eChapters

The vegetable seed production in India work on the principle of buy back or contract farming where the production agent or organizer distribute the plots of seed production to growers. The grower is responsible for the rising of seed crop till harvesting or pre-conditioning. The organizerguides the growers regarding the plant protection, roguing and pre-conditioning. The harvesting is entirely a responsibility of the grower but facility for pre-conditioning may be established by the seed organizer. The seed pre-conditioning includes activities like acid treatment on wet seed bases or operations which make seed ready for procurement. After the harvesting or pre-conditioning the seed will be procured by the organizer and head for the processing yard for grading & packaging.

2.1 Harvesting and Pre-conditioning

The methods of harvesting and pre-conditioning various with crop to crop. There are mainly two types of vegetables in terms of type of harvesting.

7.1 Harvesting and threshing equipment for cereal crops

Harvesting and threshing is an important operation in the farming. This can be done either manually or with the help of power operated machinery. Harvesting of field crops continues to be one of the most labour intensive operations in agricultural production system. Harvesting of crop is generally done by hand using sickle in India. Power operated harvesting machinery has not caught up with Indian farmers because of limited size of land holdings, economic constraints and non-uniformity of field conditions. Manual harvesting with different hand tools continues to be dominant, which takes 170-200 man-hours to harvest one hectare of paddy crop. Due to high labour demand at the time of harvesting, the operation continues for weeks together, resulting in over drying of crops in the field causes grain losses to the extent of 5 to 15 percent and even results in loss of crop due to untimely rain during harvesting. Mechanical devices to harvest wheat and paddy crops have become popular especially in northern India to minimize the field losses resulting from shattering, unfavourable weather conditions and pilferage.

Harvesting and threshing are the key most important operations in the entire range of field operations required in any crop production system. Both of these operations remain still the most important operations as fruit of labour depends upon them. Crops are harvested after normal maturity with the objective to take out grain, straw, tubers etc without much loss.  It involves cutting / digging/ picking, laying, gathering, curing, transport and stacking of the crop.  Harvesting of major cereals, pulse and oilseed crops are done by using sickle whereas tuber crops are harvested by country plough or spade (Fig. 8.1).

Harvesting is the act of removing crop from where it was growing and moving it to a more secure location for processing and storage. Some root crops and fruits trees can be left in the field or orchard and harvested as needed, but most crops reach a period of maximum quality that is they ripen or mature and will deteriorate if left exposed to the elements. While the major factor determining the time of harvest is the maturity of the crops and other factors such as weather, availability of harvest equipments, packing, drying, transport and storage facilities.

Economic and marketing issues are often even more important to consider when to harvest commodity. Before harvesting of crop, grower must be sure about demand of the produce.

Harvesting the crop at optimum maturity is critical for reaping the benefits of season long efforts on crop production. After final decision on crop maturity, care must be taken to avoid losses during harvest, threshing, transport and storage. Processing is equally important to keep the produce in good condition for realizing good price.

Crop maturity: There are different types of maturity namely physiological maturity, harvest maturity and storage maturity.

Physiological maturity: It is the stage of development in the life cycle of plant when the plant reaches maximum dry weight. At this stage any further increase in inputs does not produce any gain in yield. There is cessation in growth and grain filling at this stage. Grain at this stage has 40 per cent moisture and 90 per cent produce is matured and this remaining 10 per cent still immature. So farmers should harvest at stage to get maximum benefit.

Removal of entire plants or the economic parts after maturity from the field is called harvesting. Portion that is left behind on the field is known as stubble. The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant.

Time of Harvesting

If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture and more immature grains. The yields will be low due to unfilled grains. It is very difficult to store the produce as shriveled grains with high moisture are highly prone to infestation by pest. The quality of the grain as well as germination percentage is also reduced. Late harvest results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting in rainy season and breakage during processing. Hence harvesting during correct time is very important.

Plants may be harvested at physiological maturity or harvest maturity. Plants are said to be in physiological maturity when the translocation of the photosynthates ceases to the economic part.

I. FILL UPS

1. The type of harvest in paddy is _____.
2. The type of harvest in cumbu is _____.
3. The type of harvest in bhendi is _____.
4. The type of harvest in brinjal is _____.

It is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking and digging or a combination of these operations for removing the crop from under the ground or above the ground or removing the useful part or fruits from plants.

Thresher is a machine to separate grains from the harvested crop and provide clean grain without much loss and damage. During threshing, grain loss in terms of broken grain, un-threshed grain, blown grain, spilled grain etc. should be minimum. Bureau of Indian Standards has specified that the total grain loss should not be more than 5 per cent, in which broken grain should be less than 2 per cent. Clean un-bruised grain fetch good price in the market as well as it has long storage life.

It is a machine designed for harvesting, threshing, separating, cleaning and collecting grains while moving through standing crops. Bagging arrangement may be provided with a pick up attachment. The main functions of a combine are: (i) Cutting the standing crops (ii) Feeding the cut crops to threshing unit (iii) Threshing the crops (iv) Cleaning the grains from straw (v) collecting the grains in a container.

2. METHODS OF HARVEST

The seed can be harvested either manually or mechanically. In mechanical harvesting, single harvest is possible, but care should be taken to avoid mechanical injury. In manual harvesting, crops can be harvested either as single harvest or as periodical harvest. The crops having continuous flowering habit are to be harvested in different harvests/ pickings.

