eBook Chapters

Poultry industry in India has a strong standing globally, being third highest egg producer with more than 50000 million eggs and fifth highest broiler producer with 2.25 million tones of broiler meat. Largely, Indian poultry industry is chicken dominated and the rearing of high yielding varieties under intensive rearing system is the backbone of its present face. Analysis of trend of egg production in last five years i.e. 2001-2006 revealed that annual growth rate in egg production is about 5-6 %, except a much lower rate of 3 % during 2003.

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from natural sources or processes that are constantly replenished.

Renewable energy is energy derived from natural resources that replenish themselves over a period without depleting the Earth's resources.

The term "renewable energy" is energy derived from a broad spectrum of resources, all of which are based on self-renewing energy sources such as sunlight, wind, flowing water, the earth's internal heat, and biomass such as agricultural, industrial, and municipal waste.

It is the common maintenance of bee colonies by humans in hives made of man-made materials. The majority of these bees are honeybees from the genus Apis, however there are others that make honey, like Melipona. There are also stingless bees kept. A beekeeper raises bees to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers or to collect honey and other goods that hives generate, such as beewax, propolis, flower pollen, and bee pollen, to fertilize crops. An apiary, often known as a bee yard, is a place where bees are kept.

Background The Enormous diversity of our planet harbors individuals of the sexually reproducing population that are unique and non-identical in nature. This unique nature is the source of this vast diversity. Taxonomy is critical for identification and classification. The oldest of the scientific disciplines, taxonomy, isdescribed as the theory and practice of classifying organisms (Mayr, 1982; Mayr and Ashlock, 1991). Taxonomy is a branch of systematics that deals with the idea and practice of classifying and describing diversity (Nelson, 2006). According to the global estimates of species (Mora et al., 2011; Costello et al., 2013), 1.2-1.5 million species are considered to be described and valid to date (Costello et al., 2013; Mora et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2011). The enormous and intriguing variation among the species, as well as anatomical differences between species, developmental stages, and geographical ranges, make identification difficult. Rapid documenting of biodiversity should be a top priority before it is lost. This necessitates quick and accurate taxonomic expertise as well as enhanced identification methods, paving the way for the emergence of Integrative taxonomy (Dayrat, 2005), which combines all available data, whether morphological, behavioral, ecological, or molecular.

The integumentary system comprises the skin its hair and glands and modified cutaneous structures hooves, claws, horns, beak and feathers. Although the mammary gland is a skin derived organ, because of its close association with the female genital system it is included in respective chapter. The skin consists of two layers: a superficial layer, the epidermis, which is derived from ectoderm and a deeper layer, the dermis, which develops from mesoderm.

Epidermis : The epidermal layer covering the entire embryo initially consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells resting on a basal lamina. Shortly after neurulation, these ectodermally derived cells divide and give rise to a superficial layer of flattened cells, the periderm and underlying layer of cuboidal cells, the basal layer. Further, proliferation of the cells gives rise to an intermediate layer resulting in a multi-layered covering of epidermis. Cells of neural crest and mesodermal origin also contribute to the population of cells found in the skin.

14.1 Introduction

The integument is an envelope to separate and protect a fish from its environment; it also provides the means through which most contacts with the outer world are made (Fig. 14.1, 14.2 and 14.3). It is a large organ and is continuous with the linings of all body openings, and also covers the fins. The fish integument is dotted with various kinds of unicellular and multicellular glands along with abundant mucus-secreting glands. Poison glands of many cartilaginous fishes and some bony fishes are frequently associated with spines on the fins, tails, and gill covers. Photophores, light-emitting organs found especially in deep-sea forms, maybe modified mucous glands.

ABSTRACT

Intellectual property rights (IPR) have, in recent years, emerged as perhaps the most important aspect of legal system as far as protection of inventions is concerned. Intellectual property rights have been created to ensure protection against unfair trade practices. The protection of intellectual property rights (IPR) could be a means to acknowledge a creator for something new or it could be means to recover the financial investments of a financer. IPR ensures that the knowledge, innovation and capital involved in the development of a product/ technology are compensated with highest rewards, insufficient protection of IP will lead to fewer rewards and even some of the inventions will be driven to extinction. As a result the innovators may conveniently relocate to regions where they can protect the IP they develop, the latter will result in intellectual loss to a particular country. Knowledge management on the other hand, emphasizes the challenge behind effective management of innovation systems by providing protection to databases, learning tools and sharing process that innovators have developed over a period of time. Effective Knowledge management provides platform for sharing of technologies through licensing and cross-licensing agreements between different countries. The chapter deals with the fundamentals of intellectual property, its types, the applications of different categories of intellectual property in the area of science and technology including biotechnology, literature and arts, and the commercial value of intellectual property assets. Moreover, protecting traditional knowledge through the intellectual property rights and identification, documentation transmission revitalization and promotion of cultural heritage by traditional knowledge has been discussed.

I. PUBLIC POLICY CONCERNS

The working of the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement (TRIPS) Agreement, 1995 along with World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the jurisprudence developed for the last twenty years is a testimony to the fact that although TRIPS is geared to promote the protection of intellectual property rights internationally, yet some controversial public policy issues need to be addressed and solutions devised for addressing these public policy issues otherwise there is a possibility of seeing the demise of TRIPS Agreement or sidetracking it by some other methods which may not be conducive for maximizing the welfare of the international trading community. As all of us know that intellectual property and international trade are mutually inclusive and the minimum standards set forth in the TRIPS Agreement are economically value oriented. The trade offs among and between the members of the WTO need to be balanced on an even keel, otherwise the possibility of camaflouging the TRIPS Agreement and the attendant jurisprudence becomes real. The TRIPS Agreement addresses seven categories of IP rights such as; Copyright and related rights; Patents; Trademarks and Service marks; Geographical Indications; Undisclosed Information or Trade Secrets; Industrial Designs ; and Layout Designs of Integrated Circuits and read with other WIPO Treaties obligates the members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to reduce distortions and impediments to international trade by taking into account the effective and adequate protection of intellectual property rights as well as the procedures for the enforcement should not become barriers to international trade. The TRIPS Agreement also recognizes the need to cater to the special needs of the developing and least developed countries.

Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the human mind, such as inventions, literary and artistic works, symbols, names, images, and designs, which are protected by law. The protection of intellectual property is essential for promoting innovation, creativity, and economic growth. In order to ensure effective protection of intellectual property rights, various governing bodies, organizations, agreements, and treaties have been established at national and international levels. These bodies are responsible for setting and enforcing standards and regulations related to IP, as well as facilitating cooperation and coordination among different countries and stakeholders. Some of the major international organizations and agreements that deal with intellectual property include the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), and the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property. These organizations and agreements play a crucial role in creating a conducive environment for innovation, investment, and development, while at the same time ensuring fair and equitable access to intellectual property for all.

Introduction

One of the main challenges in sustainable farming is determining the patentability of living organisms, including genetically modified crops and biotech innovations. Balancing the rights of inventors and the public’s access to agricultural resources can be so complex the Seed saving and farmer’s rights Seed saving is a traditional practice where farmers save and reuse seeds from their harvest. However, some intellectual property rights (IPR) regimes restrict farmers’ ability to save and exchange seeds, potentially limiting their autonomy and leading to dependence on commercial seed suppliers. Biopiracy and traditional knowledge Protecting traditional knowledge and preventing biopiracy is a significant concern in sustainable farming. Nearby agriculturists and inborn individuals habitually have imperative conventional information approximately plant sorts and rural procedures that’s esteemed, and they are decently compensated for their endeavors. Maintainable advancement became a major worldwide agenda thing within the afterward decades of the 20th century! According to the Brundtland report from 1987: “Our Common Future,” provided the most recognized concept of sustainable development, meeting future demands without sacrificing existing practices to be adopted for future aspects. (Ahmed Abdel-Latif, 2021). While a few Intellectual property rights have been pointed out such as the plant breeder’s rights trademark, security of plant assortments and ranchers’ rights (PPV and FR), topographical signs, and exchange insider facts are exceptionally significant to horticulture. In expansion, format plans for chips particularly planned for farming; logical papers, and tv programs covering thoughts related to horticulture and partnered segments must be considered. (Datta, 2016).

Introduction

In India, the concept of commercialization of technology from R&D is relatively new in most sectors; especially in agriculture & animal Husbandry. The Government of India has recently announced the “National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) policy (GOI, 2016a). The policy advocates promotion of a holistic and conducive ecosystem for catalyzing the intellectual property for economic, socio-cultural development and protecting public interest. The policy document put forth seven objectives namely i) IPR awareness: outreach and promotion, ii) generation of IPRs, iii) legal and legislative framework, iv) administrative management, v) commercialization of IPR, vi) enforcement and adjudication and vii) human capital development. The policy aims at strengthening the national initiatives such as- Make in India, Skill India, Startup India, Smart Cities, Digital India (GOI, 2016). The flagship program of the Government like Startup India aims at building a strong ecosystem for nurturing innovations and Start-ups in the country (GOI, 2016). Under this, Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) is the action plan envisaged with the focus on promotion of entrepreneurship and innovation in sectors such as manufacturing, agriculture, health and education (GOI, 2016).

Intellectual Property: Intellectual property is an intangible creation of the human mind, usually expressed or translated into a tangible form that is assigned certain rights of property. It includes, inventions, trademarks, industrial design and geographical indications.

Intellectual Property Rights: Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the rights given to people over the creation of their minds. They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creations for a certain period of time. It includes, creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce.

Introduction

Intellectual property encompasses the products of human creativity, including inventions, artistic works, and commercial symbols. It can be categorized into two main types: industrial property and copyright. Industrial property covers patents, trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic indications of source. Copyright, on the other hand, protects literary and artistic works such as novels, poems, films, music, and visual arts. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) also extend to related areas such as performers’ rights, recording producers’ rights, and broadcasting rights. These rights safeguard the interests of creators by granting them exclusive ownership over their creations. However, unlike tangible property, intellectual property lacks physical characteristics and must be expressed in a discernible manner to be protected.

Traditionally, intellectual property comprised four primary types: patents, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secrets. However, the concept has evolved to encompass newer forms, such as geographical indications, plant variety protection, semiconductor and integrated circuit (IC) protection, and undisclosed information. This expansion reflects the changing landscape of innovation driven by rapid technological, scientific, and medical advancements.

Introduction

In India, concern for the protection of intellectual properties took place way back in 1911 through the Indian Design Act.  Since then laws (Indian Patent Act, 1970 and its amendments) were enacted for the protection of various intellectual properties. However, the subject matter of intellectual property did not receive attention in agricultural sector, although scientists and farmers have been developing new plant varieties for almost the entire part of our agricultural history.  The development of new crop varieties on a scientific basis began only in the last 50 years with advanced knowledge of genetics and plant breeding. The entry of genetics into plant breeding resulted in major advances culminating in the development of high yielding hybrids and varieties. Indian agriculture witnessed the arrival of hybrids and high yielding crop varieties in the 1960s, during the Green Revolution.

