eChapters

Our understanding of plant–nematode interactions has increased significantly. The f irst genome sequences of two root-knot nematodes species, M? incognita and M? hapla, have been described, which were significantly different from genome of the free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. Both M? incognita and M? hapla have definite set of proteins that determine the virulence in plant species. The secretomes (set of secreted proteins through the stylets) of different phytonematodes have demonstrated a number of effector proteins that are involved in compatible plant nematode interactions (Ali et?al., 2017). In response to infection of various nematodes, plant’s transcriptome resulted in increased metabolic activity in the feeding cells and suppression of defense mechanisms of the plants in most of the cases. Most of these studies revealed considerable progress toward an understanding of plant–nematode interactions under natural conditions.

The present study was envisaged to develop kodo millet incorporated chicken meat nuggets and to explore the effect of kodo millet flour on the shelf life of chicken meat nuggets. The chicken meat nuggets were developed by using kodo millet flour (KMF) at three different levels (T1-6%, T2-8% and T3-10%) by replacing lean meat. Appearance/colour and flavour score, juiciness and overall palatability were found significantly higher (P < 0.05) for T1. On the basis of sensory scores, control and T1 were selected for further comparison and storage studies in refrigerated temperature for 28 days and assessed for microbial analysis at regular interval of 7 days. Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) and standard plate count (SPC) values increased significantly (P < 0.05) in both variants during storage. These values were found lower in treatment. Results of sensory evaluation studies during storage also revealed decrease in sensory scores in almost all occasions. T1 (treatment containing 6 % KMF) was rated higher for flavour, texture, juiciness and overall palatability throughout the storage period. It was concluded that functional chicken nuggets could be developed by replacing the chicken meat in standardized formulation at the level of 6 % kodo millet flour. The developed product maintains better physiochemical, microbiological and sensory qualities during refrigerated storage and was acceptable up to 14 days of storage.

Computational intelligence is central to the development of proactive, personalized and connected healthcare systems. This chapter examines artificial intelligence, machine learning, expert systems, medical-image analysis, IoT, big-data analytics, cloud computing and blockchain as key enabling technologies. It presents intelligent architectures for diagnosis, monitoring, treatment support and secure health-data management. Privacy, cybersecurity, explainability, bias, fairness, scalability and deployment challenges are discussed in relation to practical healthcare implementation. The chapter proposes a research roadmap involving trustworthy AI, advanced privacy-preserving mechanisms, edge-cloud intelligence, digital twins, multi-omics integration and personalized health models. It also emphasizes accessible computational-intelligence solutions for rural and resource-constrained healthcare environments

Landform, water and plants form the three basic elements of garden designing. Each of these basic element is described and discussed in detail.

I Landform

“Landform” refers to three-dimensional relief of earth’s surface. Thus, in simple words it is the lay of land, synonymous with, “topography”. Land is defined as the surface of the earth and all its natural resources. Landform is thus 3-D view of earth’s surface including all the visible feature of an area of land and landscape refers to the picture representing a view of natural inland scenery. Landform is the common module in exterior environments, a base, an axis, a thread, which ties all the physical elements, space together along the horizon or the water edge. Landforms can be classified as macro-landforms, micro-landforms and mini-landforms. Macro-landforms refers to valleys, mountains, rolling hills, prairies, desert, seashore and plains. Micro-landforms refers to mounds, slopes, level areas or elevation changes using steps and ramps. Mini-landforms refers to subtle, undulations or ripples of a sand dunes or the textural variation of stones and rocks.

Different techniques are used for explaining and representing the type of landform. These include (i) Contour lines, (ii) Models, (iii) Ratio method, (iv) Value and colour, (v) Spot elevation, (vi) Computer graphics, (vi) Hatches (disconnected lines are used) and (viii) Percentage method. These techniques are used for proper study of the landform, to identify loopholes and need to modification in order to establish proper drainage or to modify the site in order to accommodate of various elements or to create an aesthetically pleasing ground plan.

13.1 Introduction

In agricultural lands, when the pores of the soil within the root zone of the crop get saturated with the subsoil water due to infiltration of high rainfall, excess irrigation or heavy seepage loss in the unlined canal systems, the air circulation within the soil pores get totally stopped. This phenomenon is called as waterlogging. In canal commands where there is continuous flow of water in the canals and canals are mostly unlined, there is heavy loss of seepage which raises the ground water table. This raising water table sometimes comes up to the ground surface which impedes surface drainage. By capillary action, under ground water rises to the crop root zone and submerges the roots of the crops for most of the time. This situation is called as waterlogging which creates salinisation and alkalinisation problems affecting the plant growth.

The height to which soil water rises above the water table by capillary action is called as capillary fringe. Generally, the height of the capillary fringe varies from 1 to 1.5 m. When the water table comes to 1.5 m below the surface of the soil, the land is said to be waterlogged. At times, due to poor drainage conditions, surface water cannot be freely drained out. The stagnate water in these low lying areas also causes waterlogging which enhances the weed growth consequently affecting the crop yield.