2.1. Manual harvesting

Harvesting any crop can be done manually. Manual harvesting is done by the hand of harvest worker. Multipicking in pulses and vegetables is done by manual methods.

Harvesting is the process of gathering mature crops from the fields. The timing of the harvest is crucial, as it directly affects the quality and yield of the crop.

Here are Some key Aspects Related to Harvesting Crops

Maturity: Crops need to be harvested when they reach their optimal level of maturity. This varies depending on the type of crop. For example, fruits and vegetables are usually harvested when they are fully ripened, while grains are typically harvested when they reach physiological maturity but before they start to shatter or lose quality.

Methods of Harvesting

Manual Harvesting: In some cases, crops are still harvested by hand. This is common for fruits, vegetables, and certain grains. Manual harvesting requires a significant amount of labor but is often necessary for delicate crops.

Kewda plant occurs wild in the entire coastal belt of Odisha , but abundant in Chhatrapur and Keluapalli areas of Ganjam district. There were about 3-4 lakhs trees of kewda in Ganjam district (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Main season of flowering starts from July-August and lasts for 2-3 months and a few flowers also come during November-December and March-May (Haines, 1961). Averagely, a plant produces 15-20 flowers per season depending on branching of the tree (Plate 32). A fully matured tree bears 30-40 spadices in a year (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Flowering is also dependant on rainfall, being better in years of high rainfall. Size of flower is bigger during rainy season. The spadices take a fortnight to mature, depending upon the weather condition. Ripe spadices, creamy in colour, give higher yield of perfume and of better quality than immature ones (Plate 33). The kewda flower of Ganjam district is also registered under the geographical indications (GI) of goods (Registration and Protection) act (Panigrahy, 2019).

In the vast array of terrestrial organisms, the human species is commonly regarded as possessing a distinctive and elevated status owing to its faculty for moral discernment. This faculty encompasses the capacity to adapt to diverse environmental conditions, adeptly navigate complex circumstances, demonstrate comprehension, exercise authoritative control, and effectively tackle arduous tasks through the assimilation and judicious application of prior experiences. Termed intelligence, this quality is observed to manifest across a spectrum of degrees among individuals.

Social psychology, as previously elucidated, endeavors to delineate the nature of social behavior. Social behavior encompasses four fundamental types of interactions

i) When individuals encounter one another, mutual reactions occur. Each individual influences the other, and reciprocally, they are influenced by each other’s presence.

ii) Individuals may elicit responses from groups, such as when an extension worker interacts with a gathering of farmers.

iii) Conversely, groups collectively respond to individual members, as exemplified by a group’s reaction to its leader during a meeting. iv) Interactions extend to intergroup dynamics, where one group of individuals reacts to another group.

Harvesting is a complex operation that can be divided into three major parts, as follows:

Driving and concentrating the fish stock to the catch basin;

Lifting the fish out of the catch basin and placing them on a sorting table;

Sorting the fish and loading them on the transporting vehicle.

Introduction 
Due to the depletion of their raw material supplies, traditional fossil fuel use should be reduced. There is significant hope for biofuel production (Gangl D et al., 2015 ; Seo et al., 2017), and in the past decade, interest in using microalgae has been steadily increasing (Gangl D et al., 2015). The algae group consists of various photosynthetic eukaryotic species that are typically found in both freshwater and marine environments. With an estimated 30,000 to 1 million species, algae range from single-celled cyanobacteria to multicellular forms, each having distinct traits. Microalgae, specifically, grow rapidly and absorb carbon dioxide as they develop (Guiry and M. D., 2012). Many industries have benefited from the utilization of microalgae species for the good of humanity. Food, medications and antibiotics, wastewater treatment, biofuel, biofertilizers, and CO2 fixation are a few of the significant uses for microalgae (Singh et al., 2018 ; Ananthi et al., 2021). Compared to first-generation biofuels, the manufacturing of algae-based biofuel is more advantageous to the environment (Alalwan et al., 2019). Microalgal biofuel production is a greener alternative to first-generation biofuels (Alalwan et al., 2019). It can be cultivated in less ideal locations, such as the ocean or non-arable land, and doesn’t require fertile soil, which helps prevent rivalry with food crops for freshwater and farmland (Winckelmann et al., 2015; Correa et al., 2020). Microalgal production systems can help treat wastewater or convert CO2 into oxygen without interfering with the food supply (Onyeaka et al., 2021; Prasad et al., 2021). Nanotechnology and nanomaterials are becoming increasingly popular across many fields for their useful properties, with global research exploring their role in biodiesel production and processing. To speed up the development of biodiesel production, advanced nanotechnology is being emphasized to achieve higher yields at lower costs. Microalgae are a promising source for biodiesel production, and various nanoparticles can significantly boost the efficiency of harvesting them. Reusing nanomaterials and combining cell harvesting, disruption, and extraction processes also help reduce costs. Moreover, different nanocatalysts can enhance the efficiency of biodiesel conversion (Verma and Kuila, 2020). Currently available techniques for microalgal harvesting include chemical, mechanical, biological, and electrical ones to some extent. Harvesting microalgal biomass is most often done by mechanical means since they are the most dependable (Grima et al., 2003 ; Christenson et al., 2011). But, in order to increase productivity and reduce operating and maintenance expenses, these procedures are frequently followed by biological or chemical flocculation phases. For maximum separation efficiency and minimum cost, two or more of these techniques are frequently used. For instance, processing costs can be significantly decreased by combining centrifugation and flocculation-sedimentation (Schlesinger et al., 2012). Novel approaches like biological treatments have the potential to further lower operating expenses.

