eChapters

Abstract

Water scarce state Rajasthan is without efficient and effective management. Water, when at surface is cheaper and like free commodity to use. Most of it gets evaporated rapidly due to aridity. There is no water during summers and drought years. This is now critical time to rethink and review our planning and policies and make it ground water oriented instead of completely surface water based. Ground water management should be the thrust area and key issue. There is need to conserve andharvest each drop ofwater especially for recharge to ground water. Utilize the augmented ground water resources as crisis management during long dry spells. Also, enforcement of regulatory measures, creating awareness among masses and participatory approach ofmanagement are the key factors for ensuring sustainable availability of water resources.

17.1. Introduction

Grounded Theory (GT) is a systematic methodology in the social sciences that involves the construction of theories through methodical gathering and analysis of data. Developed by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss in 1967, GT is widely used in qualitative research to generate theories that are grounded in empirical data. Unlike traditional research methods that test hypotheses, GT allows theories are to emerge from the data itself, making it a valuable tool for exploring complex social phenomena.

This chapter provides an in-depth exploration of Grounded Theory, including its origins, key principles, methodologies, applications, and criticisms. By the end of this article, readers will have a thorough understanding of GT and its significance in qualitative research.

Introduction

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important traditional oilseed crop of India contributing to 3.9 million tons of global vegetable oil ranking the sixth in the sequence of oilseed crops. Added to its importance as an oilseed, groundnut is also an important food legume cultivated in an area of about 22 million hectares worldwide leading to a production of 38.6 million tons as per the FAO statistics of 2011 (ICRISAT, 2017). China and India are the leading groundnut producers followed by USA and Nigeria. Africa with 12.40 m ha area and 11.54 m tons of production, and Asia with 11.87 m ha and 29.95 m tons, together account for 95% global groundnut area and 91% of global groundnut production. There was a substantial increase in global groundnut production by about 5 m tons in 2013, from 40 m tons in 2012. In the last decade, 2004–2013, global groundnut production increased by 24%, contributed by 7% increase in groundnut area, and 16% increase in yield. The projected global demand for groundnut and its related products is expected to increase and so there is a need to further increase production and productivity to meet the demand.

Among the different oilseed crops grown in India, groundnut is the major crops grown in kharif / monsoon season. Among different states if India, Gujarat is the prominent state growing groundnut.

Groundnut has a long history of cultivation since the plant was domesticated and cultivated by the indigenous tribes such as Incas of Peru in South America for more than 1500 years. It is believed that the cultivated groundnut was introduced into India by the Spanish colonizers (Krapovickas, 1968). Groundnut is believed to have been introduced into the USA by the African slaves. Groundnut crop has found an ecological niche in the tropical and warm temperate zones of world, due its impressive adaptability.

I. FILL UPS

1. Groundnut contains _____ oil.
2. Groundnut contains _____ protein.
3. Groundnut is a _____crop.
4. Stigma receptivity is for _____ after anthesis.
5. Fertilization occurs about_____ after pollination.

Oilseed crops are crops which are rich in fatty acid, cultivated for the production of vegetable oil. They are used either for edible or industrial or medicinal purposes. The important oilseeds are groundnut or peanut, sesame or gingelly, sunflower, rapeseed and mustard, soybean, castor, linseed or flax, niger and safflower.

Groundnut also known as peanut or monkey nut (Arachis hypogaea L. 2n = 4x = 40, allotetraploid, a species of the legume or bean family, Fabaceae, essentially self-pollinated, with genome 1C=2891 Mbp) is one of the five major oilseeds, namely, soybean, sunflower, groundnut, cottonseed and rapeseed. The global acreage, production and yield during 2018-19 have been 27.49 million hectares, 46.81 million tons and 1700 kg per hectare. The preliminary corresponding figures for 2019-20 have been 26.75 million ha, 45.87 million tons and 1710 kg per ha (USDA, 2000). India and China with more than 4.5 million ha each account for nearly one third of total global acreage and fifty percent of global production (China, 17 million tons and India, 6.69 million tons). Other countries in descending order in terms of area are Sudan, Nigeria, Senegal, Myanmar, Niger, Chad, Guinea, Uganda, Congo and Mozambique. Productivity-wise, USA tops the list (4480 kg/ha) followed by China (3750 kg/ ha). India with 1400 kg/ha is at the average position.