14.1 Introduction

Groundwater is an important source of water for irrigation. It is the most abundant fresh water resource of the earth. Underground water reservoirs contain large stock of fresh water resources. Total quantity of groundwater within 800 m distance below the ground surface is more than 30 times the total water in all fresh water lakes, more than 60 times the total water in soil and other unsaturated rock materials, more than 300 times the water vapour in the atmosphere and 3000 times the average volume of all rivers and rivulets in the world (Lenka, 2001). But the distribution of groundwater is not uniform. At some places, it lies below a few metres whereas at other places, it is a thousand metres or more below the ground surface. In some places, there is abundant groundwater potential whereas at other places there is meager potential.

Groundwater is the water reaching the groundwater reservoir from the infiltrated water of precipitation which constitutes an important component of the hydrologic cycle. It is only the part of the subterranean water that occurs in the saturated pores of the containing rock materials underlain by water held in a zone of aeration. It should not be confused that all the water present in soil below the ground surface is groundwater.

Butter is one of the leading milk product in developed countries of the world. It serves as a balance wheel of dairy industry. Surplus milk is generally converted into butter to be used during the times of scarcity. It is an article of commerce and a sign if wealth. Butter is a fat concentrate, which is obtained by churning cream, gathering the fat into a compact mass and then working it for proper distribution of moisture and salt. The art of butter making has a long history. The manufacture of butter was confined to colder regions where gravity creaming was successful. The milk was allowed to stand undisturbed for 10-12 hours until layer of cream collects at the top.

The plant roots, soil animals and microorganisms make up soil biological communities, accelerate biochemical activities through intra- and extra-cellular enzymes and interact in such a manner that biogeochemical cycling on this earth continues uninterrupted. Without intermeshing vital processes of soil microflora, microfauna and associated mesofauna, the soil would have become a repository of plant residues and animal remains with no facility for recycling the vital nutrients for plant growth, thus halting the whole process of geo-chemical recycling in nature. Though living component rarely makes up more than 4% of the total soil organic carbon, it plays vital role in geochemical recycling, soil development and ecosystem stability.

INTRODUCTION

Preservation of food by drying or chemical means as by alcohol or acid fermentation and that by the use of ice is long recorded in history. With the advancement of science and the knowledge governing various unit operations in food processing, these food preservation techniques employing thermal, radiation, or low temperature or a combination of these have only got further refined as regards their viability and commercial applications. Process foods of different genre and cuisine, which include frozen foods too, are increasingly becoming popular the world over for reasons of quality, safety and year round supply of nutritious foods to cater to different niche segments of human society. Increasing health consciousness is buoying those processed foods which are preserved and stabilized using non-thermal technologies as these ensure retention of food nutrients to a better definition. Interest in frozen food also stems from need to deliver safe and nutritious foods with extended shelf-lives.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Black pepper popularly known as ‘King of spices’ or ‘Black gold’ is one of the important and earliest known spices produced and exported from India. Its original home is the dense evergreen forests of Western Ghats in south India. The flavour and fragrance of this oriental spice had a magic spell in human civilization and culture since very ancient days. Expeditions in search of pepper led to the discovery of new trade routes.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Capsicum or chilli including paprika belonging to family Solanaceae, is a native of new world tropics and sub tropics. Within the genus Capsicum, mainly five species have been recognized as domesticated namely, Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens and C. pubescens. Most of the commercially cultivated chilli cultivars as well as paprika belong to the species C. annuum. The cultivated Capsicum was introduced to India and Southeastern Asia in the 17th century by the Portugese. The name Capsicum is possibly derived from the Greek word ‘Kapso’ meaning ‘to bite’ referring to the dominant pungency stimulated by the spice, while ‘Paprika’ means plants of the genus Capsicum, in the Hungarian language. ‘Paprika’, is defined in the world market as non-pungent (sweet) brilliant red ground Capsicum powder, derived from the thick flesh dried red pods, with most of the seeds and veins removed. Both chilli and paprika are widely consumed as vegetable and spice all over the world. Mostly, the cultivars grown in Asian countries are pungent, while less and non-pungent cultivars are more common in European countries. Chilli of commerce is the dried pod, while it was pericarp (outer skin of the dried fruit) for paprika.

‘Cucurbits’ is a term coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey for cultivated species of the family Cucurbitacae (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 2004). Presently, the term has been used not only for cultivated forms, but also for any species of the family Cucurbitacae. Among vegetables, the cucurbits form one of the largest groups with their wide adaptation from arid climates to the humid tropics. The family consists of about 118 genera and 825 species. In Asia, about 23 edible major and minor cucurbits are grown as vegetable. They are grown in summer and rainy seasons in India and even in winter in some parts of southern and western India as both annual and perennial crops. 

1.    Introduction    129
2.    Soil Microbiology    129

    2.1.    Bacteria, 130
    2.2.    Fungi, 132
    2.3.    Algae and Cyanobacteria, 132
    2.4.    Protozoa, 132
    2.5.    Viruses, 135

3.    Water Microbiology    133
4.    Microbial Associations    133

    4.1.    Neutral interactions, 133
    4.2.    Positive interactions, 133
    4.3.    Negative interactions, 133

Sixteen chemical elements are known to be important to a plant’s growth and survival. The sixteen chemical elements are divided into two main groups: non-mineral and mineral.  The Non-Mineral Nutrients are hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and carbon (C). These nutrients are found in the air and water.
  
In a process called photosynthesis, plants use energy from the sun to change carbon dioxide (CO₂ - carbon and oxygen) and water (H₂O- hydrogen and oxygen) into starches and sugars. These starches and sugars are the plant’s food. Since plants get carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from the air and water, there is little the farmers and gardeners can do to control  how much of these nutrients a plant can use.

