control mechanisms and reduce the need for synthetic chemical inputs.

Plantation crops are high-value commercial crops of greater economic importance which play a pivotal role in the world economy. These include coconut, arecanut, tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa, oil palm, cashew. In this chapter only Cashew and Rubber are dealt with since the other plantation crops have been dealt in the earlier chapters.

INTRODUCTION

Potato is a crop of major significance in human nutrition, ranking fourth in world production, after wheat, maize and rice. Potatoes are grown on over 44 million acres in more than 125 countries, with annual production of about 250 million tons. Potatoes are grown across India, with production concentrated in several areas of the North Indian plains and West Bengal. Indian potato production is significant and accounts for 8.5 per cent of the world total (Dahiya et al., 1999).

The potato has hundreds of recognized pests including many insects, mites, nematodes and rodents. Some of these were transported to new locations alongwith seed tubers. Others were already present in locations where the potato was introduced and then proliferated on this new host plant. Because a potato crop is vegetatively propagated from tubers, which easily carry some pathogens and pests, many pest problems have followed potatoes to areas wherever they are grown. The potato tuber moth was introduced accidentally into India from Italy in 1906, probably through seed potatoes (Lefroy, 1907), and by the middle of century had become well established throughout India (Kumar and Nirula, 1967). Of all the major food crops, potato is heaviest user of chemical pesticides, which often total up to 20 per cent of its cost of production (Anonymous, 1991).

Introduction

Rice is the staple food of about 50% of the world’s population that resides in Asia, where 90 % of the world’s rice is grown and consumed. In the International year of Rice celebrated in 2004 the theme was “Rice is life” which reflects the importance of rice as a primary food source of human beings. In the world, annually rice is cultivated in about 151.54 million hectares with an annual production of 593 metric tonnes and average productivity of 3.91 tonnes/ha (Rai, 2004). From its Asian homeland, it is now cultivated in 113 countries and plays a variety of roles related to important aspects of food security as well as rural and economic development. In Asia this crop is grown in 136.07 million ha followed by 7.67 million ha in Africa and 5.09 million ha in Latin America with a production of 539.84, 16.97 and 19.54 metric tonnes and productivity of 2.97, 2.21 and 2.84 tonnes, respectively (Rai, 2004). In India, rice is the staple food for more than 65 % people (Pasalu and Katti, 2004). Rice is grown under various geographical, climatic and cultural conditions. The current level of rice production in the country is around 90 million tonnes. Based on the present rate of population growth @ 1.5 % and per capita consumption of 250 g of rice/day in the country, the demand for rice production is expected to be about 100-105 million tonnes by 2010 and 130-140 million tonnes by 2025. To achieve this target, it requires increasing productivity per unit area by the adoption of modern and intensive agricultural practices, such as use of high yielding varieties and improved cultural and management practices. Experience of post green revolution period in last four decades indicates that these practices often aggravate other biotic constraints such as insects, diseases and weeds. However, insect pests are considered to be the major limiting factor in enhancing the productivity of rice.

INTORDUCTION

Spices are strongly flavored aromatic substances of plant origin which are commonly used for seasoning, cooking food and for preserving other food stuffs. There are about 70 species of spices grown in various parts of the world. Those which are used most commonly throughout the world are grown in India and other parts of South Asia.

The seed spices are annual herbs, whose dried fruits or seeds are mostly used as spices. The seed spices are used for culinary, confectionary, perfumery, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals industry. There are about 20 seed spices grown in India (Table 1) and nine out of them are prominent. The most important among them are belongs to family Apiaceae (coriander, cumin, fennel etc). about 9 lakh ha area is growing in seed spices in the country with annual production of about 5-6 lakh tones (Anonymous, 2003). India is the world’s largest producer, consumer and exporter of seed spices. The foreign exchange earned through export of seed spices is more than Rs 200 crores annually. India exports raw spices as well as value added items to nearly 70 countries in the world and is meeting 51% of the global demand of these commodities. There is good potential for increasing export of seed spices, if production as well as quality is increased. The level of productivity in various seed spices is comparatively low as compared to other countries. There are many production constrains attributed to low productivity. The lake of suitable high yielding varieties suiting to different agro-ecological regions and more incidences of diseases and insect pests. Among different insect pests, coriander aphid, Hydaphis coriandari (Das) is one of the most destructive and widely distributed pest of coriander (Jain, 1984 and Jain and Yadav, 1989). Recently brown wheat mite was observed attacking coriander and other spices (Jain and Yadav, 1986 and 1989).

The produced food grains have to be stored either for short or long duration for utilization in the coming times for food, feed and seed. In storage, these undergo 9.33 per cent losses due to various agencies such as rodents, insects and mites, microorganism and moisture in India, whereas, in other developing countries, the losses are as high as 30 to 50 per cent. Therefore, with an urge to produce more, there is still urgent need to protect the produce in the storage to meet the challenge. As a result of improved storage technology, the losses in Government Warehouses could be reduced to minimum but at farmers’ level, where 60-70 per cent of the produce is retained, the losses are still too high.