Intellectual property: It can be defined as creations of intellectual brain which has value, utility/application in the society and can be traded in commerce for economic benefits.

Significance of Intellectual Property: The significance of protection of Intellectual Property has been realized for wealth and value creation in a knowledge-based economy. The agricultural scientists are comparatively little aware of IPR issues because their primary mandate has always been the free delivery of technology to the end users particularly the farmers. After the implementation of TRIPS Agreement during 1995, the worldwide focus of scientists and planners was shifted on the development of time appropriate technologies, protection of inventions/ technologies and real time technology transfer through licensing for industrial and agricultural growth leading to overall economic development. Under the changing scenario of global trade, where national governments are entering into bilateral agreements for tackling IPR issues to promote trade, agricultural scientists must also look for managing their intellectual properties in tune with the existing IP legislation of the country.

Previous Year Questions

1. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds: inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names and images used in commerce. They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time?

2. Plant varietal protection?

• The importance of intellectual property was first recognized in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883) and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1886). Both treaties are administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).

Definition and History

The dictionary meaning of property is ‘estate whether in lands, goods or money’; such property is often referred to as tangible, material or physical property. The laws of the land protect the ownership of and the associated rights to physical property. In contrast, “intellectual property is an idea, a design, an invention, a manuscript, etc. which can ultimately give rise to a useful product/ application. The development of such property, as a rule, requires intellectual inputs, ingenuity and innovativeness; it also demands considerable monetary and other resources. Therefore, inventor of an intellectual property would like to ensure at least a fair reward for copied, imitated or reproduced; this minimizes the returns to the original inventor. Intellectual property right recognizes the right of an inventor to derive economic benefits from his invention (i.e. intellectual property); this right is called intellectual property right (IPR), (Singh, 2002). The governments, however, recognize the IPR, only so long as it is not to the detriment of the society. In India, innovation and novel techniques were retained within the families / small social groups that developed them, and there was no other system of protecting their rights to the knowledge so generated. The brief history of intellectual property right in India is:

In 1856, the British Government in India introduced the Act of Protection of Inventions. This act was based on the British Patent Law of 1852.

In 1872, Patents and Designs Protection Act was passed.

In 1883, the Protection of Inventions Act was introduced. It was consolidated as Inventions and Designs Act in 1888.

On 15 August 1947, the Indian patents and designs came under the management of Controller of Patents and Designs.

The Indian Patent Act (1970) was introduced in the parliament in 1965, was modified in 1967 and passed in 1970.

Protection of designs is covered by the Indian Patent and Design Act (1911) with amendments in 1978 and amended rules in 1985.

Trademark protection is in force since 1 June 1948 under the 1940 Act. This act was amended as Indian Trade and Merchandise Marks Act (1958), which became effective on 25 November 1959.

The copyright laws in India are as per international standards.

Introduction
 
Intellectual property is a cluster of legally recognized rights associated with innovation and creativity, the works of the mind, as against physical products, land and other tangible resources. Even though it is intangible, intellectual property (IP) is often recognized as personal property, to be sold and traded like other forms of property. Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to various markets, machines, musical, literary, and artistic works; discoveries and inventions; and applications. But national laws normally don’t define ‘intellectual property’ as a single property right. Instead, ‘intellectual property’ is used as a convenient general term describing a range of distinct legal rights, relating to literary, artistic and scientific works; performances of performing artists; phonograms, and broadcasts; inventions in all fields of human endeavour; scientific discoveries; industrial designs; trademarks, service marks, and commercial names and designations; protection against unfair competition and all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields.

Abstract

Trade Related Agreements on Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) widely affects the agricultural sector which is largely unorganised in India. At the same time this sector remains the bread winner for majority of the population of the country. The Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) affect the extensive and intensive margins in agricultural trade. This paper draws attention of enterprises in the field of agricultural biotechnology which has genetic modification (GM) as one of its core activity. GM is of benefit in terms of value additive features but also of great concern for the community in conservation of biodiversity. Food & Agricultural Organisation (FAO), being aware of the pitfalls of implementing IPRs in agriculture, constituted an expert panel to study the issues pertaining to the sector. They came up with very clear directives to the FAO on the course of action. This paper aims to focus on this area to identify the micro-level dynamics of IPRs in agriculture and its effects on the rural enterprises in India. The impact of IPRs and its ramifications, the issues of agricultural productivity and its future trajectory, are to be understood from the perspective of an entrepreneur’s policy decisions. This will lead to identification of policies that would help in harnessing IPRs for the growth of Indian agriculture.

Introduction

For upliftment of the Indian economy agriculture plays an important role as it has contributed immensely. Nearly, three quarters of India’s family depend on rural incomes. Majority of India’s poor live in rural areas. Most people depend upon the crops, vegetables, fruits grown by these rural population. India’s food security is depended upon the inputs made by the farmers which has been a reason for increasing food insecurity in India. To meet with this accelerated pace a productive, competitive, diversified and sustainable agriculture sector needs to be introduced (The World Bank, 2012).

India being a global agricultural powerhouse, is the world’s largest producer of millet, pulses and spices and also has the largest cattle herd in the world, India also produces largest amount of wheat, rice and cotton. Agriculture is a part of India’s culture and tradition. In India, the culture, tradition and festivals are in a way related to different crops grown by the farmers. Along with this agriculture is deeply rooted with the community lifestyle in India. The community freely share their knowledge related to growing, sowing and harvesting of crops, they also distribute or share the produced crops among each other freely (OECD, 2018).