Summary

Plant tissue culture is the technique of growing plant cells, tissues or organs in isolated from the mother plant on artificial media. It has opened up unprecedented opportunities in many areas of basic and applied biological research. This includes techniques and methods used to research into many botanical disciplines and has several practical objectives of plant tissue culture and micropropagation for sustainable development. Indeed, the landmark publication by Gottlieb Haberlandt who is arguably referred to as the “Father of Tissue Culture”, is often cited as the origin and emergence of plant tissue culture and its subsequent applications. Success of biotechnological approaches is dependent on regeneration of intact plants following genetic modification, generally by micropropagation. Potential uses of plant tissue culture in biotechnology to further our understanding of plant physiology, how plants function, resolution and expression of use full characters form in vitro to in vivo condition. Agro bacterium-mediated genetic transformation along with other modes of transformation such as microprojectile bombardment has been accomplished mainly through plant tissue culture.

Abstract
 
Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) is a plantation crop having a wide distribution extending from low elevation to high exceeding 2000 m. The demands and consumption of organically grown residue free Darjeeling tea is increasing day by day due to health consciousness and environmental awareness. The average productivity of Darjeeling tea is far below than the average national tea productivity. Reasons for low productivity of Darjeeling tea may be due to high altitude/elevation; temperature/climate and geographical location in addition to the old age of tea bushes and low plant density. In the past indiscriminate use of synthetic fertilizers has led to the pollution and contamination of the soil, water basins, destroyed micro-organisms and friendly insects, making the crop more prone to diseases and reduced soil fertility. Following Good Agriculture Practices (GAP), sustainable and quality production of Darjeeling tea may be increased through eco-forming without any deterioration of surroundings of plants.

M    :    Milli (10^-3l).

M    :    Molar (mol/L).

M    :    Microorganisms - small organisms which require a microscope to be seen. M represents the SS in the mixed liquor and is part of the F/M ratio. 

Mango occupies a pre-eminent place amongst the fruit crops grown in India and is acknowledged as the ‘King of Fruits’. Mango is the pride of the garden and one of the choicest fruits known to mankind. Mango possesses unique nutritional and medicinal qualities apart from being a rich source of vitamins A and C. Young and unripe fruits are utilized for culinary purposes, preparing pickles, chutneys because of their acidic taste as well as for extraction of tannin and other astringent products. Ripe fruits are a delicacy for the table and are utilized in preparing squash, juices, nectar, jam, cereal flakes, custard powder, baby food, mango leather and toffee. Canned mango slices and pulp are indeed very popular. The inside kernel of the stone being rich in carbohydrates, calcium and fat, can be used as a source of food for certain industrial purposes.

5.1. INTRODUCTION

Temperature is the one of the most important environmental element influencing the plant growth and development limiting the productivity and adaptation of crops, especially when it coincides with critical ranges (Chen et al., 1982; Paulsen, 1994). Nearly all commercial crops in the arid and semi-arid tropics often suffer from heat stress. Every plant has an optimal temperature for its normal growth, deviation from this may cause stress to plants. The adverse effects on plant of temperatures higher than the optimal considered as heat stress. Crops are exposed to periods of heat stress during their life-cycle. The optimum temperature for the most species ranges from 25 to 35 0C. Above this value, a decline in the photosynthesis rate is observed (Berry and Bjorkman, 1980; Pimentel, 1998). Even brief periods of heat-shock between temperature ranges of 45-50 0C induce marked change in plant growth processes.

The chemicals, which can destroy pests or prevent their occurrence by their chemical action, are known as ‘pesticides’. Pesticides include ‘insecticides’, ‘acaricides’, ‘nematicides’, ‘rodenticides’, ‘molluscicides’ etc., which are used to destroy insect pests, mites, nematodes, rodents, slugs and snails respectively.

Pesticides have been used even before the time when man never knew how to read or write. Even before 200 BC, several substances were known to control pests. Sulfur, arsenic poisons, fluorine poisons, as well as some plant extracts and oils were used to control pests. However, these substances could destroy only a few specific pests.

Advances in the invention of pesticides

The invention of many of the present day pesticides started only after 1867. Paris green, a synthetic chemical was the first pesticide used to control the Colorado beetles of potato.  Up to  1939,  only  a few inorganic  chemical compounds and plant poisons were used as pesticides. Only after the Second World War much advances were made in chemical research. After the invention of DDT in 1939, a revolution had started in the field of pest control.  Following the introduction of DDT,  several other pesticides were identified and introduced for pest control. In 1941, BHC was invented by the British and French scientists. During the same period, organophosphorus pesticides were invented by the German scientists and parathion, malathion, demeton etc. were introduced.

Introduction

There are a number of chemicals in the environment, some natural other man-made, some toxic other non-toxic. These are toxic chemicals, whether natural or man-made, which has created problems for the environment and biota on the earth. Of these toxic chemicals, heavy metals are extremely hazardous. Metals are present naturally in the earth’s crust at various levels. However, increasingly widespread heavy metal pollution resulting from anthropogenic activities has caused serious environmental problems and is posing threat to both wild life and human population (Nriagu and Pacyna, 1988). Natural sources include weathering of mineral and metal ions from rocks, displacement of certain contaminants from groundwater or subsurface layers of soil, atmospheric deposition from volcanic activity, and transport of dust. The anthropogenic sources include deposition of industrial effluents, application of sewage sludge, deposition of air-borne industrial wastes, military operations, mining, landfill operations, use of agricultural chemicals, gas exhausts and energy and fuel production (McIntyre, 2003).