The management of insects in stored products is in transition from a dependence on regular applications of chemical insecticides to the use of integrated pest management (IPM). IPM involves understanding interactions between stored product environment and insects associated with stored products, and replacing all or most of the chemical applications with cost effective non chemical alternatives. The increased emphasis in adopting IPM strategies for stored product insects is primarily due to consumers’ demand for food free from pesticide residues. The transition from a heavy reliance on chemicals to little or no chemical input and increased use of non chemical approaches requires a thorough understanding of stored product insects, their identification, monitoring, biology, ecology and response to chemical and non chemical management options. The current scenario of stored grain protection in India depends totally and judicious use of IPM strategies. For safe storage of food grains, both the preventive and curative measures are required:

9.1 Introduction

Cereal crops are of global importance and the lifeline of the human civilization. The four most important cereals grown for human food in the tropics are rice, maize, sorghum and pearl millet. There are other minor cereals of tropical origin which are of local importance in the tropics. These include finger millet (Eleusine coracana), a staple food in parts of East and Central Africa; barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea), cultivated in India and Southeast Asia; foxtail millet (Setaria italica), grown in parts of India; and teff (Eragrostis tef), which is confined to the Ethiopian highlands. The winter cereals wheat and barley are also grown to a limited extent in the tropics, largely at high altitudes: for example, wheat in Kenya and barley in Ethiopia. Wheat and barley are important crops in the Indian subcontinent, and are grown there in the cool season at low altitudes, but the bulk of the crop area lies outside the tropics.

11.1 Introduction

Tropical Root and Tuber Crops serve as primary or secondary staple to meet the calorie needs of one fifth of world’s population. These crops have myriad and complex roles to play in the food security and reduction of hunger and elimination of poverty. The starch content, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical value endow these crops with an extra ordinary range of potential and uses. Root and tuber crops are also greater sources of industrial raw materials for biodiesel and starch derived materials.

8.1 Introduction

Vegetables are cultivated over an area of about 19 million ha globally, with an annual production of 268 million tonnes; Asia and Africa account for more than 90% of the hectarage and production (FAO, 2011). Vegetable crops contribute to human and environmental health. Most vegetables can supply plant proteins, vitamins (especially vitamins A and C), folic acid, minerals such as iron and calcium, and dietary fiber to the human diet (Fowler, 2011). Vegetable legumes also fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil, thus improving soil fertility. Their haulms can be used as high quality livestock fodder. Most vegetables are high-value, repeat-cycle crops that can help lift small-scale farmers out of poverty in developing tropical countries (Genova et al., 2010). However, vegetable production is often constrained by several severe biotic- and abiotic factors that reduce yields and profits.

Introduction

India ranks second in the production of vegetables after China. The existing area under vegetable cultivation in India is around 4.5 million ha. There is a need of around 5-6 million tons of food to feed 1.3 billion India’s population by 2020 AD. The major constraint in vegetable production, include the extensive crop losses due to increased pest infestations directly or due to viral diseases vectored by insects. The extent of crop losses in vegetables varies with the plant type, location, damage potential of the pest involved and cropping season. Vegetables are more prone to insect pests and diseases mainly due to their succulence as compared to other crops. The crop losses to the tune of 40 per cent have been observed in vegetable crops. The increased demand and limited productivity of local cultivars, led to introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids. As a result, dramatic changes in pest scenario occurred like minor pests assuming major status (eg., Serpentine leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii a serious problem in tomato hybrids). Chemical pesticides are the sole panacea to mange the pest by vegetable farmers even today. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has led to severe ecological consequences like destruction of natural enemy fauna, effect on non-target organisms, pesticide residues in vegetables and resistance of the pest to pesticides. The modern pest management is aimed at educating the farmers on various issues of pest management like identification of the pests, natural enemies, judicious use of pesticides with alternate methods of pest control like cultural, mechanical, biological and behavioral (pheromones) management.

Introduction

Vegetables contain large quantities of minerals, vitamins and essentials amino acids required for normal functioning of human metabolic processes and plays an important role in food and nutritional security. India is the second largest vegetables producing countries next to China and occupies 7.981 million ha area with an annual production of 129.077 million tons (Anonymous, 2009). Due to expanding urbanization and deforestation, most of the natural resources are depleting and shrinking with a rapid pace. With the limited land and depleting water resources, India has to feed the burgeoning population without destroying the ecological balances. In this context, we must have to look after the vertical expansion through increase in the intensity, diversification, mixed and intercropping of vegetable crops. Besides this, vegetables are also more prone to insect pests and diseases mainly due to their tenderness and softness as compared to other crops.

INTRODUCTION

Phytophagous mites have long been considered as potentially serious pests of a wide range of food and fibre crops, and ornamentals. They are covered under subclass Acari of class Arachnida and phylum Arthropoda. Mites unlike insects are 8-legged creatures and lack compound eyes, antennae and wings. Plant feeding mites measure from 200µ to 600µ. Majority of the plant feeding mites belong to suborder Prostigmata, and phytophagous mites belong to family Tetranychidae (spider mites); Eriophyidae (bud or gall mites) ; Tenuipalpidae (false spider mites); Tarsonemidae (broad mites) and Tuckerellidae, in the decreasing order of their importance. Before one can develop integrated management of phytophagous mites in different agri-horticultural ecosystems, knowledge about the following fundamentals of phytophagous mite management principles is a big must.

2.1 Introduction

India is the second largest vegetables producing country next to China. Vegetable crops are grown on an area of 7.2 million hectares (Mha) with an annual production of 113.5 million tonnes (mt) in the year 2005-06 (Rai, 2007). The extent of crop losses in vegetable crops variety with the crop type, location, damage potential of the insect pests involved and cropping season. As vegetables are perishable items and are more prone to pest attacks, and at a conservative estimate, insect pests cause about 35-40 percent losses (Sardana et al., 2005). The major vegetables cultivated by farmers were cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.), cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.), and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Moench)). The chief pests of the cauliflower and cabbage crops were the tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura Fab.), diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella L.), cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae L.), cabbage borer (Hellula undalis Fab.) and aphids (Brevicoryne brassicae L.). In the okra crop, the shoot and fruit borer (Earias vitella Fab.), jassids/leafhoppers (Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla Ishida) whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius) and fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera Hübner) were the main pests. Yield losses due to diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) 17-99 percent, cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae) 69 percent, and crucifer leaf webber (Crocidolomia binotalis) 28-51 percent, cabbage borer (Hellula undalis) 30-58 percent in cabbage/cauliflower. In Brinjal, 11-93 percent loss is caused by fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis). In okra, yield losses due to shoot and fruit borer (Earias vitella) is 23-54 percent, jassids/ leafhoppers (Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla) 54-66 percent, whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci) 54 percent and due to fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera) yield loss is in the tune of 22 percent (Shanker et al. 2008). The management strategy for the insect pests and diseases remain largely confined to pesticides. The overemphasis on the use of chemical pesticides by the vegetable growers leads to the multitude of problems to human health and ecology.