An understanding of intellectual property rights for plant breeders has become increasingly important over the last few decades. It is also a confusing topic to many in the industry. Confusion is understandable when we are presented with various types of protection, many acronyms, terms used interchangeably and incorrectly, regulations that vary internationally and a lack of understanding or consistent interpretations of laws that govern these rights.

Plants are unique from other marketed products due to their complex nomenclature, ease of propagation and the many levels of distribution and promotion involved in their marketing. The protection is required for a plant cultivar needs to be considered in relation to all of these factors in order to be correctly implemented and maintained. Breeding and commercialization of new ornamental plant varieties is an economically important activity both for the industry and the well being of our society. Breeding or developing a new variety requires a long time. In horticultural crops, it takes 3-10 years from initial crossing of parent cultivars to develop a commercial variety. It is important to encourage development of new variety by providing incentives such as Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR) over exclusive production and marketing of seed of an improved variety. When the new cultivar is introduced and commercialized, plant breeders finally begin to get paid for their years of hard work in the form of royalties. Legal protection for new plant varieties provides the means by which companies, institutions, and independent plant breeders can receive a return on their investments of time and money as well as justify their involvement in research and new plant development. In addition, legal protection enables plant breeders to be recognized for their craft and skill and encourages plant breeding as a profession. Plant variety protection provides an incentive for continued breeding and to ensure the availability of new varieties that meet future demands and keep the industry thriving.

Biotechnology is a field of science that applies technology to living organisms, cells, and their molecular components, to develop products and services that improve human life. Biotechnology covers a wide range of applications, from agriculture and food production to medicine and healthcare, environmental management, and industrial biotechnology. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are legal rights that protect the creations of the human mind, such as inventions, literary and artistic works, symbols, and designs. In the context of biotechnology, IPRs are critical to incentivize research and development, protect the fruits of scientific discoveries, and ensure that the inventors and investors of biotechnological inventions can benefit financially from their investment.

The importance of protecting biotechnological inventions lies in the fact that these inventions can be expensive and time-consuming to develop, and may require significant financial resources bring to market. Without appropriate legal protection, biotechnological inventions may be vulnerable to unauthorized use, duplication, and exploitation by third parties, leading to reduced incentives for research and development and potential loss of economic benefits for inventors and investors.

Introduction

The WTO was established on 1^st January 1995 and is responsible for making and enforcing rules for trade between nations. WTO marks a major change in global trade rules. As an organization, it replaces the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades (GATT), which had been in existence since 1947. The Eighth Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations under GATT, which started in Uruguay in 1986, was concluded in 1994, leading to the creation of WTO as the new permanent international trade organization. The role of WTO is much more extensive than that of GATT, which dealt with trade in goods. Apart from goods, the two other broad areas that WTO covers are services and intellectual property, which previously belonged to the domestic domain. Accordingly, WTO administers not only the Multilateral Trade Agreements (MTAs) in goods but also the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which came into existence with WTO. All the agreements annexed to the Agreement establishing the WTO were signed as part of a package deal. Member countries did not have the option of choosing some and rejecting others. Another important difference with the erstwhile GATT is that WTO has a stronger compliance mechanism (Chawla, 2007a).

As one of the WTO agreements, TRIPS is binding on all member countries of WTO. TRIPS aims at establishing strong minimum standards for intellectual property rights (IPRs). Apart from patents, intellectual property includes copyrights, trademarks, geographical indications, industrial designs, integrated circuits and trade secrets. The protection of IPRs is binding and legally enforceable. Intellectual property (IP) is a product of the mind. Intellectual property is intangible in contrast to real property (land) or physical property, which one can see, feel and use. With any type of property there are property rights. When IPs are expressed in a tangible form, they can also be protected. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) have been created to protect the right of individuals to enjoy their creations and discoveries. In fact, IPRs can be traced back to the fourteenth century, when European monarchs granted proprietary rights to writers for their literary works.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are legal rights, which result from intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. These rights safeguard creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control their use. Protected IP rights like other property can be a matter of trade, which can be owned, sold or bought. These are intangible and non exhausted consumption. The term “intellectual property” denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise and not the intellectual work itself (Chadha, 2013). Intellectual property rights are essentially territorial in nature so, where registration is necessary, for patents, registered designs and trademarks, these will not exist in other countries unless registration has been sought and obtained there.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are legal rights, which result from intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. These rights safeguard creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control their use. Protected IP rights like other property can be a matter of trade, which can be owned, sold or bought. These are intangible and non exhausted consumption. The term “intellectual property” denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise and not the intellectual work itself (Chadha, 2013). Intellectual property rights are essentially territorial in nature so, where registration is necessary, for patents, registered designs and trademarks, these will not exist in other countries unless registration has been sought and obtained there.

IP protection is crucial for a sustainable contribution of plant breeding and seed supply. Breeding new varieties of plants, which are developed after contributing number of years to the selective inheritance of traits which provide improved yields, higher quality and better resistance to such plant varieties requires a substantial investment in terms of skill, labour, material and economic resources. However, a new variety once released could in many cases be readily reproduced by others so as to deprive its breeder of the opportunity to benefit adequately from the investment made. Thus, an effective system of plant variety protection (PVP) is a key enabler for investment in breeding and the development of new varieties of plants or improving existing plant varieties, encourage importation of foreign varieties, promote exportation of plant varieties provide access to information of the created products and the methodology of creation for the enhancement of social welfare and generally benefit the market place. An international system of IPR protection for plant varieties expands these benefits by facilitating access to new varieties created in other states (Gautam et al., 2012).