Commercial capers are the immature flower buds, which have been pickled in vinegar or preserved in granular salt; they are used raw or cooked as condiment in different recipes. Semi- mature fruits (caper berries) and young shoots with small leaves may also be use as a condiment in salads or as an appetizer before meal. Capers and caper plants, wild and/or cultivated, are used in almost all the area of Capparis subgenus Capparis, extending from West Africa to the Norfolk islands in the Pacific, and most of the species are of alimentary or medicinal interest (Rivera, Inocencio, Obón & Alcaraz, 2003).

Capparis is a term coined by Theophrastus (4th cent. BC) and validated by Dioscorides (1st cent. AD) (Êáððáñéò), although it seems not to have come into wide use until the spread of the Arab world.
 
Caper and its relatives in several European languages can be traced back to Classical Latin Capparis “caper”. Latin Capparis, in turn, was loaned from Greek kapparis [êáððáñéò], whose origin (as that of the plant) is unknown but probably West or Central Asia. Another theory links kapparis to the name of the island Cyprus (Kypros [Êáðñïò]), where capers grow abundantly.

The seed spices are aromatic vegetable products mostly used in whole or ground form for imparting flavour, aroma and pungency to food. The seed spices possess industrial importance and are used in cosmetics, perfumery and pharmaceutical preparations.  The major seed spices , coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek are cultivated in larger areas in arid to semi-arid regions covering major parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Besides these four crops, a minor group of under exploited seed spices crops has tremendous scope for their cultivation in arid to semi-arid parts of the country. Such under exploited seed spice crops are ajowan, dill, celery, anise, caraway, black caraway, parsley and nigella.

India produces currently 8.4 lakh t. of seed spices from an area of  5.7 lakh ha. Owing to large domestic demand and stringent export regulations only 10% of total production is exported and earns a foreign exchange of Rs. 225 crores annually. The global demand of seed spices is 1,50000 t. and India  exports only 60750 t. annually. It is suggested that if wide range of seed spice crops are grown across the country, present level of production and export can be doubled. Therefore in addition to major group of seed spices, the minor seed spices, so called under exploited crops should be given emphasis and promoted amongst farmers for earning more profit through  export.

SUMMARY

Citrus is third most important fruit crop in India after banana and mango. Citrus crops have occupied an area of 8.43 lakh ha with total production of 75.7 lakh tons and the productivity of 9.9 tons/ha in India. Such a quantum of citrus production contributes 13 per cent of total fruit production demonstrating the significance of citrus in horticultural research and development in India. Rootstocks are known to have profound effect on the vigour, precocity, productivity, internal quality, and longevity of the scion varieties grafted on them. They are also known to influence the susceptibility of trees to various diseases and insects. Furthermore, it is recognized that optimum performances depends on the proper selection of rootstocks for a given set of growing conditions. The most commonly and widely used citrus rootstocks in India are Rough lemon, Cleopatra and Pectinifera. Rough lemon (Jatti Khatti) is the most important and widely used rootstock in the country for most of the scions followed by Kharna Khatta being more popular in Uttar Pradesh. While the problem of rootstock selection is important in all major fruit crops, it is of even greater importance in citrus due to tristeza virus disease now present in many areas of the world. It is also possible that citrus decline in India may be due partly to stionic incompatibilities. This chapter deals with problems and prospects of rootstocks in citrus in India, particularly related to horticultural aspects, insect-pests, diseases, nematodes, physiological disorders, post harvest quality, aspects related to tissue culture and rootstock breeding.

Heat desiccated products represent khoa and khoa-based sweets, rabri, basundi, etc. These are important traditional dairy products. Traditional dairy products and a great assortment of sweets is an integral part of Indian heritage. These products are endowed with enormous value and enjoy tremendous mass appeal. Of great social, religious, cultural and economic importance these products have been developed over a long period of culinary skills and carry with them, the age-old wisdom and experience. Traditional dairy products have always played a pivotal role in preservation of precious milk nutrients and promotion of its consumption among masses. The increased availability of milk during the flush season coupled with lack of facilities to keep liquid milk fresh during transit from rural production areas to urban market has led to the conversion of milk into variety of traditional products. In addition to preservation of milk solids for longer duration, manufacture of traditional dairy products adds value to milk and also provides tremendous employment opportunity. It is estimated that about 50% of milk produced in India is converted into a variety of traditional products.

Traditional dairy products represent the most prolific segment of Indian dairy industry. These products not only have an established market in India but also have a great export potential because of strong presence of Indian diaspora in many parts of the world. In view of the growing awareness towards the safety aspects of milk-based sweets in India, the consumer shall prefer to buy these products from the organized sector. Despite the widespread popularity and acceptability of traditional milk products in the Indian market, the organized sector has so far not been able to tap into this market potential for many reasons such as lack of published literature on their technology, inadequacy of appropriate technologies for their commercial exploitation, inadequacy of appropriate packaging materials and labeling to take care of new pattern in consumer demand, low keeping quality and a lack of quality assurance systems.