Endowed with varied agro-climatic situations, topography and soil type, India has been a leading vegetable producing country in the world occupying the second position in vegetable production after China with an annual production of 87.53 million tonnes from 5.86 million hectares having a share of 14.4 per cent to the world production. With commercial cultivation of as many as 61 annual and 4 perennial vegetables, India is the most diverse vegetable growing country in the world (Prakash et al., 2006). It is quite encouraging to know that our country occupies first position in cauliflower production and second in onion production. In India vegetables are grown both as mono-cropping (vegetable-vegetable cropping system) and sequential cropping after cereals, oil seeds and pulses. Besides, intercropping of vegetables with upland rice, maize, sugarcane, mango, papaya, banana and other fruit crops are also being encouraged in many areas. Vegetable based farming is rapidly emerging as one of the important  production systems in India  as this enterprise produces  a much higher income than any other type of farming in a shorter period of time. 

Endowed with varied agro-climatic situations, topography and soil type, India has been a leading vegetable producing country in the world occupying the second
position in vegetable production after China with an annual production of 87.53 million tonnes from 5.86 million hectares having a share of 14.4 per cent to the world production. With commercial cultivation of as many as 61 annual and 4 perennial vegetables, India is the most diverse vegetable growing country in the world (Prakash et al., 2006).

Introduction

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has evolved over the last five decades since Stern et al. (1959) first gave the concept of integrated control. The basic tactics of IPM were developed and applied to reduce crop losses against the ravages of pests before the term IPM was coined (Jones, 1973; Smith et al.,1973). Entomologist at the university of California, United State of America (USA) played a pivotal role in developing IPM tactics (Perkins, 1982). Development of resistance to insecticides and the elimination of natural enemies by insecticides led to the development of ‘supervised control’. The publication of the book ‘Silent Spring’ written by Rachel Carson (1962) was a defining milestone for it brought the problems caused by pesticides to the attention of the public and the scientists. The term ‘integrated pest management’ was used for the first time by Smith and van dan Bosch (1967). In the last five decade many synthetic pesticides have been banned. In 1972, ’integrated pest management’ and its synonym were incorporated into English dictionary and accepted by the scientific community (Kogan, 1998). IPM is the main strategy accepted for pest management under agenda 21 of the United Nations conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992).

Insect pests, diseases and weeds are major biotic bottlenecks in the production of crops, inflicting on an average about 30% yield loss. Monetary value of these losses has been estimated to be exceeding Rs 1,00, 000 crores. There is thus ample scope to enhance our food production by curtailing losses due to pests to certain extent. Only option to boost our production remains in growing improved crop cultivars with better pest management options. Mainly synthetic pesticides have been used to combat pest menace in agriculture and public health. Pesticides have, of course, played a commendable role in increasing our food production and protecting us against disease vectors. However sole reliance on pesticides has created several problems such as development of resistant pests, pest outbreaks, mortality of useful organisms, adverse effect on human health and environmental degradation. Adverse effects of pesticides prompted scientists to look for safer and environment friendly methods of pest control and consequently concept of pest management came in to being.

Pest management is known as an ecological approach to tackle pest problems, because here emphasis is on containing pests in such a way that other biotic components of the system such as natural enemies, human beings and wildlife etc are not harmed and environment is preserved in general. Pest management works on the premise that all pest population levels are not injurious to crops and crops can always compensate for certain injury due to pests. Moreover, some pest population is always required for the survival of natural enemies of the pests. This has given rise to the concept of economic injury level (EIL), which helps to avoid unwarranted application of pesticides. The EIL based pesticide application ensures favourable cost-benefit ratio to farmers. Pest management also underlines that pest control tactics should be socially acceptable and within the reach of farmers. It is a holistic approach to pest problems in which we aim to protect our commodities against all the pests and ensure production of healthy crops.

In the past, focus on implementing plant protection measures was given to cereals, largely because of their central role in food security, however, recent shortages in legumes has warranted an all out attention on edible pulses. For more than four decades, the concept of integrated pest management (IPM) - which combines a range of controls, including conserving natural predators, using pest resistant crop varieties, intercropping and rotation, with judicious use of pesticides -has struggled to gain ground against conventional agricultural ideology and practices. But it is now increasingly challenging the methods of high-input agriculture and policies arising with implementation of General Agreement forTrade andTariffs (GATT) & World Trade Organization (WTO) that cannot be ignored. In fact, a major factor responsible for sustaining soil productivity in this country has been the highly diversified nature of the cropping patterns which either include a pulse crop or a legume crop as one of the components. India is the largest producer of pulses in the world with 25% share in the global production. While chickpea is the topper among pulses occupying 39% of pulse area, pigeon pea is next with 21% area. The major pulse producing states are Maharashtra (20%), Madhya Pradesh (17%), Rajasthan (11%), Uttar Pradesh (11%) andAndhra Pradesh (11%) together accountingfor 70% of thetotal production of 14.76 m.t from an area of 23.63 m ha (www.agricoop.nic.in, 2007-08). In general, the pulse production is not keeping pace with the domestic requirements, hence, the country has to import 1.5-2.8 m.t per year, which is a matter of concern. Keeping this in view, the 1PM programme covers the two important pulse crops viz., chickpea and pigeon pea, across different cropping systems which will take care of changing scenario emerging out of climatic changes as well as cropping patterns. The present strategy, which is based on a holistic approach and changing ecosystem, will help in increasing production through reduction in pest infestation that would eventually reduce the need for the import of these two vital commodities.