Intellectual property is usually divided into two branches: (i) industrial property and(ii) copyright and the rights which neighbour upon copyright. The principal categories of industrial property are: patents, trademarks, geographical indications, industrial designs and trade secrets. Industrial property according to the 1883 Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property is to be understood in the broadest sense and to apply not only to industry and commerce proper but also to agricultural and extractive industries and to all manufactured or natural products including wines, grain, tobacco, leaf, fruit, cattle, minerals, mineral waters, beer, flowers and flour.

Abstract

Intellectual property has increasingly assumed a vital role that we are witnessing today with the rapid pace of technological, scientific and medical innovation. Moreover, changes in the global economic environment have influenced the development of business models where intellectual property is a central element establishing value and potential growth. In India several new legislations for the protection of intellectual property rights (IPRs) have been passed to meet the international obligations under the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Forest seed of economic importance and the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) play a very important role in the country’s economy.

1. Introduction

Intellectual property is a term referring to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. While intellectual property law has evolved over centuries, it was not until the 19^th century that the term Intellectual Property began to be used, and not until the late 20^th century that it became commonplace in the majority of the world.

Agriculture (including horticulture) and forestry are the two most important sectors in the land use system of India covering know 46.1% (141.2 m ha) and 22.2% (69.02 m ha), respectively of total geographic area of the country. Intellectual Property Right (IPR) was of limited significance in cultivation and improvement of agricultural, horticultural and forest crops and aggregation of these three sections comprises the Plant Genetic Resources (PGRs). IPRs were not applied to plants in earlier days. PGRs are the foundation for the development of food and nutritionally secured nation. Food is the foremost important to sustain life and livelihood followed by shelter and cloth. Thus, the slogan of 3Fs may be modified as, “Food, Frame (shelter) and Fibre (cloth)” instead of Food, Fodder and Fire-wood. All these 3Fs we get from PGRs.

We live in a knowledge economy, where ideas generated by talented people and the inventions they make are the new currency. Research and innovation are now seen as the key differentiating factors determining the market value of a product or service. The emphasis today has graduated from cost arbitrage and quality deliverables to Intellectual property (IP) creation and research and development. Intellectual or Intangible property is the creation of human mind. An intellectual property under protection by law is intellectual property right (IPR). Intellectual property is an important business asset giving significant competitive advantages. Intellectual properties are protected by giving time bound restriction to inventor, owner, author, originator, or plant breeder to use, sell, share, or distribute intellectual asset. These are exclusive rights to the owner and give ability for a lawsuit against others for infringement of IP owner. It is also a marketable asset, which can be licensed out to a third party bringing income to the business in the form of license payments and royalties. Intellectual property rights are legal rights, which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. These rights give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations. Intellectual property rights safeguard the creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control the use made of those productions. These rights also promote creativity, dissemination, application of their results and encourage fair-trading, which contributes to economic and social development.

Intellectual property : Refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs.

Intellectual property (IP) means a brand, invention, design or other kind of creation.Intellectual property contains an author’s copyright on a book or article, a distinctive logo design of any product or web site, patent regarding the process of manufacturing.However, Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) can be defined as legal rights given to people over the creation of their minds or intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. Creator gets an exclusive right for a certain period of time to use his/her creations.Creations of the mind means inventions, literary and artistic works and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. Intellectual property laws vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, such that the acquisition, registration or enforcement of IP rights must be pursued or obtained separately in each territory of interest.

12.1. Common Term Used • GATT (General Agreements on Tariffs & Trade) • WTO (World Trade Organization) • TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual Property Right)/IPR/Pateni/Copy right/ Trademark /G.l./Sui generis system etc. • UPOV/PVP/PBR/Farmer’s Right • CBD (Convention on Biodiversity) What is GATT? • Established in 1948 (after 2nd World War) • For the smooth conduct of trade by 22 countries (India was the party) • Several negotiations • Usually trades related to industries • Eight round at Uruguay in 1986 • First time issues on agricultural trade, textile, investment, IPR were discussed • (moral victory for the developing world especially county like IndiaWhat is WTO? • WTO is the only international organization dealing with global rule of trade (through revised GATT agreement; also called as GATT Rule Book) • On 15th April 1994 (1986-194) in Mexico, 125 countries signed the agreement • On 1 January 1995, came in force as WTO • HQ: Geneva; —140 members; wwwAvto.org Function of WTO • Administrating trade agreements. • Providing forum for trade negotiations. / • Settling trade disputes (DSC). • Reviewing national trade policies. • Technical assistance (training). • Cooperating with other institions organizations

5.1 Introduction

The application of chemical pesticides is crucial in horticultural production, but it is also one of the most hazardous agricultural operations. Overapplication can lead to significant environmental concerns. Spraying is vital for reducing harvest losses and improving productivity. According to Cho et al.,(2012), 30-35% of production damages can be prevented by reducing harmful insects and diseases through spraying. Plant protection is essential for ensuring yield quantity and quality. Effective pesticide use is crucial, as excessive application can lead to pests developing immunity, destruction of beneficial insects and natural pest enemies, and increased harmful insect populations. Excessive pesticide use also disrupts pollination, preventing fruit formation. The method of pesticide application is key to targeting the correct quantity and quality, reducing environmental contamination, and increasing sustainability (Abbas et al., 2020). Site-specific application rates in precision horticulture can decrease pesticide use. Only 30-40% of pesticides typically reach their targets, with most lost to the environment, contaminating workers and causing pollution. Protecting plants with chemicals aims to prevent infections and ensure healthy growth.