‘Importance of Agriculture in National Perspective in India

Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy: The following points emphasize the importance of agriculture in Indian Economy. Indian is an agricultural country, where 70 per cent population is dependent on agriculture. This forms the main source of income. The contribution of agriculture in the national income in India is more, hence, it is said that agriculture in India is a backbone of Indian Economy. The importance of agriculture in the National Economy is explained by the following points.

Role of agriculture in Indian economy: Agriculture is the main sector of Indian economy which is amply powered by the following points:

Share in National Income: The contribution from agriculture has been continuously falling from 55.1% in 1950-51 to 37.6% in 1981-82 & further to 18.5% in 2006-07 and 14.2% in 2011-12 and now 13.1%. But agriculture still continues to be the main sector because it provides livelihood to a majority of the people. The share of the agricultural sector’s capital formation in GDP declined from 2.2% in the late 1999s to 1.9% at precent.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 If an experiment is repeated under an identical conditions, we generally come to a result (i.e. outcome) which is unique or certain.

Q.2 In an experiment, the result (outcome) may not be unique but it is one of the several possible outcomes.

Q.3 The phenomena described in Ql, are known as “deterministic or predictable”.

Q.4 In deterministic phenomena, the results can be predicted with certainity

Q.5 A deterministic model stipulates that the conditions under which an experiment is performed, determine the ouctome of the experiment

Q.6 The phenomena which do not lead themselves to deterministic approach, are known as “Unpredictable or probabilistic” phenomena.

Q.7 The phenomena frequently occured in business, economic and social science or even in our day to day life, are known as “deterministic phenomena”.

Q.8 A manufacturer can ascertain the future demand of his product with certainity.

Q.9 A sales manager can not predict with certainity about the sales target next year.

Introduction

Functional genomics is a field of molecular biology that attempts to make use of the vast wealth of data produced by genomic projects (such as genome sequencing projects) to describe gene (and protein) functions and interactions. Unlike genomics and proteomics, functional genomics focuses on the dynamic aspects such as gene transcription, translation, and protein-protein interactions, as opposed to the static aspects of the genomic information such as DNA sequence or structures. Functional genomics includes function-related aspects of the genome itself such as mutation and polymorphism (such as SNP) analysis, as well as measurement of molecular activities. The latter comprise a number of “-omics” such as transcriptomics (gene expression), proteomics (protein expression), phosphoproteomics and metabolomics. Together these measurement modalities quantifies the various biological processes and powers the understanding of gene and protein functions and interactions. Functional genomics uses mostly high-throughput techniques to characterize the abundance gene products such as mRNA and proteins.

8.1. INTRODUCTION

The existence of Science could be in danger, if scientists did not record experiment performed, data collected and resuit obtained. Scientific writing doesn't mean to only keep records of progress and information, but to actually publish the results of studies in scientific journals. While keeping records is quite easy to do, publishing scientific papers can be really difficult, and especially for young researchers who are just starting to discover the world of scientific publications. A scientific writing is a method of communication, an attempt to tell others about some specific data that you have gathered and what you think those data mean in the context of your research. The rules of writing a scientific paper are rigid and are différent Uorr\ those that apply when we write an English theme. Scientific paper must be written clearly and concisely so that readers with backgrounds similar to yours can understand easily what you have done and how you have done it. The ultimate aim of most scientists is to publish their research findings in professional scientific reports. This includes peer-reviewed journal articles, which report original findings and contribute to the global pool of scientific knowledge. Scientists spend their time writing proposais, planning research, undertaking experiments, analysing data, tracing research, and reading related articles. Published reports and journal articles provide evidence of this dedication. Therefore, a scientific report is not simply some extra work that is done at the end of a project; it is an important historical document that provides evidence of work to the wider scientific community.

Key facts

    
•    Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are micropollutants with estrogenic or androgenic activities at very low concentrations and are emerging as a major concern for water quality.
    
•    EDCs include natural and synthetic hormones (Estrone or E1, 17b-estradiol or E2, Estriol or E3, 17a-ethynylestradiol or EE2); alkylphenols (nonylphenol or NP; octyphenol or OP), phenols (bisphenol-A or BPA), phthalates (Di-n-butyl phthalate or DBP, Di-2-(ethylhexyl)-phthalate or DEHP); organotins (tributyltin or TBT); and phytoestrogens (b-sitosterol, coumestrols, genistein). 
    
•    Wastewater treatment plants, intensive livestock effluents, industrial wastewaters, landfill, paper and pulp mill effluents and antifouling paints are important sources of EDCs in the environment.

Key facts
    
•    Biotoxins are naturally occurring toxic compounds produced by some freshwater cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and marine algal species (dinoflagellates, diatoms).
    
•    Tonnes of pharmacologically active substances are used annually in human and veterinary medicines, some of these substances are excreted (human and animal) non-metabolised or an active metabolites and enter into the environment since waste water treatment plant (WWTP) cannot degrade them.
    
•    In Europe, around 4,000 different pharmaceutically active compounds are used as human and veterinary drugs and the annual consumption is about several hundred tonnes.
    
•    European Union and the United States laws require an assessment of potential risks to the environment as part of license application processes for new medicinal products.

•    Pharmaceutical products are generally polar, water soluble and low volatile molecules, it means that they have high mobility in the environment.