14.1 Introduction

Groundwater is an important source of water for irrigation. It is the most abundant fresh water resource of the earth. Underground water reservoirs contain large stock of fresh water resources. Total quantity of groundwater within 800 m distance below the ground surface is more than 30 times the total water in all fresh water lakes, more than 60 times the total water in soil and other unsaturated rock materials, more than 300 times the water vapour in the atmosphere and 3000 times the average volume of all rivers and rivulets in the world (Lenka, 2001). But the distribution of groundwater is not uniform. At some places, it lies below a few metres whereas at other places, it is a thousand metres or more below the ground surface. In some places, there is abundant groundwater potential whereas at other places there is meager potential.

Groundwater is the water reaching the groundwater reservoir from the infiltrated water of precipitation which constitutes an important component of the hydrologic cycle. It is only the part of the subterranean water that occurs in the saturated pores of the containing rock materials underlain by water held in a zone of aeration. It should not be confused that all the water present in soil below the ground surface is groundwater.

ABSTRACT

The over extraction of water from the coastal environment, results in reduction of groundwater resources which has reflected in lowering of water level. In general, the depletion of water level enhances the landward migration of saltwater wedge. Pondicherry is one such region with recent alluvium as the major litho unit. A study has been attempted to calculate the extraction of water and to estimate the amount of recharge into this alluvial aquifer. The monthly water level fluctuation was observed for the study period in eighteen locations (20002002). The highest water level observed during 2000 was taken as the initial water level for the study and the subsequent decline in water level up to 2001 was monitored monthly until the rising trend was noted. This was taken as the fall in water level due to extraction. Keeping this as the initial value increasing trend was studied until there was a notice of decline in water level. This was taken as the rise in water level due to recharge. The spatial representation of these data in the above said eighteen locations were carried out by using GIS and the area occupied by different water level contours were calculated and the amount of water withdrawn was estimated. The maximum recharge was noted in the central and the northern part of the study area when compared to the other regions. Similarly, the maximum discharge was noted in the northern and the southern part of the study area.

Keywords: Rainfall, Recharge, Groundwater Budget, GIS.

Introduction

Large scale exploitation of groundwater using modern deep well boring technology and powerful pumps is the order of the day in India and elsewhere. Increase in agriculture area and year around cultivation of water intensive crops, frequently failing monsoons (Fig.5.1) all have led to drying up of surface water and increased dependence on groundwater.

Thus, given the scenario of over exploitation of the available groundwater, it is essential that proper storage and management of available groundwater resources be identified.

Introduction

The science of hydrogeology is defined as hydrology with emphasis on geology. This chapter is to refresh your geology knowledge. The key words are highlighted to assist a quick review.

The Crust and its Composition

The thin outermost layer of the earth is called the crust and ranges in thickness from about 8 km under the oceans to about 25 km on land. It extends under both oceans and continents, and forms the source for all the soils, vegetation, and gases in the atmosphere.

The crust is primarily composed of two elements: silicon and oxygen which account for 75% of the earth’s crust. Note that these are the two elements found in quartz (e.g., sand), which suggests this is the most common of all minerals.

Hydraulics of wells means the laws that are applicable to understand the flow of water through the formation and certain aquifer properties that determine the discharge of a well. Darcy’s law is used in studying groundwater flow though Darcy’s law is not valid under certain cases.

8.1  Water Bearing Formation

The earth’s crust is called the lithosphere which consists of hard rocks and disintegrated rock materials. The outer parts of the earth’s crust are porous and containing partially and fully filled up with water. The surface strata of the earth is partially filled with water and is called as zone of aeration and the zone below this which is completely filled with water is called the zone of saturation. The zone of aeration is divided into (i) the soil water zone (ii) the intermediate zone and (iii) the capillary fringe (Fig.8.1).