Spray drift can harm non-target plants and contaminate watercourses, posing a severe and costly problem for horticultural farmers using air-assisted variable sprayers (Seol et al., 2022). Spray drift refers to airborne spray droplets moving beyond the intended application area from aerial or ground-based methods. Studies have found that a significant portion of pesticides is lost to the air and ground, with up to 30-50% of the applied pesticides being lost through various means (Abbas et al., 2020). Modern trends emphasize the importance of sensors and precision agriculture for effective pesticide use. Understanding tree canopy physical features is crucial for effective spray application. This study focuses on recognizing and geometrically classifying canopies for adequate pesticide protection. Variable rate spraying targets only the canopy, enhancing pesticide application efficiency (Rathnayake et al., 2022). Electronic methods and innovative equipment reduce operational and environmental costs. Sensors tracking canopy characteristics and spacing ensure optimal use of inputs, promoting sustainability.

Introduction

Soil, water and vegetation are three basic natural resources. The survival of God’s creation depends upon them and nature has provided them as assets to human beings. The management of natural resources to meet people’s requirements has been practised since the pre-Vedic era. Farmers were ranked high in the social system and village management was in their hands. Over-exploitation of natural resources by growing population resulted in various severe problems. Destruction of vegetation has resulted in land degradation, denudation, soil erosion, landslides, floods, drought and unbalanced ecosystems. A balanced ecosystem is an urgent need.

There is an increasing realization throughout the world, about the state of our environment, caused by over-exploitation of natural resources for economic development. Resource exploitation in the developing world has largely been geared to meet the very basic needs of food, fodder, fuelwood and shelter of a large section of deprived societies. On the other hand, developed parts of the world have largely concerned themselves in trying to maintain and accelerate the already very high levels of resource consumption that they have achieved for a much smaller segment of the world’s population, based on an early initiative taken and advantage gained through industrialization. Natural resource base has often viewed as limitless by the industrialized world either due to a myopic view of the future or because of their immense faith in technology being able to substitute for the natural resource capital. This faith in technological quick-fixes for world’s problems linked with over-consumption is still prevalent.

Since the mid 1980s, genome identification and selection has progressed rapidly with the help of PCR technology. A large number of marker protocols that are rapid and require only small quantities of DNA have been developed. Three widely-used PCR-based markers are RAPDs (Williams et al., 1990), SSRs or microsatellites (Tautz, 1989), and AFLPs (Vos et al., 1995). Each marker technique has its own advantages and disadvantages. RAPD markers are very quick and easy to develop (because of the arbitrary sequence of the primers) but lack reproducibility (Karp et al., 1997; Hansen et al., 1998; Jones et al., 1999; Virk et al., 2000). AFLP has medium reproducibility but is labour intensive and has high operational and development costs (Karp et al., 1997). Microsatellites are specific and highly polymorphous (Karp et al., 1997, Jones et al., 1999), but they require knowledge of the genomic sequence to design specific primers and, thus, are limited primarily to economically important species.

The choice of a molecular marker technique depends on its reproducibility and simplicity. The best markers for genome mapping, marker assisted selection, phylogenic studies, and crop conservation have low cost and labour requirements and high reliability. Since 1994, a new molecular marker technique called inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) has been available (Zietkiewicz et al., 1994). ISSRs are semiarbitrary markers amplified by PCR in the presence of one primer complementary to a target microsatellite. Amplification in the presence of nonanchored primers also has been called microsatellite-primed PCR, or MP-PCR, (Meyer et al., 1993).

Introduction

In the last two decades global climate change has perceptible and marked impact on the monsoon pattern in India. Delayed and inadequate monsoon has become a recurrent feature and the country is in the grip of drought-flood cycles. Right from the beginning of large scale irrigation that brought green revolution and food self sufficiency to the country, there is a strong feeling that full potential of rivers of the country is not tapped (Table 1).

ABSTRACT

A study was conducted to compare inter-sensor variability by computing vegetation indices, NDVI & SR. The two sensors compared were Hyperion and ALI (Advanced Land Imager) present on EO-1 satellite. Hyperion is a hyperspectral sensor having a spectral range of 400-2500nm with 10nm bandwidth. ALI is a multispectral sensor with 10 bands of 100nm bandwidth. Hyperion and ALI data were acquired at the same time for two different seasons, dry (April) and wet (October) seasons over Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary, Gujarat, India. Vegetation indices such as SR “ Simple Ratio and NDVI -Normalized Differential Vegetation Index were performed. Seasonal variations were observed in both the data sets. For SR index, Hyperion performed well using October month data. In comparison with ALI, Hyperion showed high NDVI for both deciduous and evergreen species using October month data. The highest NDVI value is assumed to represent the maximum vegetation “greenness” during that period. Results clearly indicated the superiority of Hyperion in vegetation analysis using NDVI & SR indices.

Keywords : Hyperion data (EO-1), ALI (Advance Land Imager),Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary, NDVI, Simple Ratio (SR)

Abstract

Development of reliable automated techniques for the identification and annotation of exon and intron regions in a gene has been an important area of research in the field of computational biology. Several classical approaches like probabilistic model, artificial intelligence and digital signal processing are already in use to cater to this challenging task. In this work, we propose a Support Vector Machine based kernel learning approach for detecting splice site patterns and their conservation across the species. Electron-Ion Interaction Potential (EIIP) values of nucleotides were used to map DNA character sequences to corresponding numeric sequences. Radial Basis Function (RBF) SVM kernel was trained with cross validation using these EIIP numeric sequences. This was then tested on test gene datasets of multiple species for detection of splice site pattern. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves and various other statistical measures have been utilized for displaying the performance of the classifier. Results indicate an inter-species splice site conversion profile.

Introduction

In recent decades, integrating trees with crops for food and wood production has received considerable attention in both tropical (Garrity et al., 2010) and temperate regions (Palma et al., 2007). The growing of trees in combination with the agricultural crop is a land management practice that farmers have been practicing since the ancient period. Seasonal agricultural/horticulture crops, woody perennial trees (multipurpose), and/or animals are major components of various agroforestry systems. According to Sanchez (1995), the science of agroforestry revolves around four aspects: competitiveness, complexity, sustainability, and profitability, and all of these factors must be balanced in order to produce beneficial outcomes. In fact, agroforestry is significantly assisting in meeting the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) such as poverty and hunger eradication, improved health, nutrition, and education for people, gender equality, and environmental sustainability, particularly in developing countries (Garrity, 2004, 2006).

An electron impringing on a solid surface may be scattered once, several times, or never. When an incident electron beam bombard atoms of the sample, secondary electrons (SEs) and backscattered electrons (BSEs) emerge from the sample surface. Multiple scatterings occur if the dimension of the material is greater than approximately twice the mean free path of the electrons. This scattering may be elastic or inelastic. A pear shaped volume (interaction volume) is formed as shown in Fig. 1 and this volume of excitation increases with increase in the beam voltage (electron energy) and decreases with the increasing specimen density (ion atomic number).

Plant parasitic nematodes favour the establishment of secondary pathogens viz., fungi, bacteria, virus etc. The nematodes alter the host in such a way that the host tissue becomes suitable for colonization by the secondary pathogens. Even though the nematodes themselves are capable of causing considerable damage to the crops, their association with other organisms aggravate the disease. The nematodes cause mechanical wound which favours the entry of microorganisms. In some cases, the association of nematode and pathogen breaks the disease resistance in resistant cultivators of crop plants.

Nematode - Fungus Interaction

Nematode - fungus interaction was first observed by Atkinson (1892) in cotton. Fusarium wilt was more severe in the presence of Meloidogyne spp. Since then the nematode - fungus interations had received considerable attention on important crops like banana, cotton, cowpea, brinjal, tobacco and tomato. Some examples of nematode - fungus interaction are given in the following table.

Plant parasitic nematodes favour the establishment of secondary pathogens viz., fungi, bacteria, virus etc. The nematodes alter the host in such a way that the host tissue becomes suitable for colonization by the secondary pathogens. Even though the nematodes themselves are capable of causing considerable damage to the crops, their association with other organisms aggravate the disease.

Introduction

The realm of agricultural policies and environmental policies stands as two critical pillars influencing the sustainability and equilibrium of our ecosystem. Agricultural policies primarily focus on regulations and measures instituted by governments or institutions to manage agricultural practices, production, distribution, and rural development. Conversely, environmental policies aim to safeguard and conserve natural resources, biodiversity, and ecosystems while mitigating the adverse impacts of human activities on the environment.

Overview of Agricultural and Environmental Policies

Agricultural policies often encompass subsidies, price controls, land use regulations, and trade agreements aimed at bolstering agricultural productivity, ensuring food security, and supporting rural economies (Fischer & Edmeades, 2010). Conversely, environmental policies encompass a broad spectrum of regulations, such as pollution control measures, wildlife protection, habitat conservation, and climate change mitigation strategies (Boyd & Banzhaf, 2007).

Importance of Understanding Their Interactions

Understanding the interactions between agricultural and environmental policies is crucial due to their interconnectedness and potential trade-offs. Agricultural activities significantly impact the environment through deforestation, water pollution from agricultural runoff, greenhouse gas emissions, and loss of biodiversity (Pretty et al., 2008). Conversely, environmental conditions greatly influence agricultural productivity and sustainability, including soil quality, water availability, and climate patterns. Recognition of these interdependencies is vital for devising coherent policies that foster sustainable agricultural practices without compromising environmental integrity (Tilman et al., 2011). The challenge lies in formulating policies that strike a balance between agricultural production goals and environmental conservation imperatives.

Introduction

Biological control of plant pathogens is currently accepted as a key practice in sustainable agriculture. Plant parasitic nematodes and mycorrhizal fungi are commonly found inhabiting the same soil and colonizing roots of their host plants. These two groups of microorganisms exert a characteristics, but opposite effect on plant health. The potential role of mycorrhizal fungi as biocontrol agent for the control of nematode plant diseases has recently received considerable attention. The literature on the various aspects of VAM research such as interaction of VAM- mycorrhizal fungi with nematode pathogens (Sikora, 1995, Pinochet et al. 1996), biotechnology and future of VAM commercialization (Wood and Cumming, 1992) and trends in mycorrhizal research (Sahay et al. 1998) has been reviewed. The damage due to nematodes diseases is generally decreased in mycorrhizal fungi has shown an antagonistic influence on the population of plant parasitic nematodes (Nagesh et al. 1999, Kantharaju et al.

Abstract

Intensification of agriculture during the last few decades has resulted in considerable depletion of the productivity of Indian soils and the balance sheet of potassium (K) is highly negative due to very low level of K fertilization. Although the need for balanced fertilization is known for many years, it is not always observed in practice by farmers. Since the effects of nitrogen are easily seen and crops look more vigorous and yield better, excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers, accompanied by an inadequate supply of other nutrients, is considered by farmers as a reasonable insurance against yield losses. Often, the lack of K restricts nitrogen uptake and utilization, and hence plant growth. When K is limiting, nitrogen fertilizers are used inefficiently by the plants. This nutrient imbalance is thus closely associated with low nitrogen-use-efficiency (NUE) of crop plants, which is detrimental to crop production and environment – because of the consequences of N unused by the crop.

Introduction

Interactive media is the integration of digital media including combinations of electronic text, graphics, moving images, and sound, into a structured digital computerised environment that allows people to interact with the data for appropriate purposes. The digital environment can include the Internet, telecoms and interactive digital television. No wonder it is difficult for new entrants to understand. The important concepts to hold on to are ‘interactive’ and ‘media’ across a range of ‘delivery channels’ or ‘platforms’. There are many terms used to denote the interactive nature of digital applications—multimedia, new media and interactive design are common examples. Because the interactive sector has quickly evolved through phases, the terms have often been coined to reflect a phase that then gets surpassed. A quick historical overview will give the background that causes confusion for those joining the dynamic sector.

The word Multimedia used to have a specialist connotation for the audio-visual industry. Uses of multiple or mixed media in such analogue systems as slide shows or overhead projectors were known as ‘multimedia’. But this specialist use was superseded by the arrival of digital technology. Integrated digital media was termed interactive multimedia and usually shortened to plain multimedia for convenience. The need to differentiate between analogue (linear) and digital (interactive) uses of media spawned other terms like New Media and Digital Media. The term ‘New media’ carries its own problems as the media associated with the original term are replaced with newer instances of the ‘new’. Obsolescence is endemic in the interactive arena. However, the term remains in use although Digital Media and Interactive Media are more stable terms and are being used increasingly. The term Interactive Media highlights the interactive connotation that is a key characteristic of the difference between the older style media and the new. ‘Social media’ has evolved to describe the more recent success of digital social sites such as Facebook and MySpace, and would include the phenomenon of mobile texting, especially twitter.

What is an IVR

IVR or Interactive Voice Response is a technology that automates interaction of a database with telephone callers. Enterprises are increasingly turning to IVR to reduce the cost of common sales, service, collections, inquiry and support calls to and from their company.

IVR solutions are generally used with pre-recorded voice prompts and menus to present information and options to callers, and touch-tone telephone keypad entry to gather responses. Modern IVR solutions however, also enable input and responses to be gathered via spoken words with voice recognition.

IVR solutions enable users to retrieve information including bank balances, flight schedules, product details, order status, movie show times, and more from any telephone. Additionally, IVR solutions are increasingly used to place outbound calls to deliver or gather information for appointments, past due bills, and other time critical events and activities.

Intercropping

Canopy of cashew to cover the entire area in about 8 to 10 years when grown under normal spacing of 8m x 8m in fertile soil. However, in marginal lands, it takes 10 to 12 years for the canopy to cover entire area. Cashew when grown in hilly regions there is a possibility of soil erosion and weed growth during initial years of planting (Yadukumar and Nayak, 2000). Intercropping is the only available best options to prevent such erosions and conserve soil and moisture in hilly areas and to obtain sustainable income.

Recently, establishment of large plantations and adoption of systematic package of practices and intercropping is practiced to realize additional income in the initial years of cashew cultivations. When the cashew canopy starts touching the neighbouring trees possibility of intercropping is ruled out. Mixed cropping with other tree species is not widely accepted and even not advisable (Anon., 1997), though there are a few instances of growing casuarina as mixed crop in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa states (Yadukumar and Nayak, 2000).

Historical perspective: Planting of single crops or mono-cultural agriculture—is a recent invention of the industrial agricultural complex (Hirst, 2019). While unequivocal archaeological evidence is difficult to come by, it’s believed that most agricultural field systems in the past involved some form of mixed cropping. That’s because of even botanical evidence of plant residues such as starches or phytoliths of multiple crops are discovered in an ancient fields (Hirst, 2019). Mixed cropping, also known as polyculture, or co-cultivation, is a type of agriculture that involves planting two or more crop plants simultaneously in the same field so that they grow together. The primary reason for prehistoric multi or mixed cropping probably had more to do with the needs of the farmer’s family and perhaps to avoid crop failure. It’s possible that certain plants adapted to multi-cropping over time disappeared as a result of the domestication process (Hirst 2016).

Since time immemorial India has been leader in respect to spice, area, production and consumption. India is known as ‘Land of spices. Out of 109 spices listed by the ISO, India produce as many as 63 owing to its varied agroclimatic regions. Almost all the state and union territory of the country grow one or the other spices. Spices are the sources of livelihood and employment for large number of people in the country. Seed spices are annual herbs, whose dried seeds or fruit are used as spices. Spices are the nature’s gift to mankind and since antiquity, spices have been considered indispensable in the culinary art, as they are used to flavour foods and beverages The important seed spices are coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek. ajwain, dill,, celery, anise, nigella and caraway. The other seed spices s are poppy seed, rai, yellow mustard, white mustard, parsley and sesame. In India, Rajasthan and Gujarat has emerged as “Seed spice bowl” and together contributes more than 80 percent of total seed spices.

Burgeoning population exerts pressure on limited precious natural resources for enhancing production of food, fodder and fuel. In order to meet out increasing demand for food, fruit, vegetables, oilseeds, fodder and timber wood for burgeoning population, it is necessary to utilize each unit of natural rsesource very efficiently. The productivity of the precious natural resources is to be enhanced per unit time per unit area by agronomic ally managing stresses soil and land ecosystem to harvest more benefit. The cropping system as well as intercropping system practised by using different trees, fruits, vegetables, crops are the very efficient enterprises for realising higher productivity of natural resources available with in specified ecosystem.

Worldwide, agriculture contributes a lot for mankind by providing food and feed for human beings and livestock, respectively. The countries where agriculture plays a vital role, it has enough importance in the economy of the country as well as gross domestic product (GDP).