1. GEOLOGY

Geology : Earth Science

 Geo = Earth + Logos = Science

 Def : The science which investigates the history of the earth is known as geology.

 Following are the important branches of geology.

1.Coal Geology : it is related with natural gas, coal deposits and their formation.

2.Crystallography : includes the crystal and atomic structure of the mineral. 3. Drilling Technology : it is related with the cores, core logging and coorelation of the lithology.

4.Engineering Geology and Surveying : it is related with engineering aspects of the earth.

27. STRIKE AND DIP

Outcrop : A part of the rock formation which crops out or exposed on the surface of the earth is called an outcrop.

The total area over which a particular rock unit occurs at the surface whether visibly exposed or not. The term outcrop is especially used for delination of such an area on a geological map.

Attitude : To study these outcrops their attitude help in better understanding the position of the bed on the ground surface or in field is attitude of a bed can be described with the help of two basic structural elements i.e. strike and dip.

Introduction

Normally, water is a liquid substance made of molecules containing one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen (H₂O). Pure water has no colour, no taste, no smell, turns to a solid at 0°C and a vapour at 100°C. Its density is 1 gram per cubic centimetre (1 g/cm₃), and it is an extremely good solvent.

An extraordinary property of water is its ability to dissolve other substances. There is hardly a substance known which has not been identified in solution in the earth's waters. Were it not for the solvent property of water, life could not exist because water transfers nutrients vital to life in animals and plants.

A drop of rain water falling through the air dissolves atmospheric gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects the quality of the land, lakes and rivers.

Farm Innovation and Promotion Fund (FIPF)
Introduction
Many innovative initiatives are being attempted by various agencies in the Held of Agriculture and allied sectors. To support these innovations, NABARD has decided to set up a fund titled “Farm Innovation and Promotion Fund” (FIPF).

Initial Corpus of Fund
Rs. 5 crore (2004-05).

Objectives of the Fund
The objective of the Fund is to support the activities listed below : 
        To demonstrate bankability of new concepts in farm sector
        To develop prototypes for further commercial development
        To support activities connected with market survey for potential assessment/market acceptability for new agri/rural products

1. _________________ work for grape fruit setting.

   a) Alar

   b) IAA

   c) Cytokinin

   d) Abscissic acid

2. A fruits that develops from a hollow pear-shaped fleshy receptacle (hypanthodium) which encloses a number of minute male and female flowers in known as :

   a) Aggregate fruit

   b) Hesperidium

   c) Pome fruit

   d) Syconus fruit

1.1 Introduction and Background

In present scenario, the word “extrusion” refers to a process by which dry or semi-moist ingredients with varying in-barrel moisture are forced through varying barrel temperature, screw speed and screw configuration through a die opening of the desired cross section. In other words, extrusion is predominantly a thermo-mechanical processing operation that combines several unit operations, including mixing, coating, kneading, venting, shearing, heating, forming, partial drying or puffing, depending on the material and equipment used.

The origins of extrusion are in the metallurgical industry, where in 1797 Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process, wherein a piston driven device was used for making seamless lead pipes. The present understanding of extrusion technology and the developments or improvements in machine design are largely due to research carried out by the plastics industry. In food industry, this technology is in use since 1930 and its popularity is increasing continuously due to its efficiency, continuity and sustainability. In beginning, sausage extruders were developed in the nineteenth century as simple forming machines. One of the original developments which laid the foundation of the food extrusion was the use of pasta press termed as “cold extruder” in mid 1930s. Furthermore, in the late 1930s, General Mills, Incorporation., Minneapolis, MN, USA, first used a single screw extruder in the manufacture of ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals. Later in 1970s, twin screw extruders were used for the manufacture of moist pet-foods. Twin screw extruders were also adapted from polymer industry, as rising food quality and limitations of single screw extruders were demanding a more versatile process for the newer and higher quality products. After 1970s, the extrusion processing with simultaneous use of heat was popularized as a versatile and highly energy efficient with negligible wastage process. In all these years, number of changes has been noted in the extruder design such as changes in screw design, barrel design and also material used for the manufacture of these materials. Barrel liners availability along with already available segmented screws could further add more economics to the process and increased equipment lifetime. For better wearing characteristics, a number of screw elements of different materials are being used in addition to standard nitrided steel for customized processing needs, such as corrosion and wear resistant surface coated steels, stainless steel, satellite welded and bimetallic HIP (Hot Isostatic Press). JBL Feedscrews Limited, a UK based company recently introduced tungsten carbide coated screw in conjunction with a compatible bimetallic barrel. Likewise, a number of options for barrel metallurgy are available to withstand the higher internal pressure and temperature. Barrels lined with hard cobalt based alloy, typically Xaloy, to give abrasion and chemical resistance are also in use, although, the most common material is carbon steel with a nitride interior. Similarly, steam heated or jacketed barrels were used earlier for cooking purpose which gradually replaced by the electric induction heating elements. These HTST cooking extruders are versatile, highly productive and energy efficient processing machines. They can use a wide variety of raw materials and formulations to produce products with increased shelf-life and convenience.