8.1. Definition

Managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools to minimize economic, health, and environmental risks.

11.1 Introduction

• Pest problems in fruit production has increased the cost of tree/plant protection and squeezed the profit of the fruit growers.
• In India, there are several existing or potential key pests for each fruit trees whose population densities must be kept at sub-economic levels to sustain higher per unit production at the farmers’ fields.
• During the second part of 20th century, the major emphasis was on pest control, which involved a set of actions to avoid, alternate or delay impact of pests on crops, which mainly involved pesticide application with the sole aim of eradication.
• Since horticultural crops like fruits are intensively cultivated that allow more inputs cost, the use of insecticides for the control of specific pests of a particular fruit crop has increased manifold during the last few decades. However, the toxic materials generated from chemical use in crop production has polluted the environment, because majority of them are not biologically degradable. They have harmed consumers’ and farmers’ health.
• Uses of broad-spectrum chemicals for pest control have a very negative impact on our efforts to conserve biodiversity. Because of their broad-spectrum nature of effect, it not only kills enemy insects but also useful insects like honey bees.
• The pest control option based on pesticide applications virtually eliminates the bee keeping activity.

Insects and mites that damage crops, pathogens that cause diseases in plants, weeds that compete with field crops for nutrients and water, plants that choke irrigation channels or drainage systems, rodents that eat young plants and grain, and birds that eat seedlings or stored foodstuffs are all crop pests. As plants were domesticated and grown, increasingly in monoculture, the potential damage caused by their co-evolved pests and disease pathogens were realised.

The problem of insect-pest, disease and weed is acute in case of all the crops and especially so in case of commercial crops. Pesticides, fungicides or chemicals are meant to control harmful pests such as insects, nematodes, diseases, weeds etc. However, excessive use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides not only leave residues in soil, water and air but also have adverse effects on the non-target organisms such as pollinators, parasitoids, predators and wild animals. This has adversely affected the ecological balance resulting in pest resurgence, development of resistance in the pest species, diseases and environmental pollution.

Definitions of IPNM 
Concept of IPNM 
Main objectives of INM 
Components of IPNM

6.1. Introduction

The growing human population presents a number of issues, including food scarcity, malnutrition, inadequate natural resources (land and water) for agricultural production, and environmental deterioration (MacDonald, 2010). Today, viable intensification of agri-production systems can fulfill rising food, nutrition and environmental demands (Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). Production of rice (Oryza sativa L.), a vital element of food security, which feeds nearly half of the world's population, occupies 143 million hectares of land (FAOSTAT, 2023), and uses up to 90% of all irrigation water in Asia (Liu et al., 2018). For instance, it has been determined that systems for producing rice are one of the main industries that wastes water resources and greatly increases greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2013). Therefore, it is necessary to look for ways to manage the rice production system more effectively. In paddy rice systems, co cultivating aquatic animals (fish, shrimp, crab, shellfish, and ducks) and rice has been suggested as a way to reduce the risks of environmental pollution/ contamination linked with rice production while simultaneously optimizing the use of land and water resources to provide humans with both grains and meat (Hu et al., 2016; Ahmed and Garnett, 2011). Co-culture systems have drawn more interest recently due to their potential to reduce the stresses associated with environmental and food insecurity.

ntroduction

The marketing systems and post-harvest marketing infrastructure have not been able to keep pace with the growing production and marketable surplus. This has brought to the fore, the need for providing farmers with access to competitive markets with adequate infrastructure including cold chain logistics, to enable them to realise better prices on the one hand and providing nutritious food to consumers at stable and affordable prices on the other. With this objective in view, the Government of India on 13th November, 2013 approved the proposal of Department of Agriculture & Cooperation for continuation and integration of ongoing Central Sector Schemes as Integrated Scheme for Agricultural Marketing (ISAM) during the XII Plan (2012-2017). The ISAM have the following five sub schemes: (i) Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure (AMI) [the existing schemes of Grameen Bhandaran Yojana (GBY) and Development/Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure, Grading and Standardization (AMIGS) will be merged as AMI] (ii) Marketing Research and Information Network (MRIN) (iii) Strengthening of Agmark Grading Facilities (SAGF), (iv) 

ABSTRACT

Worldwide reinterpretation of evolutionary history of sedimentary basins had commenced with the introduction of sequence stratigraphic concepts by geoscientists of Exxon. The eustatic sea level controlled deposition in sedimentary basins together with synchronous excursions of many trace elemental and stable isotopic compositions of sedimentary strata have led to a proposition that geographically widely separated sedimentary strata could be classified and correlated with ease by application of sequence stratigraphy and chemostratigraphy, relatively younger branches. This paper reviews the key definitions of these stratigraphic methods, presents an overview on their applicability in petroleum exploration, reservoir characterization and stratigraphic correlation. Considering the man-hours required for interpretation of sequences and chemozones from large quantum of core samples being generated from exploration activities and the possibility of human-error and biased nature of interpretations, an automation scheme involving statistical discrimination is suggested. The statistical discrimination method has been tested to have 76-100 % distinction of depositional units of Recent – Cretaceous in age in terms of sequences, chemozones, lithostratigraphic units, petrographic types and sedimentary microenvironments with 100% reproducibility of predictions. Hence, creation of a large database with well constrained subpopulations and putting it to use for recognition of depositional units and correlation of strata and reservoir characterization is suggested which may reduce operational inconsistencies and improve exploration strategies.