Q. 1 The development of a tube well should be started from :-
(A) Middle of screen      (B) Top of screen
(C) Bottom of screen     (D) Bottom of casing pipe

Introduction

Groundwater investigation has a long history. In the past a waterman in the village would walk around the investigation area with a Y shaped wooden fork and identify the location for digging the wells. Certain trees and organic landforms like termite mounds were considered as indicators. The native intelligence of local topography should have played a role in identifying potential location. Successful or otherwise the method can be said to lack scientific objectivity. The optimal groundwater surveying method is no doubt drilling. This method ensures that all necessary information is being brought up from the geological formations. However, in order to obtain a desired degree of information from the subsurface of an area, drilling alone is normally not a feasible alternative.

There are a number of efficient and inexpensive geophysical surveying methods available to the hydrogeologist. It is worth noting at this point that these are, without exception, indirect methods. This implies that no method measures directly what we are actually looking for. With geophysical surveys, the target features are therefore invariably associated features. This implies that unless we understand the water context of these features, our geophysical surveys will be less than meaningful.

Objective methods of investigating groundwater are discussed in this chapter.

Groundwater is a precious renewable resource which gets replenishment from the precipitation. Total water resources of the world are estimated at 1.37 x 10⁸ million ha-m. Of these, about 97.2% is salt water, mainly in oceans, and only 2.8% is available as fresh water. And, out of this 2.8%, about 2.2% is available as surface water (2.1% is fresh water in glaciers and icecaps, 0.1% is available in lakes and reservoirs, 0.0001% in streams) and 0.6% is available as groundwater. Only 50% of groundwater resource is economically extracted with available technology. Presently, 1.3 x 10⁴ million ha-m fresh water in reservoirs and 41.1x10⁴ million ha-m groundwater is theoretically available to provide usable water for drinking, domestic use, irrigation, etc., to mankind. Groundwater is the largest source of fresh water excluding the polar icecaps and glaciers. The amount of groundwater within 800 m from the ground surface is over 30 times the amount in all fresh water lakes and reservoirs, and about 3000 times the amount in stream channels, at any one time.

Introduction

Fresh water, a renewable but not an infinite resource, is becoming increasingly scarce. The amount available for use to the world today is almost the same as it was 4500 years ago but global demand has been increasing exponentially. Since 1950, the renewable supply per person has fallen 58 percent as world population has swelled from 2.5 billion to 6 billion. Moreover, unlike oil and most other strategic resources, fresh water has no substitute in most of its uses. It is essential for growing food, manufacturing goods, and safeguarding human health.

According to a World Policy Forum report, the largest and most combustible imbalance between population and available water supplies will be in Asia, where crop production depends heavily on irrigation. Asia today has roughly 60 percent of the world’s people but only 36 percent of the world’s renewable fresh water. China, India, Iran, and Pakistan are among the countries where a significant share of the irrigated land is now jeopardized by groundwater depletion, scarce river water, a fertility-sapping buildup of salts in the soil, or some combination of these factors. Groundwater depletion alone places 10 to 20 percent of grain production in both China and India at risk.

Introduction

All models are but approximations of reality. When we approximate there is always room for uncertainty. The preference of a particular model over the other is the relative degree of uncertainty acceptable to the objective and budget of the study. With the advent of computers, hosts of modeling software promising a lot to the researcher have arrived on the horizon. It is not in the scope of the book to enumerate all the techniques of hydrogeological modeling. Physical modeling using sand tanks was the earliest attempted modeling technique, about 107 years ago. Most recent and significant modeling technique practiced by many in groundwater potential identification is Geographic Information System (GIS) based modeling. After a brief treatment of physical models, concepts of mathematical models and GIS modeling are elaborated. The modeling techniques have involved mathematics and or software specific instructions. Hence it is recommended that relevant text books for individual techniques be referred. This chapter deals more on modeling concepts.