6.1 Introduction

Consumer demand, regulatory guidelines and economic power of the consumer as well as ascertained profitability stimulated the need of novel food processing techniques. The concept of “fresh”, “natural”, or “organic” food also led to the development of environmentally sound and resource efficient food processing technologies. Thermal processes have been used for food preservation since a long time. These are not very energy efficient and can change the phase of food from fresh to cooked as well as it can alter the nutritional and sensory qualities. Thus, the quest for energy conservation by the manufacturers to reduce carbon footprint of the processes involved in food processing and preservation as well as to fulfill consumers’ requirement for fresh-like quality food have given rise to the development of innovative non-thermal food processing technologies i.e. ionizing radiation, high-intensity light pulses, high isobaric pressure, electric or oscillating magnetic fields, as well as pulsed electric fields (PEF).

Application of electric energy in food processing started in the early 1900s. In the beginning, electrical pasteurization inactivated microorganisms by increasing the temperature of samples by means of an electrical resistance (ohmic heating). Milk was the first electrically pasteurized product. In the late 1940s, electric fields were used to increase the permeability of fruits to facilitate the subsequent extraction of juices. The PEF technology as a non-thermal process is very effective for inactivation of microorganisms, increasing the pressing efficiency, enhancing the juice extraction, and for intensification of the food dehydration and drying process. The main effect of PEF technology is based on the phenomena that biological membranes are punctured under the influence of external electrical impulses. This process is often referred as non-thermal, since the structural damage to membranes is implemented at very low temperature compared to the conventional heating process. The PEF process is considered to be energy efficient because the electric energy is released in short pulses, thus total energy requirement is much lower than other continuous preservation technologies. The microbial inactivation can be achieved at ambient or moderately elevated temperatures by the application of short-bursts of high intensity electric fields to liquid foods flowing between two electrodes or to semi-solid/ solid food between some specialized electrode and treatment systems. Due to chemical/physical properties and presence of electrical charge, the liquid foods (e.g. milk or fruit juices) had different conductivity, which results in variable flux of electrical current through the food systems.

Antinutrients

Safety is the most important aspect among all the quality attributes of food. Food can be considered safe, only if it does not contain any factor which is hazardous to human or even animal health. The various factors which affect the safety of the foods may be broadly classified into three categories. The first category includes the toxic factors occurring naturally in foods. The second category comprises a group of incidental contaminants which find their way at various stages of processing, manufacture, preservation and storage of foods and the third category includes harmful intentional additives or adulterants.

Various categories of anti-nutritional factors are present in the traditional and non-traditional oilseeds, oils and oilcakes. Some of them are heat-labile and do not pose any harmful effects in the body, while the heat-stable factors may cause deleterious effects in human beings and animals. They belong to different groups of compounds. It is necessary to know their behaviour, significance and toxicities. Their avoidance or elimination is important to protect human and animal health.

The range of isotope applications in surface water hydrology is not as wide as in groundwater hydrology as the surface waters are more easily amenable to conventional hydrological methods. Following are the areas in which isotopes have a significant role in either improving the accuracy of measurements or in providing additional information, which is otherwise not easily available.

Meat and meat products industry is a sunrise industry in India having huge potential for upliftment of agricultural economy. India is the second largest food producer in world but the contribution of meat industry is still confined to localized handlers. So to uplift industry basic infrastructure, food chains, food security and safety along with standards and laws formulation and their implementations is today’s need. Standards are carefully drawn specifications with respect to a food product. These standards are mainly of three types i.e. government, trade and research standards. Government standards are formulated by the government of India or state government and also have the power to implement these standards while trade standards are implied by the individual company. Research standards are formulated on the basis of comparative study of the products by the researchers. Laws are the legislations enforced by the organisations either government or by autonomous bodies made under the constitutional acts of the country. At present numerous standards and laws are in existence in individual country or at international level. The need is to harmonize them as per the industry and trade requirement.

Domestic Organizations Involved in Standards and Laws Formulation

For the formulation, enforcement and control of standards and legislations at domestic level various organizations are of prime value. Some of these are:

1. INTRODUCTION

India is a vast country having a geographical area of 328 million hectares with 15 distinct agro-climatic zones. Fruits and vegetables are one of the most important and fast growing sub-sectors as they form an indispensable part of healthy diet. It holds a unique position for growing a wide range of vegetables in its diverse agro-climatic conditions. World production of vegetables amounts to 486 million tons, while that of fruits is 392 million tons. India produces 159.5m MT tons of vegetables from an area of 9.07 million hectare annually (NHB, 2013). Productivity of vegetables in India presently is 16.7 tons per hectare. India produces 36 % green peas and 10% onion of world’s production. Onion, potatoes and green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies also have good export potential. Being rich in vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and natural antioxidants most vegetables are classified as the protective foods. However, owing to the presence of high moisture content and mostly being non acidic, the vegetables are highly perishable and needs to be handled properly and immediately after harvest. Processing of vegetables into different value added products is one of the most effective alternatives to reduce post harvest losses.

Vegetables are highly beneficial for the maintenance of health and disease prevention. An intake of about 280 grams of vegetables per day per person has been considered essential. Vegetable unlike cereals deteriorated quickly when stored for long periods because of the relatively high moisture contents. Huge amounts of losses take place between harvesting and consumption. Various causes are attributed to the deterioration process and it becomes essential to adopt integrated, low cost system of post harvest technology right from the pre-harvest stage.