The method known as integrated water management (IWM) in agricultural crops is an all-encompassing strategy that aims to maximize the effectiveness of water use, enhance crop output, and guarantee the management of water resources in a sustainable manner. This method incorporates a number of different water management strategies, such as the timing of irrigation, the use of water-saving devices, the monitoring of soil moisture, and conservation measures. Combining these methods allows IWM to achieve its goal of limiting water losses caused by evaporation, runoff, and deep percolation while simultaneously ensuring that crop water demand is met by the available water supply. Mulching, cover cropping, and crop rotation are examples of cultural techniques that assist improve soil moisture conservation and decrease water loss via evaporation. The application of water may be made more exact and targeted by the use of mechanical technologies like as precision irrigation systems, drip irrigation, and soil moisture sensors. This helps to maximize the efficiency with which crops utilize water. Improvements in water retention and plant resistance to water stress may be achieved via the use of biological controls. These controls include the selection of drought resistant crop cultivars and the enhancement of the organic matter content of the soil. Chemical controls, such as the use of soil conditioners and wetting agents, have the potential to improve soil structure and infiltration, hence permitting improved water distribution and absorption by crops. In general, integrated water management (IWM) plays a significant part in reducing the issues associated with water shortages, fortifying agricultural systems against the effects of climate change, and fostering sustainable water use practices in agricultural systems.

Integrated water management, often known as IWM, is being more acknowledged as an essential component of environmentally responsible crop production in the horticulture industry. Horticultural crops, which include ornamentals, fruits, and vegetables, are very reliant on water in order to achieve their full potential in terms of development and yield. Nevertheless, techniques that are inefficient in terms of water management may result in the waste of water, the deterioration of soil, and contamination of the environment. Integrated Water Management (IWM) provides a comprehensive strategy for addressing these difficulties by using a variety of water management approaches, including irrigation scheduling, water saving devices, soil moisture monitoring, and conservation measures. The ideas and methods of integrated water management (IWM) in horticultural crops are investigated in this abstract, along with the advantages, problems, and possible solutions associated with IWM. IWM plays a critical role in assuring the long-term sustainability and productivity of horticultural crop production systems. It does this by maximizing the efficiency with which water is used, boosting crop resistance to water stress, and encouraging sustainable water resource management. The implementation of IWM methods has the potential to contribute to a more resilient, productive, and ecologically sustainable horticulture industry. This may be accomplished via cooperation between academics, farmers, policymakers, and other stakeholders.

Pulses in India are considered a residual crop and grown under rainfed conditions in marginal/ less fertile lands. About 90 percent of total pulse production comes from 97 million ha of rainfed areas in our country. Presently, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan contribute 85% of the total area and production of pulses in the country. Pulse crops usually face soil water deficits sometime during their growth cycles. Thus, drought stress is a common phenomenon and ranks high among all abiotic stresseslimiting yields of pulses (Ali and Mishra, 2000). Hence, there is an urgent need to increase the pulse productivity to increase the income of farmers and reduce malnutrition. Productivityof pulsesin rainfed agriculture has remainedlowand unstable owing to climate and soil related constraints (Swindale, 1982). Soil moisture is the foremost factor that determines the productivity of rainfed pulses where rainfall is the only source of water. To maintain required soil moisture in rainfed lands, every action must be focused to conserveas much quantity of rainfall in the soil as possible (Rao, 1997). Unfortunately, farmers following rainfed agriculture in our country are not practicing any sort of moisture management techniques though wehaveahandful of techniques suitable for rainfed conditions.

Integrated watershed management programme (IWMP)

The main objectives of the IWMP are to restore the ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water. The outcomes are prevention of soil run-off, regeneration of natural vegetation, rain water harvesting and recharging of the ground water table. This enables multi-cropping and the introduction of diverse agro-based activities, which help to provide sustainable livelihoods to the people residing in the watershed area. In addition, there is a Scheme of Technology Development, Extension and Training (TDET) is also being implemented to promote development of cost effective and proven technologies to support watershed management.

Till 1.4.2008, Department implemented 3 watershed programmes viz. Integrated Wastelands Development Programme, Drought Prone Areas Programme, Desert Development Programme. Since then, they have been brought under a comprehensive programme named Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) to be implemented under Common Guidelines on Watershed Development, 2008.

5.1 Participatory Approaches to Watershed Management

Community Engagement Strategies: Exploring methods for involving local communities in decision-making processes, project planning, and implementation, including participatory rural appraisal (PRA), stakeholder consultations, and community meetings. Exploring methods for involving local communities in decision-making processes, project planning, and implementation is essential for promoting ownership, sustainability, and effectiveness of development initiatives within watershed areas. Here are key community engagement strategies:

a. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): PRA is a participatory approach that involves community members in assessing their own needs, priorities, resources, and capacities. PRA techniques, such as transect walks, social mapping, seasonal calendars, and wealth ranking, enable communities to identify and analyze local issues, strengths, and opportunities. PRA fosters dialogue, builds trust, and empowers communities to take ownership of development processes.

b. Stakeholder Consultations: Conduct stakeholder consultations to engage a diverse range of actors, including community members, local leaders, government officials, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders. Consultations provide opportunities for stakeholders to share their perspectives, knowledge, and concerns, and contribute to decision-making and project design. Stakeholder consultations ensure inclusivity, transparency, and legitimacy in development processes.

c. Community Meetings: Organize community meetings, village assemblies, or public forums to facilitate dialogue, consensus-building, and decision-making among community members. Community meetings provide platforms for discussing development priorities, reviewing project progress, and resolving conflicts collaboratively. They foster social cohesion, collective action, and community mobilization around shared goals and aspirations.

1.1 Introduction to Integrated Watershed Management

Definition and Scope of Integrated Watershed Management: Integrated Watershed Management (IWM) refers to a comprehensive approach to managing the resources and ecological processes within a watershed area in a coordinated and integrated manner. Integrated watershed management represents a holistic approach to managing natural resources within a watershed, with the aim of achieving sustainable development while maintaining ecosystem health and resilience. It involves collaboration among various stakeholders and integrates scientific knowledge with traditional wisdom to address complex environmental challenges. This section aims to provide a clear understanding of what integrated watershed management entails, including its scope and key components.

a. Definition of Integrated Watershed Management: Integrated Watershed Management is a holistic and multi-disciplinary approach that considers the entire watershed as a unit for planning and managing natural resources. It involves the coordinated management of land, water, vegetation, and other resources within a watershed to achieve sustainable development goals while preserving ecological integrity.

7.1 Importance of Weather Forecast in Agriculture

In India, agriculture is in reality to be a “gamble activity” with the monsoon rain, that means the productivity and profit from agriculture depend upon the goodness of the season. If any malevolent weather situation that happens during a crop season, whether it is at the beginning of the crop season or at the mid of the crop season or at the terminal of the crop season or at the whole of the crop season, the productivity of the crops raised would be under stake. In practice the irrigated crop area is lesser than the area under unirrigated crop in India in any region except the regions where irrigation is routed through perennial rivers. Normally the production from unirrigated crop is 30 to 40 per cent of the same crop grown under irrigated condition in an environment in the same season.

In India, in a region or in a taluk, if the irrigated area is lesser than 30 per cent of total cultivable area, there is every opportunity for the occurrence of food shortage. That means assured production depends upon irrigation rather than managing the crops with seasonal rainfall alone. This clearly indicates that the higher probability of occurrence of crop production risks falls under rainfed/dry land situation. The crop production risk is also common to irrigated area like unirrigated crop but the intensity gets varied. In this context one example that happened in India can be quoted. During December- January of 1982, with the occurrence of heavy rain/snow as a result of prevalence of western disturbance weather system, the wheat crop stood for harvest at Punjab got damaged with a loss of 124 crore of rupees. If this was anticipated earlier through weather forecast development, (which is common in all developed countries) and communicated to the farmers in advance, then the yield loss would have been reduced by following some tactical decisions to be taken either by the farmers or by the concerned Government. At that time, India did not have medium range weather forecast system and hence Indian farmers met with greater losses.

Integrated weed management (IWM) in agricultural crops is a comprehensive approach combining multiple strategies to control weed populations effectively and sustainably. IWM integrates cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical methods to manage weeds in a way that minimizes the reliance on herbicides, reduces the risk of herbicide resistance, and promotes environmental health. Cultural practices include crop rotation, cover cropping, and optimizing planting densities to outcompete weeds. Mechanical methods involve tillage, mowing, and manual removal, while biological control utilizes natural predators and competitive plants. Chemical controls are applied judiciously, targeting specific weed issues with appropriate herbicides. By employing a diversified approach, IWM enhances crop productivity, supports biodiversity, and fosters long-term agricultural sustainability.

Weeds pose serious problems to agriculture and environment. Weeds are plants that are undesirable to human activity at a particular time and place, and therefore, weeds will always be associated with human endeavours. In agriculture these not only cause huge reductions in crop yields but also increase cost of cultivation, reduce input efficiency, interfere with agricultural operations, impair quality, act as alternate hosts for several insect pests, diseases and nematodes. In non-crop areas, they affect aesthetic look of the ecosystem as well as native biodiversity and health and quality of life. Weeds are a big constraint in crop production and are responsible for heavy yield losses in almost all the crops. “Being fore-warned is fore-armed” is the principle behind preparation of perspective plans. Weeds are big constraints in crop production and are responsible for heavy yield losses in all crops. Out of the losses due to various biotic stresses, weeds are known to account for nearly one third. Proper management of weeds is essential to meet the growing demand of foodgrains, pulses, oilseeds and other crops by the ever increasing population. As per the projections of IFPRI, Washington there is a likelihood of shortfall of 41 per cent in the food grain production in the country by 2020.

Integrated weed management (IWM) is a critical aspect of sustainable horticultural crop production, offering a multifaceted approach to effectively control weed populations while minimizing environmental impact. Horticultural crops, including fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals, are highly susceptible to weed competition, which can reduce yields, harbour pests and diseases, and hinder crop quality. IWM integrates various control methods, including cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical approaches, tailored to the specific needs and characteristics of horticultural systems. Cultural practices such as mulching, crop rotation, and intercropping help suppress weeds by creating unfavourable conditions for their growth and development. Mechanical methods, including hand-weeding, hoeing, and the use of specialized machinery, physically remove weeds and disrupt their growth cycle. Biological control strategies involve the introduction of natural predators or competitive plants to reduce weed populations. Chemical controls, when necessary, are applied selectively, targeting specific weed species while minimizing herbicide use and environmental impact. By combining these diverse tactics, IWM in horticultural crops improves weed control efficacy, enhances crop health and vigour, and promotes long-term sustainability in horticultural production systems. This holistic approach contributes to higher yields, better crop quality, and reduced reliance on chemical inputs, ultimately ensuring the economic viability and environmental sustainability of horticultural crop production.

Pulses are gaining more important position in Indian agriculture. After green revolution, India became self sufficient in case of food grain production. However, India is still lagging behind in case of pulses production and is dependent on imports for the domestic consumption in present days. As there is little scope to increase area under pulse, the production can be increased by enhancing the productivity by various agro techniques. Among various factors which limit the pulse production and productivity, poor weed management at the early stages of crop growth, is one of them( Dash et al., 2003 and Dash & Mishra, 2014). Yield loss due to weed have been enumerated by different workers at different places to the tune of 20-65 per cent depending upon the crop growth stages, weed intensities and environment conditions. There are many methods available to control the weed menace at different crop growth stages but the integrated weed management (IWM) is considered to be a more practical and effective approach in the long run since combination of methods will take care of weeds in totality and prevents seed production of weeds and enrichment of soil seed bank (Das, 2008). IWM also provides continuous control of weeds over the crop growth stages than a single method in isolation. Hence application of suitable organic herbicide supplemented with one/two manual weeding are being advocated to control the weeds. Other weeding practices like hoeing, inter- cultivation, mowing, earthing up, weeding by mechanical weeder etc. may be substituted or supplemented to the manual weeding. IWM also reduces the modern day weed problems like weed shift, herbicide resistance, and preponderance of perennial and parasitic weed problems. Under high cropping intensity adoption of IWM practices always generate higher income and maximum profit to the growers.

Integrated Method of Weed Management

Definition

1. An integrated weed management may be defined as the combination of two or more weed-control methods at low input levels to reduce weed competition in a given cropping system below the economical threshold level. It has proved to be a valuable concept in a few cases, though much is still to be done to extend it to the small farmers’ level.
2. When more than one method is employed for controlling weeds, it is termed as integrated method weed management.

FAO Definition

It is a method whereby all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable methods are employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of economic damage, keeping in the foreground the conscious employment of natural limiting factors.

IWM is the rational use of direct and indirect control methods to provide cost-effective weed control. Such an approach is the most attractive alternative from agronomic, economic and ecological point of view.

1. Introduction

There is an emergence of the concept of a Circular Economy as one of the transformational approaches toward sustainability, where greater emphasis is laid on rethinking and redesigning products and services for maximum resource efficiency. In contrast to the traditional linear model ("take, make, dispose"), CE emphasizes product reuse, recycling, and cascading with the clear ambition of closing the loop of product lifecycles through continuous recovery of resources. The key to this solution involves changing the paradigm, highly relevant to resolving pressing environmental issues facing the planet such as resource depletion, waste management, and climate change.

Conventionally regarded as information stores, libraries are increasing awareness of their potential to create an impact toward sustainable practices. Centres of information and meeting points for communities, libraries are at an advantageous position for leading by example in integrating the principles of CE into their system. This paper examines the current status of integrating the circular economy principles within library management and discusses a proposed conceptual framework that aims to guide libraries in adopting circular practices. The paper addresses the contribution that libraries might make to a more sustainable future by exploring the intersection between CE and library management through innovative practices and strategic plans.

Introduction

In the last two decades, there has been a significant change in the Indian society, not only in the terms of economics following the post 1991 reforms but also in the dietary and health sectors. There is an increasing demand for livestock products, as a result the farming systems are becoming more and more intensive. With the high input intensive agricultural practices on the one hand, the limitations in terms of environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, health hazards to consumers, etc. are also on the rise which are acting as limiting factors to continue on the same path of intensification. To achieve sustainable intensification of agriculture, mixed crop-livestock systems, combining livestock and cash crops at farm level, are considered to be a good alternative (Russelle et al, 2007; Wilkins, 2008; Ryschawy et al., 2012). These practices benefit the environment by improving nutrient cycling (Hendrickson et al., 2008). In the agriculture based states of India, about 50% of the income is from the crop-livestock systems (Deshingkar et al., 2008). Mixed crop-livestock systems also generate higher economic efficiency in saving production costs through complementaries between crop and livestock (Wilkins, 2008). Apart from direct income by diversifying production, there is an added advantage of reducing risks with regard to market fluctuations (Russelle et al., 2007).

India is bestowed with a wide variety of livestock species which forms the backbone of the economy of majority of the farmers. Cattle are one of the important species domesticated by man mainly for their draftability in agricultural operations. Rearing of cattle is an integral part of the Indian agriculture as it is always considered as a subsidiary enterprise of the agriculture farming. The indigenous cattle are well known for their adaptability to the harsh tropical climatic conditions, ability to thrive in the resource poor production systems, better feed efficiency and disease resistance. Barring few dairy breeds, majority of the Indigenous cattle breeds are poor in their genetic potential for milk production. Considering the ever increasing demand from milk , the country has implemented many cattle improvement programmes like Central Herd Registration Scheme (CHRS), Intensive Cattle Development Programme (ICDP), All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Cattle National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development (NPBBD), National Livestock Mission, National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB), Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM) etc., for improving the milk productivity of cattle.

Abstract

In recent years there has been a world-wide shift in consumer choice and preferences for herbal drugs. Herbal drugs are crude preparations of various kinds of medicinal plants. It involves dried plant or any part such as leaf, stem, root, flower, or seed. According to WHO survey, about 70-80% of the world population particularly in the developing countries rely on non-conventional medicines mainly of herbal sources for their primary health care.^[1] Herbal medicines are being widely accepted for their safety, efficacy, cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects. With the legal acceptance in many countries of the world as an alternative system of medicine, the growth rate of ayurvedic and herbal industry is estimated to be more than 30% for the last 25 years. 

Introduction

With an ever-increasing global inclination towards the consumption of herbal medicines, there is a growing need of raw materials and to identify the active principles that should be available in optimum quantities at the requisite time. Currently, the herbal medicine sector faces numerous challenges such as narrow genetic base, identification and authentication of species, chemical characterization of active compounds and identification of the target molecules. The pharmacologically active metabolites are produced in very low amounts by the plants and their chemical synthesis is expensive, hence there is a growing pressure of procuring these active metabolites from the wild leading to diminishing the populations, loss of genetic diversity and local extinctions. Domestic cultivation of medicinal plants offers an attractive alternative but not much information is available regarding the cultivation practices for many plants and also, there are issues related to storage practices, quality, safety and stability assessment that need to be addressed. Futher, the study of secondary metabolites and their enhancement is a bottleneck due to lack of knowledge about characterized biosynthetic pathways and enzymes in many plants and how their synthesis is regulated at molecular level. To address these challenges, new molecular tools and biotechnological approaches are much warranted. However, the rapidly changing pace of technology and development of high-throughput research, the field of plant biotechnology is beginning to suffer from data overload. All biotechnological efforts have involved empirical, labor-intensive and time-consuming methods. Bioinformatics is one such approach in which biology and information technology converge. It is an interdisciplinary scientific tool that facilitates both the analysis and integration of information from ‘omics’ technologies including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics and phenomics. The present chapter highlights some of the important areas in bioinformatics which play a significant role and could also have immense impact in medicinal plants research.

The integration of pharmacology and bioinformatics has ushered in a new era of drug discovery and therapeutic innovati on, particularly in veterinary medicine. This interdisciplinary approach leverages computational tools to enhance the identification of drug targets, optimize treatment strategies, and address challenges such as antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and species specific drug metabolism. Pharmacogenomics, one of the most promising applications, allows for personalized medicine by tailoring drug therapies based on genetic variations in animals. Additionally, bioinformatics is revolutionizing vaccine development by identifying conserved antigens, aiding in the design of broad-spectrum and species-specific vaccines. In silico screening accelerates drug discovery by predicting drug-target interactions, reducing the time and cost of developing new veterinary therapies. Predictive modeling enables the simulation of disease progression and treatment outcomes, improving disease management. As bioinformatics technologies advance, they are poised to transform veterinary pharmacology, offering more precise and effective therapeutic options. This paper explores the synergies and applications of integrating pharmacology with bioinformatics to improve veterinary therapeutics, combat AMR, and accelerate drug discovery.

Energy is essential for each and every single biological reaction in the body of an individual. Production, reproduction and physiological functions of an animal depend on its body state and utilization of energy from dietary source and its body reserves. Energy reserves are determined primarily by the relative amount of fat accessible as an energy source and are indicative of health condition. Adipose tissue (AT) is a primary reservoir of energy and recognized as an immunologically and endocrinologically active tissue. Cattle have the ability to utilize body reserve to meet energy demand due to negative energy balance during peripartum period, which is crucial for maintaining their health lactation and neonates. There are several methods to measure tissue reserves like body weight, metabolic and hormonal factors, respiratory calorimeter body water by dilution with D2 O, estimation of fat cells diameter, ultrasound techniques etc. Body weight is not a good indicator as it is affected by different factors such as; age, parity, gestation, body frame, gastrointestinal contents weight of vital organs and shows a greater variation in measuring fat stores. Other methods are inapplicable in field conditions as they are costly, time consuming and need laboratory facilities and skilled technicians. However Body Condition Score (BCS) is an easier and the most practical method, which is an assessment of thickness of fat cover, prominence of bone of tail and head region.

Abstract

Scholars have long been interested in the effects of markets on the diet of native populations because of diet’s direct impacts on health. Exposure and assimilation into a market economy result in shifts in modes of subsistence and decision-making about food consumption. But the clear direction of influence is often elusive. Increased market integration predicts expanded access to goods and services that may improve household and individual diet. At the same time, greater involvement in market trade can shift economic priorities away from secure subsistence production toward the lure of material gain and novel items. Here, we analyze the effects of integration into the market economy on household diet using data from a panel study of two villages of Tsimane’, an indigenous group of lowland Bolivia. Because the Tsimane’ have been undergoing varying degrees of integration into the market economy, they provide an ideal population among which to examine the relation between markets and dietary change.

Introduction

Coordinated and innovative efforts of government agencies and milk producers’ has immensely increased milk production and ushered in White revolution in India leapfrogging the country to the leading position in milk production (102 million tonnes) in the world. With an annual rate of 4-5% and with a share of 18% in the agricultural gross domestic product; milk is largest agricultural commodity in India (Economic Survey, 2007-08). However, the improvement in milk production in past few decades has not necessarily resulted in proportionate increase in profits to dairy farmers as animals with high milk production have increased frequency of health disorders.

Rainfed farming has a distinct place in Indian Agriculture, occupying 67% of the cultivated area, contributing 44% of the food grains and supporting 40% of the human and 65% of the livestock population. It is characterized by resource poor farmers, poor infrastructure and low investment in technology inputs (Singh, 1999). The land use in rainfed areas is quite diverse with a variety of crops, cropping systems, agroforestry and livestock farming. The productivity levels have remained low over the years and the share of rainfed crops in the total food grain production has been declining. The rainfed ecosystem suffers from the problems of (i) frequent droughts due to high variability in the quantum and distribution of rainfall, (ii) poor soil health due to continued degradation and inadequate replenishment of nutrient exhaustion, (iii) low animal productivity due to an acute scarcity of fodder and (iv) low risk bearing capacity of farmers due to poor socio-economic base, credit availability and infrastructure.