4.1 Dry Flower Garden

Contrary to popular assumptions, the area required for producing large quantity of dried flower material need not also be large. However, the garden should be planned so as to harvest dry flowers all year round by planting evergreens, deciduous plants, annuals and perennials. Rows of flowering plants should be planted in the dry flower garden. Herbs are easy to grow, and can be planted in pots and window boxes. They are useful in transforming simple cooking into gourmet dishes, while also lending their delicate scents to a room when dried and for use in wreaths, pot pourri and arrangements. Gardens for dry flower production should include a wide selection of weeds, grains, seed-heads and pods. Flowers such as hydrangeas, zinnias, roses, dahlias and sunflowers and a selection of line flowers such as golden rods, statice, gladiolus, larkspur and delphinium can also be grown as these will provide a greater variety of flowers needed in flower arrangements.

Introduction

Eggplant or aubergine {Solanum melongena L. Solanaceae), is indigenous to a vast area stretching from northeast India and Burma, to Northern Thailand, Laos, Viet nam and Southwest China and wild plants can still be found in these locations. There is a wealth of eggplant common names. Eggplant is a major fruit vegetable with world production exceeding 31 million tonnes (Mt). Leading producers are China (17 Mt) and India (8 Mt), Egypt (1 Mt), Turkey (0.9 Mt), Japan and Italy (0.4 Mt). Eggplant is particularly favoured in Asia where it has been cultivated for millennia, and in India it is considered King of Vegetables. Brinjal, native to India, shares 31 % area (5.1 × 10⁵ ha) and 28% production (82 × 10⁵ t) of the world (Anon., 2003). It contributes 9% of the total vegetable production in the country. Three states/provinces viz. Orissa (1.41 × 10⁵ ha), West Bengal (1.29 × 10⁵ ha) and Bihar (0.72 × 10⁵ ha) cover 67% of total brinjal area in India (Anon., 2006). It is widely adaptive and highly productive (17.78 t/ha) crop of tropical and sub-tropical regions. It is comparable with tomato for nutritional values like vitamin C, iron and fiber, thereby, can play an important role in combating malnutrition in under-nourished regions (Singh et al., 2001). However, genetic improvement, production technology, post harvest handling and plant protection measures are important for increasing the production, productivity and consumption of brinjal.

Substantial onion losses occur after harvest through sprouting, rotting, physiological weight reduction and quality deterioration. Proper harvest timing, careful handling and effective curing are therefore essential for maintaining marketability and extending storage life. This chapter explains maturity indices, including appropriate levels of top fall, and compares field curing with forced-air methods. It examines topping, grading, packaging, transportation, storage temperature, relative humidity, ventilation and disease management. Physiological and biochemical changes occurring during storage are also considered. An integrated post-harvest approach combining correct maturity assessment, suitable harvesting, complete curing, careful handling, controlled storage and regular quality monitoring can considerably reduce losses and improve year-round onion availability.

It is not just enough to produce fruit and ornamental plants in a nursery, but it is also very much important to consider the post production management practices like harvesting, packing, storage and marketing of nursery plants for successful industry.

Harvesting: Harvesting is one of the important factors considered, when nurserymen are producing seeds, bulbs, etc. The seeds or bulbs should be harvested at proper maturity stages depending on the plant species.

Seeds are generally harvested when they are fully ripe. In some of the annuals and perennials, seeds are likely to fall from the plant at ripening either due to bursting of the fruit/ capsule or due to wind. (calendula, balsam). In such cases, it is better to cover with muslin cloth or butter paper bags. Bulbs, corms and tubers are carefully dug out without injury, along with cormels or bulblets.

Packaging: The package should provide a convenient mode used for marketing and distribution. It protects the contents from undue damage during distribution. It is important that appropriate packaging should be used to preserve quality of material along with maximum survival during transit. Proper packaging of plant material (fruit plants/ ornamental plants/seeds) ensures quality during storage, distribution and transport.

India, as a developing country has reasons to be concerned about the adverse impact of climate change on its economy. A large part of its population depends on climate sensitive sectors for livelihoods which makes it highly vulnerable to climate change. Climate change can have serious impact on its crops, forests, coastal regions, etc. which can in turn affect the achievement of its important national development goals. The issue of climate change cannot however be taken up without linking it to developmental needs such as poverty, health, energy access and education. Traditionally climate change experts have focused on mitigation measures, adaptation measures have also been acknowledged of late as effective and equitable means to deal with climate change impacts. Most of the mitigation measures are high in terms of technology and capital. Therefore, while developed economies choose to mitigate climate change by making heavy investments, developing economies choose to adapt (Monika and Hooda, 2018). There is increasing recognition that the world’s current progress on reducing greenhouse gas emissions is not occurring rapidly enough to avoid impacts from climate change in the coming century. Because of this, the world is “committed” to a certain level of global warming and therefore, subject to a degree of impacts that will require adaptive responses by nations and communities (Bizikova et al., 2008). IPCC have specific observations on India in relation to climate change and its impact in its AR 5 Report. Several workers analyzed monthly, seasonal, annual temperature (1901-2007) and rainfall (1873-2011) variability for entire India over two different spatial scales of 30 sub-divisions and 7 regions of India. The net change in rainfall and mean temperature indicates decreasing rainfall and increasing temperature in most of the months and seasons. In India, an increase in temperature over the country and the subcontinent was observed. As discussed in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5^th Report (IPCC, 2014), the global ocean will continue to warm during the 21^st century, with the strongest warming projected for the surface in tropical and Northern Hemisphere sub-tropical regions. In addition, changes in precipitation will not be uniform (Pachauri and Meyer, 2014). In the light of these projections, it can be assumed that climatic pattern of Haryana can also undergo considerable changes (Anurag et al., 2017). Increasing trend of annual rainfall in Haryana was also reported by India Meteorological Department (Rathore et al., 2013).

Viable cropping systems involving new rewarding crops infuse new opportunities and challenges as well as demonstrate the potential for land productivity with higher growth and economic achievements.  As far as agricultural production is concerned Haryana is a surplus agricultural state and is one of the largest food supplier to the national kitty. The cropping patterns have undergone drastic changes over the years with a major shift in favour of cereals like paddy and wheat. Consequently, the existing cropping system viz. paddy-wheat, has started showing its adverse effect on soil health and consequent decline in crop productivity. Diversification of existing system by involving pulses, vegetable, fodder and other high value crops, is considered to be the potential alternative to address many present day problems. For example, under assured irrigation, pearlmillet-potato-moongbean gave almost 65% higher yield than the existing cotton-wheat cropping system because the leguminous crop in summer gave higher economic yield and benefit to pearlmillet crop. The package of practices with focus on pulses crops grown in Haryana state are discussed here.

Principles of Incubation

Incubation is a process by which the embryo within egg develops into a fully formed chick capable of breaking free from the shell. Basically, when a hen incubates an egg, it means she is on the egg in order to keep it warm for a certain period of time, 21 days for chicken, until the chick embryo has fully formed and is ready to hatch. The incubation period in other species is given in Table 41. The following factors affect the incubation on egg

1. Temperature

Incubator temperature should be maintained between 99 and 100 oF. The acceptable range is 97 to 102 ^oF. Overheating is more critical than under heating. An incubator should be operated in a location free from drafts and direct sunlight. Temperature is probably the most important single factor influencing the development of the embryo. A higher temperature will advance the hatch and a lower temperature will delay hatch. Younger embryos are especially susceptible to high temperatures because the upper lethal limit is very close to the optimum incubating temperature. High temperature will cause the embryonic membranes to dry out too soon. Chicks that hatch may have an unsteady gait.

Availability of quality fish seed is the critical and basic input for successful fish culture operations. Till the sixties, a major part of the seed required for culture was being collected from the riverine sources, which had several disadvantages. Indian major carps viz. Catla, Rohu & Mrigal and Chinese carps viz. Silver carp & Grass carp mature in the pond but do not spawn or lay eggs in standing waters. Usually they breed or spawn naturally in flowing rivers during monsoon months. In artificial breeding, certain inducing agent (hormone) is injected to fish for successful spawning.

In India, the first successful induced breeding of carp was achieved through use of pituitary hormone in 1957. Increased seed production of fish today is a direct result of improved technologies of breeding, hatching and rearing.

Three decades ago, earthen “pit” hatcheries were used for hatching eggs around bunds. Today large commercial hatcheries exist, where all activities such as raising of brood stock, breeding and fry rearing can be undertaken. This has certainly marked the growth of the industry. Commercial Chinese hatchery facilitates not only large-scale production of fish seeds but also improves the survival percentage of seed.

When green forages are dried to approximately 85% dry matter, they retain a significant portion of their nutrients, including carotene, and are referred to as hay. Compared to straw, hay is both more nutritious and more palatable. High-quality hay should exhibit a leafy structure, be pliable, possess a green colour and be devoid of mold, weeds and dust, while also emitting a pleasant fragrance. It is essential that the moisture content does not exceed 15% (ideally between 12-14%) to ensure safe storage without the risk of fermentation or combustion.
Objectives of hay production
The primary goal of hay production is to lower the moisture content of green fodder to a level that effectively inhibits the activity of both plant and microbial enzymes.
Benefits of hay production
• Hay serves as a nutritious feed source for livestock during periods of scarcity.
• High-quality legume hay can substitute for concentrates, thereby lowering production costs.
• Fodder can be harvested at optimal times to maximize nutrient accumulation in the plants.
Crops suitable for hay production: Fodder crops with soft and flexible stems are ideal for hay production. Green oats are considered the best option for this purpose. Other suitable crops include green berseem, lucerne, cowpea, stylo, and various natural grasses, provided that leaf shattering is minimized. Both annual and perennial grasses, such as anjan, doob, rhodes, and sudan grasses, are also appropriate for hay making. However, cultivated cereal fodders like maize, sorghum and bajra are better suited for silage production than for hay. If using thick-stemmed crops for hay, it is necessary to chop or crush them into smaller pieces.

Feeding of green and succulent fodder is of utmost importance to farm animals. Grazing fresh forage year round at the optimal stage of maturity would supply the highest quality and most palatable form of feed in any livestock operation. In most part of the world, green fodder is limited to a particular season only. Because of fluctuations in seasonal growth and plant maturity, excessive biomass in the spring, it is necessary to harvest and store forages to maximize both quality and productivity. One of the important form of conservation practiced on a wide scale is hay making. Hay making is an art in which the fodder is kept for future use in lean period. Since it contains large quantity of moisture it is to be dried properly to increase its keeping quality without reducing its nutritive value. The objective of hay making is to achieve a rapid moisture loss after cutting so that the forage can be romoved from the field with minimum losses from weathering and microbial degradation (Bareebam, 1992).

Storage of hay at higher moisture contents may lead to some heating due to the activity of aerobic micro-organisms and possibly some plant respiration. The warm, moist conditions in hay will provide the ideal environment for growth of spoilage bacteria, e.g. Bacilli and yeasts, moulds and fungi. These organisms utilize the energy and protein of the hay and can lead to a substantial increase in their respective populations. Their action leads to the following reaction:- 

Hay (plant sugars) + oxygen ® Carbon dioxide + water + heat
 
The resultant heating causes a reaction between the carbohydrates and proteins rendering both less digestible as temperatures continue to increase. The best opportunity to reduce hay-harvesting losses is by shortening curing time. A combination of mechanical conditioning, chemical conditioning and high-moisture baling help accomplish this goal (Collins, 1988; Mahanna, 1994).

Hay quality really means feed value. The ultimate test of hay quality is animal performance. Quality can be considered satisfactory when animals consuming the hay give the desired performance.
 
Characteristics of Good Quality Hay

    1.    Hay should be nutritious therefore prepared form plants cut at an appropriate stage of maturity when it has the maximum nutrients.
 
    2.    Good hay should be leafy. The leaves are generally richer in proteins, minerals and vitamins then other parts of the plant.

    3.    Hay should be green in colour. The green colour indicates the amount of carotene which is precursor of vitamin A. The green colour should be preserved by minimizing the bleaching, leaching arid fermentation losses.

Haylage or baleage or round bale silage, is a somewhat newer method of preserving forage. Haylage is simply forage that is baled at higher moisture content than dry hay and then stored in a sealed plastic wrap. Because of the high moisture level and air-tight environment, the forage ferments and is preserved by acid production during fermentation. The higher pH values associated with baleage are related to a slower fermentation process. During the respiration stage of the ensiling process the oxygen that is trapped in storage is rapidly consumed by aerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria, which survive in the absence of oxygen, begin to grow and multiply in the fermentation stage and convert the plant sugars into organic acids- mainly lactic acid and acetic acid. With production of acids, the pH of the silage is reduced from an original level of 7.0 to a final ideal pH of 4–5. Typical large bale haylage has a pH of 4.5–5.5. Fermentation ceases when bacteria growth is stopped by the accumulation of acids. The haylage will then remain at a stable pH with no bacterial growth and can be preserved for a long time, providing there is no exposure to air. Harvesting forages with a long fiber usually results in a slow release of the plant nutrients necessary for the growth of acid producing bacteria. This generally results in less fermentation in the baleage than in chopped silage.

The food is considered as one of the essential for the maintenance of life. Manufacturing of the food product is not enough form the food industry. It is necessary that the food available is safe, hygienic; wholesomeness and its quality must be assured. The food industry is an important segment of industries in India and has its own peculiarities unlike other industries. Food processing industry has been recognized by government as a major sector of growth. It must be free from harmful additives, microbes and remain so for a period, it is intended to be consumed. Therefore, the methods employed in quality and food safety assurance programme within the food industry will vary considerably in accuracy and sophistication according to the type of process and size and nature of resources available. Since the international market has become demanding in terms of quality, safety and delivery, installation of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) in food industry would provide a competitive edge to food supplies in the international market. Food control refers to all activities carried out to ensure the quality, safety and honest presentation of the food at all stages from primary production through processing and storage, to marketing and consumption. The term has been used to describe a total national effort involving an integrated approach between government and all segment and sectors of the food industry. Food control is linked to improvement in the health of the population, potential of a country’s economic development and reduction of spoilage and food losses.

A wide variety of quality determinants is employed, including size, colour, maturity and extent of blemishes. Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the consumer. The marketing of fresh fruit and vegetables is aimed eventually ay appealing to the consumer for whom tradition plays a major role in determining the acceptability of a food item. The eating habits of people are conservative. The increase of direct market from producer to supermarket chains is leading to the imposition of standards to predetermined specification by the supermarkets. Important factors in quality for the consumers are: appearance, including size, colour, shape, condition and absence of defects, texture, flavour and nutritional value. Quality is the ultimate criterion of the desirability of any food product to the consumer. The overall quality of food depends on the nutritional and other hidden attributes. Quality of foods can be defined as the ‘composite’ of the ‘characteristics’ that differentiate individual units of a product and have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of that unit by the buyer.

There are specific hazards associated with equipment, operation or a particular section. Such possible hazards and their preventive measures are discussed below.
I. Milk Reception Dock
    1.    Where the top of a vat, into which a 40 litre can of milk is to be dumped, is higher than the milk can, two men should lift and empty the can.
    2.    Where steam jet method of can washing is used, to avoid burning, employees would be furnished with protective equipment, including rubber boots and long aprons
    3.    Cans should be stacked in areas away from frequently used passage ways
    4.    Cans should not be stacked so high that they may fall and injure someone

Food packaging serves to protect products throughout their journey from production to consumption. However, packaging is often exposed to a variety of hazards during transportation and storage that can compromise its effectiveness and, ultimately, the quality and safety of the food inside. Understanding these hazards is essential for designing packaging solutions that can withstand the physical, environmental, and atmospheric challenges encountered along the supply chain. This chapter examines the types of hazards that affect food packaging during transportation and storage, focusing on the ways in which these factors impact packaging integrity, food quality, and consumer safety. By exploring mechanical hazards, environmental influences, and atmospheric interactions, this chapter provides insights into the crucial role that resilient packaging plays in safeguarding food from production to point-of-sale.

Introduction

Food Safety is the assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its intended use. The slogan of the World Food Safety Day 2019 “If it’s not safe - it’s not food!” portray, unsafe food is a threat to mankind. Ensuring food safety to protect public health and promote economic development is of utmost importance and it remains a significant challenge in both developing and developed countries. Food borne diseases remain a real and formidable problem, causing great human sufferings and significant economic losses. According to WHO 2019-20 World Water Day report, one third of the population of developed countries may be affected by food-borne diseases each year and the problem is likely to be even more wide spread in developing countries, where food and water borne diarrhoeal diseases kill an estimated 2.2 million people each year, mostly children. While unacceptable rates of food borne illness still remain, new hazards continue to enter the food supply.

A food safety hazard refers to any agent with the potential to cause adverse health consequences for consumers. It occurs when food is exposed to hazardous agents which result in contamination of food. In other terms it can be defined as anything that could contaminate food or could otherwise violate established food safety program criteria, if left uncontrolled. The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF, 1997) defined a hazard as a “biological, chemical, or physical agent that is reasonably likely to cause illness or injury in the absence of its control”.

A hazard may be introduced into the food supply any time during harvesting, formulation and processing, packaging and labelling, transportation, storage, preparation and serving. Food safety hazards are generally categorized into four classes: Physical, chemical, biological and allergens. Food manufacturers can adopt Food Safety Management Systems (FSMS), which include Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Hygiene Practices (GHP), Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) and other practices to strictly check the hazards and make the food safe.

Understanding the hazards that contribute to food borne illness and injury is important to determine the necessary steps to prevent or reduce it to an acceptable level or eliminate hazards altogether before food reaches the consumer.

Hazards to mental health include a range of circumstances that may affect a person’s mental health. A complex and multidimensional component of total health, mental health is impacted by biological, psychological, social and environmental variables. Promoting mental wellbeing and avoiding mental health difficulties need an understanding of these risks and taking appropriate action. Global initiatives to promote health continue to overlook mental health. People with mental health disorders frequently face serious human rights abuses, discrimination and stigma, regardless of advancements in certain nations. More than 80% of those with mental health issues, among them with neurological and drug use problems, lack access to any kind of high-quality, reasonably priced mental health treatment. Even though there are many effective, economical treatments for mental health issues, there is still a substantial disparity between those who require care and those who have access to it. Coverage of effective treatments is still incredibly low. Mental health conditions have a significant effect on happiness, productivity and overall health. Mental health issues have significant emotional, societal and financial implications. These consequences include those associated with the criminal justice system, medicinal and educational services, unemployment and sick leave.
Adolescent mental illness is more than just being miserable. It may affect a teen’s life in many ways. Young people who are mentally ill may have difficulties making decisions, managing their health and succeeding in school. One of the main causes of sickness and impairment in young people are mental health issues, which include childhood epilepsy, developmental disabilities, depression, anxiety, mood, attention and behavioural disorders. Neglecting children’s and teenagers’ mental health and psychosocial development has long-term effects that follow them into adulthood and reduce their chances of living happy, satisfying lives.

1. Introduction

Hazel nut also called as European filbert or Bhotia badam (Corylus avellana L.). Apparently the word ‘filbert’ has been derived from Middle English which in turn was a derivation of Philbert - the Saint Philibert, whose feast day in late August coincides with the ripening of the nut. Others believe that the term filbert came from the nut’s long husk being referred to as a full beard in Old English. The name “Hazel” comes from the Anglo-Saxon word for bonnet, “Haesel”; this probably derives from the greek “korys” (as in Corylus), for helmet or hood. The term “filbert” may have derived from “full beard”, descriptive of the long, leafy husk. The scientific name avellana derives from the town of Avella initially and was selected by Linnaeus from Leonhart Fuchs’s De historia stirpium commentarii insignes (1542), where the species was described as “Avellana nux sylvestris” (“wild nut of Avella”). Hazelnut is the 4^th economically important nut crop (748,000 MT/yr) of world after cashew, almond and walnut.

Genus : Corylus 
Species : avellana L.
Family : Betulaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=28

European filbert Corylus avellana L, is known by several names common being Cob, cobnut, hazel, Spanish or Lambert nut, which has been due to its origin, fruit shape, husk and the general appearance. ‘Filbert’ has also come from name ‘full beard’ as the nut of commerce is fully enclosed by the long husk. It is this husk or involucres which very often has been used to distinguish between various species and cultivars. Corylus the genus has been derived from korys which indicate bonnet, hood or helmet and there are several other views of its name being derived after the name of some renowned places. The word ‘hazelnut’ is from anglosaxon haesel meaning hood. Further the term hazelnut is used in European and Filbert in Asian countries for and its other species. However in America, the term is used to refer to three native species C. archericana, C. californica and C. cornuta. Filbert is an important member of birch family, Betulaceae which has a long history of cultivation (8000 to 5500 B.C.). 

Hazelnut is also known as a cob nut or filbert nut according to species. The hazelnut was native to the Black Sea coast long before our era, where it was found growing wild. Turkey is one of the few countries in the world having a favourable climate for hazelnut production. Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionery to make praline and also used in combination with chocolate for chocolate truffles and products such as Nutella. Hazelnut oil recovered from hazelnuts is strongly flavoured and used as cooking oil. Hazelnuts are a good source of energy with 60.5 per cent fat content. Hazelnuts have been ranked as one of the most nutritious nuts because they supply significant amounts of protein and fiber, vitamin E and B, minerals like iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium and potassium. 

• Turkish hazelnut production of 625,000 tons accounts for approximately 75% of world productions.
• The common hazel (Corylus avellana) is native to Europe and Western Asia.
• In H P, it is found growing wild in Pangi region of Chamba district and locally known as Thangi.
• Hazelnut is also known as cobnut and filbert.
• Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionery to make praline and also used in combination with chocolate truffles.
• The temperature of minus 10°C is critical, especially if accompanied by wind, which may kill both pistillate and staminate flavours.
• Hazelnuts are more shallow-rooted, most fruit and nut trees do not tolerate wet soils, the tree cannot tolerate excessive dry summer heat and hot winds.
• Hazel will grow in pH ranging from 4.5-8.5 but around pH 7 is ideal.

Skull: The skull of domestic animals has two sets of bones i.e facial and cranial bones. The facial bones are placed in front and cranial bones are placed caudally.

Facial bones: The paired facial bones are premaxilla, maxilla, nasal, pterygoid, lacrimal, turbinates, malar and palatine bones. The unpaired facial bones are mandible, hyoid and vomer.

Headache is the most common of all nervous complaints. The causes are varied and so also its mode of onset, duration, intensity and other conditions associated with it.

Structures of the head, which are sensitive to pain, are:

Tissue – Proliferating Potential of Cell Types
1. Labile Cells
• Continuously dividing cells
• e.g. epidermis, epithelial cells, bone marrow cells
2. Stable Cells - Quiescent cells
• Undergoes division occasionally
• Liver, kidney    pancreas, fibroblasts,
• Endothelial cells
3. Permanent Cells - Non–dividing cells: Neurons, muscle cells (cardiac, skeletal)

Health and disease management is a crucial component of hatchery operations in aquaculture. Hatcheries, which rear aquatic organisms like fish, crustaceans, and mollusks during their early life stages, are particularly vulnerable to disease outbreaks due to high stocking densities, variable water quality, and the fragile nature of eggs, larvae, and fry. These outbreaks can result in significant mortality, reduced seed quality, and substantial economic losses.
To prevent such outcomes, a comprehensive health management strategy is essential. This includes maintaining optimal water quality, implementing proper feeding practices, and minimizing stress on the organisms. Regular monitoring and early diagnosis help in identifying diseases promptly, allowing for targeted and effective treatments.
Robust biosecurity protocols are also vital. These measures aim to prevent the introduction and spread of pathogens through controlled access, disinfection procedures, and quarantine practices. Together, these steps help create a stable, disease-free environment that supports the healthy growth and survival of hatchery-reared aquatic species.
COMMON PATHOGENS
India’s aquaculture industry faces significant challenges from various pathogens that affect fish and shellfish health. These include bacteria, fungi (particularly oomycetes), viruses, and parasites, all of which can lead to disease outbreaks, poor growth, and mortality.
1. Bacterial Pathogens:
• Bacterial infections are among the most frequently reported health issues in aquaculture:
• Aeromonas spp.: Aeromonas hydrophila is a common pathogen in carp and other freshwater fish, causing ulcerative and hemorrhagic diseases.

(I)  Deficiency Diseases

Mineral and vitamins, in adequate quantities, are essential in the diet of all animals. Many diseases occur due to deficiency of mineral and vitamins. Mineral and vitamins are more necessary in pigs due to their higher growth rate. It is normally seen that when pigs are reared on self made rations, they suffer more with the deficiency of one or more mineral and vitamins. Thus, it is necessary to introduce extra mineral and vitamins in the pig ration. If it is not done, its growth rate and body weight do not increase in proper ratio. The excess and deficiency of one mineral depends on quantities of other minerals present in the ration. It is frequently seen that pigs suffer from deficiency of more than one mineral and vitamin but some time pigs suffer from deficiency of one substance and excess of the other substance, so a balanced ration- with appropriate proportions of various mineral and vitamins- is necessary. Many times it is seen that some infectious diseases increase the necessity of mineral and vitamins in the body. This may cause deficiency of mineral and vitamins in the body and the animal may not recoup.

Following are the description of these symptoms and their prevention.

General Signs of Healthy and Ill Animals

Health

It is a state of freedom from disease. It may also be stated as a condition of an animal in which all the body organs are normal and are functioning to their optimum capacity in relation to animal’s age, sex, work, and production with optimum pulse, temperature and respiration rates appropriate to the species, sex and environment.

Disease

Disease may be any deterioration from normal health or normal functioning of any or all the tissues or organs of animal body. Thus, it shuns animal to perform its normal physiological functions though the nutritional and environmental parameters are maintained normal.

Abstract

Tea is the most consumed, rejuvenating and thirst-quenching beverage. It is bestowed with ‘miraculous’ health benefits which includes promotion of cardio-vascular health, skin protection, antioxidant activity, defence against microbial infection, prevention from cancer, obesity, and many more. Among the four types of tea, green tea has attained much attention of tea consumers due to its magical health potentials.Owing to increased knowledge and marketing of its health benefits, there has been astonishing changes in its consumption pattern and increase in its production. The tea industry drives economies of the tea growing regions and contributes greatly to the country’s GDP growth as well as foreign exchange earnings. However, in recent years, tea farming has become subject to environmental deterioration because of exploitation in cultivation practices.

Common Poultry Diseases

Infectious diseases

Bacteria

Commonly known as “germs”, bacteria are very small living microorganisms. Only a few bacteria cause diseases. In birds these include Salmonella, Clostridia, Pasteurella, Vibrio, Staphylococci, Streptococci, Mycoplasma, Hemophilus, and Mycobacterium etc.

Abstract

Health-conscious consumers are increasingly seeking functional foods in an effort to control their own health and well-being. The field of functional foods, however, is in its infancy. Claims about health benefits of functional foods must be based on sound scientific criteria. A number of factors complicate the establishment of a strong scientific foundation. These factors include the complexity of the food substance, effects on the food, compensatory metabolic changes that may occur with dietary changes, and, lack of surrogate markers of disease development. Additional research is necessary to substantiate the potential health benefits of those foods for which the diet-health relationships are not sufficiently scientifically validated. Research into functional foods will not advance public health unless the benefits of the foods are effectively communicated to the consumer. Finally, those foods whose health benefits are supported by sufficient scientific substantiation have the potential to be an increasingly important component of a healthy lifestyle and to be beneficial to the public and the food industry. Mounting evidence supports the observation that functional foods containing physiologically-active components, either from plant or animal sources, may enhance health. It should be stressed, however, that functional foods are not a magic bullet or universal panacea for poor health habits. There are no “good” or “bad” foods, but there are good or bad diets. Emphasis must be placed on over-all dietary pattern, which follows the current Dietary Guidelines, and is plant-based, high in fiber, low in animal fat, and contains 5-9 servings of fruits and vegetables per day.

Introduction

The study of fish health is crucial for understanding aquatic ecosystems and ensuring the well-being of aquatic species. This report provides a detailed account of a hands-on activity involving necropsy and health examination of fish. Through this practical experience, we aimed to gain insights into the common ailments affecting fish populations and develop skills in identifying pathological conditions.

The necropsy process involves the post-mortem examination of fish specimens, enabling us to observe and analyze internal organs, tissues, and external features. By combining practical techniques with theoretical knowledge, we seek to contribute to the broader understanding of fish health and disease.

We performed a detailed hands-on practical on ‘Shrimp Health Examination’ at the Pathology Necroscopy room on 29th September 2023. Several activities regarding the health examination of shrimp were performed. It included, the collection of blood from an in-between portion of pereiopods and pleopods, also making blood smears on a glass slide, staining, and observation of blood cells under a microscope. Collection of samples from hepatopancreas for microbial culture to know the presence of any pathogen present. Collection of body part samples like gill, pleopods, and telson to observe the presence of external parasites. The species used health examination Whiteleg shrimp (Litopennaenus vannamei).

The aquaculture sector showed an overwhelming growth of 468% during the last two decades and is presently playing a key role in the changing Indian economic growth. The contribution from aquaculture is 21.6% by volume and 49.3% by value to the total fisheries exports. Inland fisheries sector had shown consistent growth of over 5% per annum over the period of 1999-2005. High demand of aquaculture products in the world has forced the aquaculturist to change the culture system from extensive to intensive. This has led aquaculturist to lose millions of dollars due to fish mortalities associated with fish disease and related conditions. Out break of disease has been considered as a major stumbling block in intensive aquaculture practices.

Disease is a very complex interaction between three important factors, namely the susceptible fish, the disease causing agents (pathogen) and the environment. These three factors are most important and must be considered in any fish disease outbreak. The environment in which the causative agent of diseases and their host fish interacts, may favour one or the other. Changes in the environment, whether natural or artificial, may shift the balance from one side to the other and will often determine whether the host will survive or succumb. Understanding and managing the stress and their causative factors are thus the key factors for successful aquaculture.

Herd management practices in the handling, nutrition, milking techniques, sanitation, and housing of dairy animals play key roles in predisposing the individual animal as well as herds to diseases. The key factor influencing the reduction of health issues are the decisions made by herd managers or animal owners.In order to maximize output and profitability through disease control, herd management approaches in conjunction with a veterinarian programme can be most beneficial.

Being a Health Extension Practitioner, one should have a clear idea regarding some fundamental aspects like the nature of health, health education, health promotion and some related concepts. This will help them to understand the social, psychological and physical components of health and enable them to be a better health educator by considering these basic ideas while planning and carrying out a health education session.

Definition & concepts of health

As a Health Extension Practitioner, one’s main target will be to prevent health problems in a community rather than to treat them. Malaria, diarrheal diseases, tuberculosis, pneumonia, HIV/AIDS, substance abuse and many harmful traditional practices are among the different health problems we generally see within our community setting.