Key words : Groundwater Modelling, GIS, PMWIN, ArcInfo Interface Con2grid, Interface Programme, ArcMacro Language.

Introduction

Groundwater is an important source of irrigation in India and has played a major role in increasing the food production. About 50 per cent of total irrigated area in the country is dependent on groundwater (Central Water Commission (CWC), 2000). Productivity of groundwater is normally more than the surface water due to the fact that it is available at the point of use, requires minimum conveyance infrastructure, is available on demand and maximizes the application efficiency. However, in past few years, excessive and unplanned groundwater pumping in certain parts of the country has resulted in depletion of groundwater resources. Water table in these region is going down day by day and making it beyond the reach of poor farmers. Therefore, keeping the water table in the desirable range is a major concern. This can be achieved by adopting proper pumping rate and pumping schedule. Groundwater modelling has successfully been used for deciding the pumping rate and pumping schedule. Groundwater modelling refers to simulation of groundwater behaviour under varying pumping and recharge conditions. A groundwater model is simply a set of equations, which describe the physical processes active in the aquifer subjected to certain assumptions. While the model itself obviously lacks the detailed reality of the groundwater systems, the behaviour of the validated model approximates that of the aquifer.

Introduction

Water is one of the most complex natural resources demanding a comprehensive understanding of its inherent features in occurrence and distribution for an integrated planning aimed at optimum development for agriculture, health, industry, power, etc. The well being and development of our society is dependent on the availability of water. An increase in groundwater development and utilization for industries and urban water supply has created improper disposal of liquid waste. Defective well constructions, sewage and waste disposal in man made lakes within city, open quarries with water and failure to seal the abandoned wells in city area have provided possible openings for downward movement of polluted water into subsurface formations without undergoing the process of natural filtration.

Abstract

Water is an essential and vital component for our life support system. Drought and floods are the extreme events of rainfall and the vagaries of monsoon and hydrogeological framework in the country are highly variable from place to place. The water resources available in the country are also not uniformly distributed. The changing Landuse pattern and population growth and the resultant water resources development has lead to water stress at many places. In such areas, the extraction of excessive quantities of groundwater has resulted in the drying up of wells, damages of ecosystems, land subsidence, salt-water intrusion and other related problems. Agricultural, urban & industrial wastes are increasingly threatening the groundwater quality, which is likely to become a more serious issue in the coming years. Considering the seriousness of the groundwater contamination, Central Ground Water Board has carried out detailed studies in few hot spots in the state of Tamil Nadu. The issues related to the water resources contamination and the findings of the studies in parts of Tamil Nadu are summarized in this paper.

ABSTRACT

Over the past four decades groundwater has become a topic of discussion and investigation and as a result the knowledge of understanding groundwater conditions has radically improved. For the past quarter century, remote sensing has played a vital role to target the groundwater resources for the essential survival of horticulture and agriculture crops in drought-prone areas. GIS technology has made a rapid stride for the past one decade to amalgamate the data generated from various space-born platforms and the ground based surveys to facilitate the generation and use of various thematic information for groundwater resources assessment. The present study aims for the demarcation of various groundwater prospective zones in the West Doon Valley and its environs, falling in the SOI toposheet 53 F/15. The role of various parameters namely, Geomorphology, Geology, Lineaments, Drainage, Land Use, Water table and Slope has been integrated for delineating groundwater prospective zones. IRS IC LISS-III geocoded satellite image on 1:50,000 scale was used. Index overlay model has been applied for GIS analysis. The resultant map indicates five prospective zones, such as poor, low, moderate, high and very high groundwater prospective zones in the study area.

ABSTRACT

Identification and mapping of fractures/lineaments and hydrogeomorphic units is prerequisite for undertaking ground water exploration and development in any terrain. Remote sensing and GIS techniques have been used for ground water potential mapping in Theni District. The study area has been divided into various geomorphic units based on visual interpretation of LISS III and PAN merged data in false colour composite on 1:50,000 scale. Ground water potential of each of the geomorphic units was assessed and correlated with geology, structure and recharge factors prevailing in the Theni District.

Technical Term       Definition

Groundwater         Water present in the zone of saturation (below water table) is called groundwater

10.1 Introduction

During rain or heavy irrigation, a part of the rainfall or irrigated water moves below the effective root zone of the crop which moves further below and adds to the water table lying above the impermeable bed or hard rock which is called as  ground  water  reservoir. At  times  the  accumulated  surface  water  is  also recharged to the soil reservoir both naturally as well as artificially that add to the underlying ground water reservoir. This groundwater is an important source of water for irrigation as well as domestic uses. It is the most abundant fresh water resource of the earth. Underground water reservoirs contain large stock of fresh water resources. Total quantity of groundwater within 800 m distance below  the  ground  surface  is  more than  30  times  the  total  water  in  all fresh water lakes, more than 60 times the total water in soil and other unsaturated rock materials, more than 300 times the water vapour in the atmosphere and 3000 times the average volume of all rivers and rivulets in the world (Lenka, 2001). But the distribution of groundwater is not uniform.

1. Result demonstration

It is a method of motivating the people for adoption of a new practice by showing its distinctly superior result. The demonstrations are conducted in the farm or home of selected individuals and are utilized to educate and motivate groups of people in their neighborhood. This is a very effective method for the transfer of technology in a community.

Objectives

1. To show the advantages and applicability of a newly recommended practice in farmer’s own situation.

To address the present day problems in agriculture and horticultural sectors and also to equip the graduating and postgraduate agricultural students, the ICAR has been continuously striving to bring necessary reforms for quality enhancement in agricultural education. The Council has appointed National Core Group and BSMA Committee for revision and restructuring of Post graduate and Doctoral syllabi in consultation with all the stakeholders to meet the challenges and harness opportunities in various disciplines of agriculture and allied sciences. It has been felt that a paradigm shift is necessary in academic regulations to comply with various provisions of National Education Policy-2020. The syllabus of Masters’ and Doctoral programs was restructured and new courses were introduced.

Group dynamics and formation represent fundamental processes in community mobilization that determine how individuals come together to form collective entities capable of achieving shared goals while building social capital and institutional capacity that can sustain long-term community development efforts. Understanding these processes provides essential insights into how communities can organize themselves effectively while creating groups that can navigate complex challenges and maintain cohesion through the inevitable difficulties and conflicts that arise during collective action initiatives. The science of group dynamics encompasses the complex social, psychological, and organizational factors that influence how groups form, develop, function, and achieve their objectives while building understanding of the internal processes that enable or constrain group effectiveness and sustainability. This knowledge has evolved through decades of research in social psychology, organizational behavior, and community

Group contact method in communication involves engaging with multiple individuals simultaneously to convey information, facilitate discussions, or stimulate collective action. It encompasses various techniques such as group meetings, result demonstrations, method demonstrations, and study tours, among others. The primary aim of group contact methods is to leverage the power of collective engagement to disseminate knowledge, foster collaboration, and promote the adoption of desired behaviors or practices within communities. These methods enable extension workers to reach larger audiences efficiently, promote peer learning, and create supportive environments conducive to positive behavioral change.

Result Demonstration

Result Demonstration involves showcasing the superior outcomes of a new agricultural practice to motivate its adoption within a community. It serves as an effective means of technology transfer, inspiring farmers to experiment with innovations themselves.

Objectives include illustrating the practical advantages of newly recommended practices, motivating community groups to adopt them, bolstering confidence among farmers and extension agents, and fostering innovation leadership.

Techniques

Planning and Preparation • Analyze the local farming context. • Select cooperative farmers with adequate resources and community acceptance. • Choose representative demonstration sites. • Establish a clear schedule of operations.

Fungicide which is effective only if applied prior to fungal infection is called a protectant, eg. Zineb, Sulphur. Protectant fungicides are prophylactic in their behaviour.

Place of Microorganisms in Living World

Haeckel’s kingdom Protista

E.H. Haeckel, 1866 proposed this concept. Apart from plant and animal kingdom, the third kingdom “Protista” was developed by him. The protista includes unicellular organisms that are typically neither plant nor animal. These organisms, the protists, include bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoa. Bacteria are referred as lower protists and others are called as higher protists.

Whittaker’s five kingdom concept

R.H.Whittaker (1969) proposed the concept of five kingdom. He divided the living things in to 5 kingdoms.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the official measure for controlling the genetic purity of the seed lot.
2. _____ serves as ‘pre-control’ as well as ‘post-control’ for avoiding genetic contaminations.
3. _____ can also be used as a measure to judge the efficacy of the certification agency or the inspector.
4. The minimum population requirement for taking the observations shall be _____ plants.

Genetic purity (GP) is a crucial seed quality factor. Several steps and precautions are involved in achieving the desired levels of genetic purity in the seed. Right from the choice of genetically pure seed for seed production up to final packing of the seed produced, at any stage, genetic purity can get affected. Field inspection and postharvest checks help in verifying conformity to seed quality standards especially genetic purity. Wherever seed characteristics are clear, examination of samples in the quality assurance laboratory for other distinguishable varieties (ODV) gives an idea of the genetic purity status. Among the several methods available for GP assessment, Grow Out Test is one.

In this context, some basic principles and procedures and guidelines relating to GOT are presented with more of information in tabular forms. In brief, the aspects covered include objectives, principles, kinds of GOT, genetic purity standards, procedure, main factors for observations, evaluation, and recording and reporting. Table 4.1 gives the submitted sample size for GOT; and Table 4.2 shows the minimum number of days required for evaluation from sowing and Table 4.3 deals with maximum weight of submitted sample and minimum weight of working sample for GPM, GOT and ODV.

The farming of striped murrel is quite old in many south-eastern and south Asian countries including India under traditional farming system. Wee (1981) has given an account of traditional farming of striped murrel in Thailand, where seed of wild stock was stocked in very high density (75-460 numbers/m²) in ponds. Freshwater small fish (FSF) were fed to the seed during pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons and subsequently marine small fish (MSF) mixed with rice bran to satiation level. The fish grew to 700-1000 g in 7-10 months with an FCR of 6.5:1 and production of 9.0-15.6 kg/m². In another culture trial, Diana et al. (1985) have described a poor survival of 9-13%, when they stocked seed @ 40-80 number/m² collected from wild sources and fed them on FSF for 9-11 months. There are records of backyard production of this species also (Wan et al., 1992). The major problems with traditional farming were poor & uncertain survivals, problems of getting SFs and occurrence of diseases due to poor management protocols.

Therefore for a scientific farming of this species, the major bottlenecks are the non- availability of hatchery seed, species & size specific feed, cannibalism at all stages and disease occurrence. These bottlenecks have been addressed to a greater extent by the researchers in recent and protocols for hatchery seed production and cannibalism reduction have been simplified to a greater extent with the availability of commercial pellet diets to boost its farming. Vietnam has been pioneer in the production of farmed striped murrel in recent, following new initiatives and based on its success, neighbouring countries such as Indonesia, Camobodia, Thailand, Myanmar, etc have also taken initiatives to boost production of this high value species in their countries.

1. FIELD OF APPLICABILITY

Grow-out test is the official measure for controlling the genetic purity of the seed lot. It serves as ‘pre-control’ as well as a ‘post control’ test for avoiding genetic contaminations. According to the official regulations in India, it is prerequisite for seed certification of hybrids of certain species such as cotton, castor, musk melon and brinjal.

The test is conducted for checking the sellers label with respect to genetic purity status of the seed lot under the provisions of the Seeds Act 1966. In addition, grow-out test can also be used as a measure to judge the efficacy of the certification agency or the inspector.

Soil is the main growing medium. Natural as well as synthetic substitutes to soils are cropping up. Under greenhouse cultivation growing medium is generally top soil as used in open field/traditional farming. The practices of soil preparation for planting crops are more or less same as under open field. Generally, crops are planted on raise beds. As under open conventional farming soil preparation are made as per the crops or their varieties/hybrids to be grown. To enrich the soil with nutrients soil is tested for its physical and chemical properties and amended accordingly keeping in view the crop requirement. The soil composition is checked with each crop cycle and amended as per requirement of next crop. To avoid the harmful microbes and insects build up in the soil it is advisable to solarize or fumigate the greenhouse soil each year during hottest month of the year. Soil solarisation is an environment friendly soil pathogen management method and practiced widely in north India.

Soil Solarisation

Soil solarisation is an environment friendly method of using solar thermal power for controlling pests such as soil borne plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and insect and mite pests along with weed seeds and seedlings in the moist soil by mulching the soil usually with a transparent polyethylene cover, to trap solar energy in greenhouses. It may also be described as a method of decontaminating soil or soil disinfestation using sunlight or solar thermal power. This energy/temperature causes desirable physical, chemical, and biological changes in the soil.

Abstract

Himachal Pradesh is endowed with varied type of climate providing conditions to grow temperate and sub  tropical fruits. Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) appears to be readily adapted to wide range of climatic conditions and offer a good potential for diversification of fruit culture. Though it was introduced in Himachal Pradesh in early nineties by the European missionaries but it could not be established as commercial fruit crop. Persimmon cultivation suffers from lack of organized plantings, inadequate vegetatively propagated plant material, non-availability of suitable cultivars and standardization of various orchard management practices. Besides, problems of poor fruit set, heavy fruit drop, astringent nature and lack of sufficient knowledge regarding fruit maturity and marketing mired its cultivation. The efforts made in recent years to overcome the problems the fruit seems to be on the thresh hold of popularity and with diversification in the fruit culture this fruit has great future.

Object: Growth analysis: Calculation of growth parameters. 

Material required: Primary data collected from individual plants or derived from whole canopies. 

Theory: The growth analysis study provides information on the growth of plants or of a plant community in a precise way with the available’ raw data. The study also provides precise information on the nature of plant and environment interaction in a particular habitat.

Growth represents overall performance of a plant under a particular environment. Generally, we restrict to the above ground plant parts for growth studies, however, a better understanding of plant growth and development would be achieved if total dry matter (including above ground shoot as well as underground root) were taken into consideration.

The basic principles behind growth analysis constitutes (i) data on plant height and (ii) leaf area. The quantitative analysis of growth is based upon several terms, which are described below (Hunt, 1978).

1. Growth

Growth is an irreversible increase in size which may or may not be accompanied by an increase in dry weight. It is the sum total of all the metabolic activities and normally results from the excess of anabolism over catabolism. In general, it refers to quantitative changes in the life cycle of plants. However, there are a few examples where growth is not accompanied by an increase in dry weight such as (i) germinating seeds and, (ii) etiolated plants.

Growth and Development are the most fundamental and conspicuous characteristics of all living organisms. According to dictionary, growth is the advancement towards maturity and development is a gradual increase in size. The plant physiological definition of growth is ‘an irreversible increase in mass, weight or volume of a living organism, organ or cell.

Abstract

A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the genotypic variability with respect to agronomic and physiological traits of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.) landraces collected from three contrasting environments during 2010-11 in a randomized complete block design with nine replications under transparent shade house at the University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus in Semenyih, Selangor.

Growth is defined as an irreversible change in the size of a cell, organ or whole organism. Commonly, growth is the increase in the amount of living material (protoplasm) which leads to an increase in cell size and ultimately cell division. Growth occurs only in living cells by metabolic process involved in the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and CHO at the expense of metabolic energy provided by photosynthesis and respiration.

Plant growth is defined as the progressive development which is irreversible. It is expressed in terms of dry weight plants, height of plants, girth or diameter of the stem or tree trunks, spread of the tree canopy, number of branches or tillers. Plant growth is a function or various factors which may be expressed as G = f (x, x₂, x₃ x_n ).Some factors may be controlled while some cannot be controlled. The following are the factors which influence the plant growth.

Growth is the fundamental property of all living organisms. It is an irreversible permanent increase in size, volume or mass of a cell or organ or whole organism accompanied by an increase in dry weight. Where, development is sum total of growth and differentiation. It is governed by both environmental and internal factors. The development of a plant is highly complex phenomena (Table 1).

The response of a plant to the relative length of day and night is called as

A. Photosynthesis      B. Phytochrome

C. Photoperiodism     D. Photo respiration

Growth and development are two important stages in a plant. Plant growth and development are under the control of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Growth is one of the fundamental characteristics of all living things. Even in Plants, the growth is visible but not measurable easily. Development in plants is actually a sum of two processes i.e. growth and differentiation.

Principles involved in plant growth and development: The various principles involved in plant growth and development are discussed below.

1. Totiopotency: Living plant cell has the potential to reproduce all the characteristics of the plant since it possesses all the genetic information.
2. Competence: It is the potential of cells or tissue to develop in a particular direction. Development of competency into a particular kind of cell(s), tissue or organ also may require special signals. These may originate internally within the plant or may originate externally as an environment signal, e.g. Internal change in type of growing point such as vegetative to flowering or initiation of adventitious roots on cuttings may be associated with a shift in the activity of specific hormones, external parameters i.e. application of growth regulators, or environment. It is mainly internal potential of meristem that gradually shifts from a vegetative shoot to one that produces flowers.

1. Choose the correct option for the characteristic of growth.

 a) It is an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or

even of an individual cell

 b)  It is accompanied by metabolic processes

 c) It occurs at the expense of energy

 d)  All of the above

2. Plant growth is unique because

 a) Plants bear the capacity for unlimited growth

 b)  Plants bear the capacity for limited growth

 c) Plants have diffused growth that differs from animals

 d)  None of the above  

Growth is a correlated increase in the mass of the body in definite intervals of time, in a way characteristic of the species i.e. increase in size and weight. This means growth includes the protein, fat and mineral deposition in the body. Growth is an irreversible increase in the metabolically active protoplasm. There is a characteristic rate of growth for each species and a characteristic adult size and development. Maximum size and development are fixed by heredity and nutrition is an essential factor determining whether this maximum will be reached. An optimum nutritional regime is the one which enables the organism to take full advantage of its heredity.

Once cells are obtained from a culture collection or isolated from animal tissue,, cells are put in the flask with growth medium. The cells are inoculated at a density of 104-105 cells/ml to get a concentration of 106 cells/ml or 105 cells/cm2 in a solid surface in 2-3 days because of nutrient limitation, accumulation of toxic metabolite or lacking of growth surface.

Growth of bacteria can be defined as change of total population mass, not individual increase in size or mass. Macroscopically visible growth of bacteria on the solid medium is known as ‘colony’. It is estimated that if Escherichia coli are allowed to grow, a single bacterial cell can produce a daughter population with the mass of the whole earth within 2 days! In the environment the bacteria are not actively growing all the time. The mechanisms behind the growth-arrested states of environmental bacteria are not well understood.

Bacterial reproduction

Bacterial reproduction is an asexual process which occurs by binary fission, budding, fragmentation and condiospore or sporangiospore formation. There is no possibility of genetic exchange (reassortment) as it is originated from a single parent cell. Bacterial gene transfer occurs by transformation, transduction and conjugation methods (discussed later in details). These are one-directional DNA transfer methods and are not associated with reproduction. The donor bacteria can give the genetic material to the recipient and the vice-versa does not occur.

Binary fission: In binary fission, bacterial DNA is replicated first and then the parent cell separates. Each daughter cell receives a complete genome, identical to the parent cell. Bacterial DNA replication begins when the cells reach a specific mass. If the cell diameter is constant, longer cells will begin DNA replication earlier than the shorter cells. The shorter cells need time to reach a critical mass required for the initiation of DNA replication. The ugtP proteins were identified to be associated with shorter cells and delayed DNA replication in Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis). It was confirmed later that the ugtP act as inhibitor for Z-ring formation.