Sustainability has recently become an important factor in the engineering world. Landscape architecture is a discipline that attempts to improve the way humans interact with the environment. That interaction can be improved in various ways such as water conservation, energy conservation, or urban planning. landscape architecture encompasses urban design, community and regional planning, interior and exterior garden design, parks and recreation, historic site and natural area preservation, energy and water conservation, landscape restoration and management, among others. The varied list is an example of the dynamic essence of landscaping and provides insight into the many areas which can be improved by implementing sustainable practices.

Sustainable development practices aim to protect the quality of life of future generations. This can only be done by understanding how the natural environment operates as well as how human interactions affect it. Sustainable Landscape Architecture focuses on enhancing the holistic knowledge of the surrounding landscapes, including the complex processes which naturally occur to maintain it. Employing this knowledge within the planning phases of development should result in the reduction of negative environmental impacts due to the same. The traditional consequences of land development can be eliminated or mitigated when developers are able to foresee the consequences of their work. Many times, replicating undeveloped conditions and/or native landscapes within the overall site design will prove very useful in achieving the goals of sustainability. All of the sustainable topics covered in this chapter involve the application of a technology that resulted from better understanding the natural environment.

Introduction

As the world population continues to grow, the global market for food products is expanding, together with an increased emphasis on food safety. Consumers have become more discerning in the type of foods they buy and how these foods affect their health and well being. Food safety is generally defined as the assurance that the food will not cause any harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use ( To achieve food safety, a management system has been developed which aims on preventing problems before they occur, rather than trying to detect failures through end product testing. It also places more responsibility for ensuring food safety on food manufacturers, who have to develop control and traceability of their products from ‘farm to plate’. The system requires the identification of specific hazards throughout the entire process of food production, concentrates on the points in the process that are critical to the safety of the product, and highlights measures for their control (Henson and Caswell, 1999).

1. INTRODUCTION

Motifs are patterns in biological sequences which can indicate the presence of certain biological characteristics and function. In general, these could represent patterns in any kind of biological sequences such as DNA sequences, RNA sequences and protein sequences. Evolutionary conserved regions (ECRs) are sequences with atleast 100 bp length alongwith minimum 70% identity, which includes most of the protein-coding exons, promoters, enhancers and repressors. ECRs are the preliminary step for finding TFBSs (Transcription factor binding sites) within the raw genome sequences of higher eukaryotes (large sizes of the genomes). DNA sequence motifs are short length, recurring patterns in DNA and are known to be associated with a biological function. These motifs sometimes indicate sequence specific binding sites for proteins such as nucleases and transcription factors (TF). Some sequence motifs are involved in biological processes at RNA level, such as ribosome binding, mRNA processing (splicing, editing, polyadenylation) and transcription termination. Motif identification is important at protein level for biological processes such as protein-subcellular localization, protein membrane, protein-protein interactions, identification of active site of enzyme(s) and post-translational modifications. Motif search is useful in understanding gene function, human disease, drug design, etc. Regulation of splicing in eukaryotes occurs through the coordinated action of multiple splicing factors. Sequence motifs are also useful in the study of genetic regulatory networks and regulatory program of individual genes.

5.1 Introduction

Energy in the form of heat is one of the main energy requirements in domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial sector of our economy. From an enduse point of view, solar thermal energy finds its application in these areas. Solar thermal energy devices convert radiant energy of the sun into thermal energy for different productive works. In fact, solar energy consists of infrared radiation, it is characteristics of infrared radiation that whenever it falls on any object, it converts into thermal heat energy.

The conversion of sun light into thermal energy is easily or conveniently achieved by means of a metallic or plastic cover, painted black with ordinary black board paint or having selected coating over it and covered with one- or double-glazing cover for transmitting solar radiation inside it. This metallic cover is known as absorber, below it either channels or pipes or passages for allowing entry of water or air are provided, through which heat energy is transferred to working medium either air or water. The absorber plate is covered with suitable thickness of insulating material on its back or sides for preventing loss of heat from the absorber plate. This complete system is enclosed in an airtight box. When exposed to solar radiations, the blackened metallic surface absorbs solar energy and converts into heat. This heat could be used for cooking of food, heating of water and air, evaporation of moisture form the grains etc. In fact, absorber works on the principle of black body, which absorbs maximum and a good absorber, is a good emitter. Hence generated heat could be utilized for different applications.

Improved Varieties of Peas and Beans

A. VEGETABLE PEA

A. Early Varieties

Shrubs are usually woody or semi-woody perennial plants; their branches arise from the base of the plants and grow up to the height of 3 to 4 meter. Many shrubs, which are more or less prostrate, make excellence ground flower. Availability of a large number of species & cultivars, a wide range of variation in shape & size of the plants, diversified types of leaves, growth habit, remarkable ranges of size, shape, colour of flowers & the variety of fragrance have made the shrubs as important garden plants. Several species of shrubs have unusually attractive colours.

Most of the shrubs are hardy & grow in all types of soil with little attention. Although some plants flower almost throughout the year, in most cases they are seasonal. A selection can be made in such a way that some plants in the shrubbery will be in bloom in any season of the year. Most of these plants are fairly quick growing and when vegetatively propagated, start flowering in the first year. Plants like Bauhinia acuminata (Kanchnar), Cassia alata (Candle Bush), Vinca rosea,which are usually grown from seeds also produced flowers in the first year.Shrubs can be classified into three groups according to the requirement of the sunlight for growth & flowering: