eChapters

Heart

The heart is a cone shaped thick walled and four chambered muscular organ. It lies obliquely craniocaudal in the middle mediastinum in between the left and right lungs and is covered by pericardium inside the thoracic cavity. The major part of heart (about 60 per cent) lies to the left of the middle mediastinum. The broad upper end is the base of the heart. It lies at the junction of the dorsal and middle third of the dorsoventral diameter of thorax at the level of about third to sixth rib and it faces craniodorsally. The narrow lower end is the apex. It lies just dorsal to the sternum at the level of about sixth rib and it faces caudoventrally. The surfaces, right and left are convex. They meet cranially at the right ventricular border and caudally at the left ventricular border. The right (cranial) border is strongly convex. It runs ventrally and caudally. The greater part of this border lies parallel to the sternum. The left (caudal) border is much shorter and nearly vertical. The surfaces of the heart are marked by grooves which indicate the division of the heart into four chambers the two atria dorsally and the two ventricles ventrally. The atria are separated internally by the interatrial septum. The ventricles are separated by interventricular septum. The circular coronary groove indicates the division of the heart in to atria dorsally and ventricles ventrally. It encircles the heart in its upper third part except at the level of the origin of pulmonary artery. The coronary groove is quite deep and wide. It provides passage for the coronary artery and vein. Apart from these, it is deeply filled with fat. The right (subsinuosal) interventricular groove and left (paraconal) interventricular groove indicates the line of separation between the two (right and left) ventricles by the interventricular septum. Both of these grooves run downward from the coronary groove towards the apex parallel to the respective borders and terminate just above the apex. The right and left ventricular grooves are occupied by the respective coronary vessels along with the fat.

Heart failure in canine is being recognized with an increasing frequency throughout the world. It is the end stage pathological event progressively occurring in heart diseases. Heart failure is the condition in which heart is unable to meet the metabolic and nutritional demands of the tissues of the body due to insufficient cardiac output. Heart failure has also been observed with normal cardiac output in conditions like hyperthyroidism or anemia where tissue metabolic needs are increased.

Heart failure is not a disease but it is the end stage of heart diseases. Heart failure in horses is not very common as in dogs and cats. In horses it is characterized by the signs of forward failure, backward failure and fall in blood pressure.

Heart diseases in feline are silent killer as cats are able to hide their symptoms in early stage. Cats are brought to clinics only when disease is more advanced. Heart diseases are different from heart failure. Heart failure is the end stage of heart diseases.

The ferret is a domestic species of small mustelid. Congestive heart failure is most common form of heart disease seen in aged ferrets. Heart failure in ferrets is due to heart diseases and clinical presentation varies from no clinical signs in initial stage to many signs of fulminant heart failure.

With an increase in domestication of rabbits, a leporine, as pet in urban dwellings and their increased life span, risk of cardiac diseases has also increased. Heart diseases are being diagnosed in rabbits with an increasing frequency. The development of clinical signs of heart failure is gradual in rabbits causing late recognition of the heart disease.

Heart failure is a common progressive and complex clinical syndrome with high morbidity and mortality in humans. It is mostly due to cardiac involvement. Clinical signs and symptoms developed in heart failure cases are the manifestations of body’s compensatory efforts to meet chronic inadequate cardiac output as seen in other species of animals also.

Heart failure is the end stage of cardiac diseases. It occurs in pet birds when cardiac output is insufficient and unable to maintain arterial blood pressure. In birds right side heart failure is more common as compared to left heart failure.

Heart failure is the terminal outcome of heart diseases. It is defined as ventricular dysfunction (pump failure) leading to cardiac inability to maintain an adequate cardiac output. Heart failure is the outcome of filling defect, cardiac muscle abnormality, conduction defect, an excessive work load or a combination of these abnormalities.

Cardiomyopathies in acts can be classified broadly as Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and non-hypertrophic cardiomyopathies. Usually, no alarming clinical signs are detected during routine examination in the preclinical stage except cardiac murmurs in some cats with HCM. This is because, that the cats are sedentary and excellent in hiding the signs of illness from the pet parents. Hence the onset is often acute with the sudden appearance of the clinical signs linked to congestive heart failure like severe dyspnoea, cardiogenic shock, aortic thromboembolism, arrhythmias and even syncope and death

Cats with CHF will be presented with severe dyspnoea, due to fulminant pulmonary oedema and or pleural effusion. The pleural effusion associated with CHF is usually a modified transudate, some cases it may be chylous .In echocardiography ,the size of the left atrium should be determined .If the LA size is normal ,then the dyspnoea may not be of cardiac origin .The presence of B-lines in the lung area in association with LA enlargement confirms cardiogenic pulmonary oedema. Stress, anaesthesia, I/V fluids and steroids leads to decompensation and fulminant pulmonary oedema. Thoracocentesis is will be helpful if there is dyspnoea due to significant pleural effusion. At least 300ml of effusion can be usually removed. The dyspnoeic cat is very fragile and should be handled carefully. Butorphanol may be given for anxiolytic effect. Oxygen administration is beneficial. Furosemide when given intravenously has an initial venodilator effect and should be repeated as required monitoring the sleeping respiratory rate (SRR). Addition of nitro-glycerine (vasodilator) reduces preload, decreases left atrial pressure and help in reducing pulmonary oedema. If the clinical signs are suggestive of cardiogenic shock or myocardial failure, Pimobendan I/V or Dobutamine CRI should be considered.

The heart, composed primarily of specialized muscle tissue known as cardiac muscle, is responsible for maintaining the circulatory system’s function by pumping blood throughout the body. The unique characteristics of heart muscle allow it to respond dynamically to various physiological demands. Among these adaptive responses, hypertrophy, atrophy, and the process of pacemaking are fundamental to heart function and health. Understanding these processes is crucial for comprehending how the heart responds to different stressors, such as physical activity, disease, or aging, and how its electrical and mechanical functions are integrated.
Nature of cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle is a specialized type of muscle tissue found only in the heart. It is unique because it combines features of both skeletal and smooth muscle, providing both strength and rhythm in its contractions. Cardiac muscle fibres are striated and connected by intercalated discs, which allow rapid transmission of electrical impulses between cells, ensuring synchronized contraction. Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle has a relatively high density of mitochondria, providing the energy necessary for continuous activity.

The heart is a muscular structure that contracts in a rhythmic pattern to pump blood. The heart functions as a pump to provide a continuous circulation of blood throughout the body.The blood vessels that take blood from the heart to the various tissues are called arteries.Arterioles open into a network of capillaries which constitute the microcirculation. Circulation of blood in the body is important for the transport of nutrients to all parts of the body and for the transport of gases and waste products. The primary function of the heart is to transfer sufficient blood from the venous system to the arterial side of the circulation under sufficient pressure to maintain the circulatory needs of the body.

Heat desiccated products represent khoa and khoa-based sweets, rabri, basundi, etc. These are important traditional dairy products. Traditional dairy products and a great assortment of sweets is an integral part of Indian heritage. These products are endowed with enormous value and enjoy tremendous mass appeal. Of great social, religious, cultural and economic importance these products have been developed over a long period of culinary skills and carry with them, the age-old wisdom and experience. Traditional dairy products have always played a pivotal role in preservation of precious milk nutrients and promotion of its consumption among masses. The increased availability of milk during the flush season coupled with lack of facilities to keep liquid milk fresh during transit from rural production areas to urban market has led to the conversion of milk into variety of traditional products. In addition to preservation of milk solids for longer duration, manufacture of traditional dairy products adds value to milk and also provides tremendous employment opportunity. It is estimated that about 50% of milk produced in India is converted into a variety of traditional products.

Traditional dairy products represent the most prolific segment of Indian dairy industry. These products not only have an established market in India but also have a great export potential because of strong presence of Indian diaspora in many parts of the world. In view of the growing awareness towards the safety aspects of milk-based sweets in India, the consumer shall prefer to buy these products from the organized sector. Despite the widespread popularity and acceptability of traditional milk products in the Indian market, the organized sector has so far not been able to tap into this market potential for many reasons such as lack of published literature on their technology, inadequacy of appropriate technologies for their commercial exploitation, inadequacy of appropriate packaging materials and labeling to take care of new pattern in consumer demand, low keeping quality and a lack of quality assurance systems.

Abstract

The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of heat pump dryer (HPD) and recent developments in its applications for drying of agricultural and food products. The basics of heat pump dryer, classification, operating principle, configuration and control system have been presented for better understanding. Many researchers have concluded that HPDs use energy more efficiently than electrical dryers. The heat pump dryer is best suited for drying high value commodities such as fruits, vegetables, spices, condiments, herbs, medicinal and aromatic plants at near ambient temperature for producing better quality dehydrated product.

Introduction

Stress represents the reaction of body to stimuli that disturb normal physiological equilibrium or homeostasis, often with detrimental effects (Khansari et al., 1990). Domestic animals undergo various kinds of stress such as physical, nutritional, chemical, psychological and thermal stress (Marai et al., 2007; Nardone et al., 2010). Figure 1 summarises the different types of stressors and their effects on animals.

Introduction

A huge increase in the demand of animal production is expected in the next decades. Food and water security will be one of the other priorities for humankind in the 21st century. Over the same period the World will experience a change in the global climate that will cause shifts in local climate that will impact on local and global agriculture (Nardone et al. 2010). Global climate change is expected to alter temperature, precipitation, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and water availability in ways that will affect the productivity of crop and livestock systems (Hatfield et al. 2008). For livestock systems, climate change could affect the costs and returns of production by altering the thermal environment of animals thereby affecting animal health, reproduction, and the efficiency by which livestock convert feed into retained products (especially meat and milk).

Stress is described as the cumulative detrimental effect of a variety of factors on the health and performance of living beings (Rosales, 1994). Heat stress arises when there is an imbalance between heat production within the body and its dissipation. Homeotherms can maintain their body temperature within a relatively narrow range and both physiological and behavioural responses help in thermoregulation. Stress occurs when an animal suddenly faces a change in its environment. Heat stress during summer and post summer months in tropical countries is a problem of great concern among farmers and livestock producers as it costs both production and reproduction of animals.

Rearing poultry industrially is a necessity in the present condition where the demand is high and the land holdings for extensive rearing is diminishing. All over the world the poultry industry is growing rapidly. The poultry industry in India is growing at around 8 per cent per annum. The poultry population of the country mainly consists of chicken, ducks, quails, ornamental birds and ratites. Chicken form is the major component of the industry. They are mainly reared as broilers for meat purpose and as layers for eggs. The climatic variations and their effects on profitable poultry rearing are an important topic of study in the current situation, where intensive rearing and global warming are being discussed with equal importance. The welfare aspects of the birds are also a matter of concern all over the world. Thus the knowledge of normal physiology of poultry, the effects of the tropical climate on them and the measures to alleviate detrimental effects produced by adverse climatic conditions have been discussed in detail here.

5.1. INTRODUCTION

Temperature is the one of the most important environmental element influencing the plant growth and development limiting the productivity and adaptation of crops, especially when it coincides with critical ranges (Chen et al., 1982; Paulsen, 1994). Nearly all commercial crops in the arid and semi-arid tropics often suffer from heat stress. Every plant has an optimal temperature for its normal growth, deviation from this may cause stress to plants. The adverse effects on plant of temperatures higher than the optimal considered as heat stress. Crops are exposed to periods of heat stress during their life-cycle. The optimum temperature for the most species ranges from 25 to 35 0C. Above this value, a decline in the photosynthesis rate is observed (Berry and Bjorkman, 1980; Pimentel, 1998). Even brief periods of heat-shock between temperature ranges of 45-50 0C induce marked change in plant growth processes.

3.1 Introduction

The subject of heat transfer is firmly grounded in the sciences of thermodynamics and fluid mechanics. It has become exceedingly important for engineers to possess a clear understanding of the principles of heat transfer and its application to a large number of problems. In view of process engineering, the knowledge of heat transfer and its application is most important, because heat transfer is one of the basic unit operations in the agricultural processing activities. The design of process equipments, refrigerators, boilers or type of heat exchangers, thermal treatment of food grains, cooling of perishables, pasteurizations, sterilizations, freezing of milk and fruit juices and a large number of similar applications involve consideration of heat transfer rates. There may be other situations where heat is being generated during a certain operation, and may be detrimental to the equipment and the food product. In such cases we are often faced with the task of removing the undesirable amount of heat as far as possible.

Q. 1 Psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of which properties
of air
(A) Chemical        (B) Aerodynamic
(C) Hygroscopic   (D) Thermodynamic

4.1 Introduction

Heat is energy which flows due to difference in temperature. Whereas energy is stored heat. Therefore, when the heat energy transfer is completed. It is stored in the form of potential or kinetic energy, in general as internal energy. Heat as energy is measured in terms of observed changes in other forms of energy & other physical properties. A heat transfer analysis is required for estimating the size, the efficiency and cost of the equipment necessary to transfer a specified amount of heat in a given time. It is well known fact that the size of a solar collector or a heat exchanger depends not so much on the amount of heat to be transmitted but rather on the rate at which heat is to be transferred under given conditions.

4.2 Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat is transferred from one body to another in three possible ways, conduction, convection, and radiation.

1.    Heat transfer by conduction is given by

(a) Boyle’s law

(b) Stefan’s law

(c) Fourier’s law

(d) Charles’ law

2.    Heat flow per hour is proportional to change in

(a) Area

(b) Vapour pressure

(c) Mass

(d) Temperature

Whenever the daily maximum temperature exceeds more than average values during summer season the heat wave will occur. Similarly, whenever the daily minimum temperature falls below the average values cold wave will occur. The India Meteorological department has developed the criteria to identify the occurrence the heat waves and cold waves.

11.1 Heat Waves

Heat wave is defined as the condition when the daily maximum temperature is 45ºC or more. Based on departure from normal daily maximum temperature of 40ºC onwards the heat waves are defined as follows:

6.1 Introduction

Greenhouses play an essential role in modern agriculture and horticulture by providing a regulated environment for plant development. To ensure optimal growing conditions and maximum yields, it’s crucial to maintain the temperature inside these structures effectively. This leads us to the fascinating subject of “Heating and Cooling of Greenhouses,” where we investigate the delicate balance between temperature, humidity, and ventilation to promote plant health and production. With greenhouses, growing seasons can be extended, a broader range of crops can be grown, and even plants that would not do well in the local environment can thrive.

Abstract
Aquatic ecosystems are seriously threatened by heavy metal pollution from urban, agricultural, and industrial processes. Aquatic animals can accumulate toxic metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic and chromium, which can have detrimental physiological, ecological, and toxicological impacts. Oxidative stress, organ damage, poor reproduction, and disruption of ecosystem functioning, including loss of biodiversity and changes in food web dynamics, can all result from exposure to these contaminants. Human health is also at risk from heavy metals moving via aquatic food networks. The effects of heavy metal pollution on aquatic life are examined in this chapter, along with mitigation strategies.
Keywords: Heavy metals, pollution, toxicity, aquatic ecosystems and mitigation strategies

Introduction
The aquatic ecosystem is full with harmful contaminants like heavy metals. Due to farming, mining, geochemical composition, and anthropogenic wastes, their concentration has dramatically increased. Heavy metals contaminate aquatic ecosystems through multiple pathways, such as industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and atmospheric deposition. Once released heavy metals into water bodies, these metals undergo bioaccumulation, wherein they accumulate in aquatic organism’s tissue, including fish, gradually over time over time. Toxicity of heavy metals due to their long persistence in the environment and non-biodegradable nature. Additionally, heavy metals undergo biomagnification, leading to increasing concentrations as they ascend the food chain, posing greater risks to higher trophic level organisms, including fish. Fish serve as crucial bioindicators for evaluating the potential risks of pollution (Lakra & Nagpure, 2009). Exposure to pollutants, particularly heavy metals like cadmium (Cd), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), and copper (Cu), can lead to both acute and chronic toxicity, disrupting various physiological functions, including reproduction. A  ealthy reproductive system in fish signifies their ability to maintain population sustainability. Fish are widely consumed due to their desirable taste and affordability, making them a vital and cost- effective source of animal protein.
Fish are more susceptible to heavy metal pollution than other aquatic species, despite being one of the most widely distributed species. Some heavy metals like cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and lead have no biological significance, while some like iron, copper, and zinc are vital to the metabolism of fish. Heavy metals concentration in the water bodies has increased significantly as a result of farming, mining, geochemical composition, anthropogenic wastes, and other factors. Heavy metals are among the most hazardous and widely distributed contaminants, naturally occurring as trace elements in the hydrosphere (Sankhla & Kumar, 2019). Fish, however, breed in environments that are naturally contaminated with heavy metals. Fish reproduction is essential to the natural ecosystem and is required for the development of aquaculture. Several studies show that heavy metals interfere with fish reproduction by preventing the induction of vitellogenin, postponing oogenesis, increasing the secretion of luteinizing hormone, and lowering the parameters of the gonadal somatic index and ovulation.

Arsenic
General Information
    1.    Exists in elemental form (-3), trivalent As⁺³ and pentavalent As⁺⁵ oxidation states
    2.    Arsenic is an essential element for rats, chicks, mini-pigs and goats
    3.    The second most important pollutant for livestock. 

Source
    1.    Inorganic form is used in paints.
    2.    Pasture near smelters may be contaminated. 
    3.    Industrial effluents released into nearby water body
    4.    Insecticides (Arsenic trioxide, lead arsenate).
    5.    Herbicides (Sodium arsenite, lead arsenate)

Arsenic
General Information

    1.    Exists in elemental form (-3), trivalent As+3 and pentavalent As+5 oxidation states
    2.    Arsenic is an essential element for rats, chicks, mini-pigs and goats
    3.    The second most important pollutant for livestock. 

Source

Inorganic form is used in paints.
Pasture near smelters may be contaminated. 
Industrial effluents released into nearby water body.
Insecticides (arsenic trioxide, lead arsenate).
 

Metals

Metals are ubiquitous in the modern industrialized environment. Heavy metals like cadmium, iron, molybdenum, lead, nickel, tin and zinc are present in the environment in trace concentrations. These metals are universally present in soil, water, air and biota (Freedman, 1995). Global anthropogenic heavy metal inputs to ecosystem through air, water and soil have increased substantially world wide over last century (Nriagu, 1996).

Although it is the fourth most abundant element in the earthís crust, it is found in very low concentrations in surface waters and the ocean. It is found in many enzymes that are involved in energy transformations, making them necessary for bacteria, plants, and animals.

ABSTRACT

Using a hand auger of 2 m length, upper, middle and lower core sediment samples of seventy nine in number have been collected from the Vaippar river, its tributaries and Vaippar beach in order to understand the role of Vaippar river and its tributaries in making up the Vaippar beach placer deposits. The heavies are found to be concentrated abundantly in fine and very fine size grades of all the samples collected from both the environments. The average heavy mineral concentration varies from 3.13 to 17.40 % in river bed while it is 6.19 – 64.82 % in the beach. In river bed, the pattern of concentration of heavies in upper, middle and lower core samples does not show any characteristic uniform pattern and inferred that it is controlled by the grain size of the parent rock, supply of sediments from the source, geomorphological features of the river and hydrological characters of running water. In the beach, the concentration of heavies are effected mainly due to the winnowing action of waves. However, a phenomenal increase in the heavy mineral concentration of beach samples might be due to the supply of sediments from other source besides the Vaippar river.

Hedge

Hedge is an important garden feature both for beautification and functional purposes. When a selected plant species is planted together at close distance, in single or multiple rows, later pruned to retain a definite shape and height is known as hedge. These are actually live fence used for demarcating road, paths and sometimes for providing physical barrier, screening and several other purposes.

Selection of Plants

Before selection of plants for developing hedge, the purpose of planting hedge is to be considered first. If the purpose is protective fence, the height and width are to be decided. Accordingly, selection of plant species is to be made. For developing low height and ornamental hedge along the passage and inner roads, selection of plants will be different. In this case, plants having colourful leaves is preferred. Final selection of plant species, however, should be done considering location, availability of sunlight and the type of garden. Plants selected for developing hedge should response well to pruning and, at the same time, acquire a definite shape on repeated pruning. Both foliage type and flowering plants are used for developing hedge.

Hedge

When shrub is planted on boundary for fencing, it is also called as hedge. In other word shrubs or trees planted at regular intervals to form a continuous screen is called a hedge. It may be ornamental or protective or both. Hedge also become an important feature of formal layout to serve various function as screening of the area out building, tennis court, vegetable garden, hardening of unwanted place etc. All the shrubs cannot be planted for making an ideal hedge due to different nature of growth.

Heliconias are tropical plants of princely dimensions grown for their attractive foliage and brilliant flower spikes. They are some of the most unusual flora of the tropics. Strikingly elegant flower heads rise from banana like clumps of oval leaves, which are sometimes rather slender and, with a few varieties, extremely large. They are found naturally in the tropical forests world wide and in moderate climates. A popular landscape plant and cut flower in tropical and subtropical areas of the world, heliconias are native to Central and South America, the Caribbean Islands and some of the islands of the South Pacific. Their easy cultivation and spectacular presence have made them favourite garden subjects throughout the world. Heliconias have several common names including lobster’s claw’s, ‘parrot’s flower’, ‘parrot plantain’ and false plantain. Depending on variety, heliconias will range in height from 60 to 700 cm, often with extensive rhizomatous growth. The flower or inflorescence of heliconia is nearly always terminal and may last from several days to several months. They are particularly desirable as cut flowers because of their long lasting characteristics. 

Heliconia belongs to family Heliconiaceae is popular as ornamental plants and cut flowers because of their brilliant colours and exotic appearance. The genus name “Heliconia” is derived from “Helicon”, a mountain in southern Greece regarded by the ancient Greeks as the home of the Muses, thus suggesting the relationship between these plants and the bananas, genus Musa (Berry and Kress, 1991). Unique features of the Heliconiaceae are (1) medium to large erect herbs rising from underground rhizomes; (2) each erect shoot is composed of a stem and leaves, whereas the stem is made up of an axis covered by overlapping sheathing leaf bases, technically called a pseudostem; (3) inverted flowers and (4) the presence of a single staminode. Heliconia has long been popular horticulturally because of their showy inflorescences. It was so attractive that early explorers of the tropics returned to Europe with several species that became prized green house specimens. Heliconia, grown in nearly all of the tropical regions of the world, including Africa and Asia. In India, heliconia is grown in North-East region and Kerala.

Heliconia belongs to family Heliconiaceae is popular as ornamental plants and cut flowers because of their brilliant colours and exotic appearance. The genus name “Heliconia” is derived from “Helicon”, a mountain in southern Greece regarded by the ancient Greeks as the home of the Muses, thus suggesting the relationship between these plants and the bananas, genus Musa (Berry and Kress, 1991). Unique features of the Heliconiaceae are (1) medium to large erect herbs rising from underground rhizomes;(2) each erect shoot is composed of a stem and leaves, whereas the stem is made up of an axis covered by overlapping sheathing leaf bases, technically called a pseudostem;(3) inverted flowers and (4) the presence of a single staminode. Heliconia has long been popular horticulturally because of their showy inflorescences. It was so attractive that early explorers of the tropics returned to Europe with several species that became prized green house specimens. Heliconia, grown in nearly all of the tropical regions of the world, including Africa and Asia. In India, heliconia is grown in North-East region and Kerala.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Heliconias are native only to Central and South America and some of the islands of the South Pacific, for horticultural and commercial popularity. Berry and Kress (1991) stated that they are native from Tropical America and found at different altitudes, from sea level up to 2,000 meters in Central and South America, and up to 500 meters in the South Pacific Islands (Criley and Broschat, 1992).

Most of the Heliconia species are distributed primarily in Neotropical areas from the North of Mexico to the South of Brazil (Santos, 1978, Dahlgren et al., 1985 and Kress, 1990). A small Paleotropical group, about eight species, occurs in islands of the South Pacific (Tomlinson, 1969 and Kress, 1985). There are approximately 40 Brazilian species with two primary areas of distribution: the Amazon basin and the Atlantic coastal forest (Kress, 1990). About 100 or more species, native mainly to tropical and subtropical South and Central America (Cronquist, 1981).

Several attempts have been made over the years to sort out the taxonomy of the Old World Heliconia. Baker (1893), followed by Schumann (1900) and Winkler (1930), dealt with the problem of identity and origin of these taxa by assigning them to the neotropical species Heliconia bihai L. Others such as Ridley (1908a, b), Backer (1920) and Green (1969) recognized the distinctive and endemic features of the paleotropical taxa that separated them from the neotropical species. This ornamental rhizomatous herbaceous plant from the Heliconia genus, belongs to the Musaceae family, now constitutes the Heliconiaceae family in the Zingiberales order. The various species of Heliconia are subdivided into five subgenera: Heliconia, Taeniostrobus, Stenochlamys, Heliconiopsis and Griggisia; and 28 sections (Kress et al., 1993).

Heliconia is a tropical ornamental crop valued for its striking inflorescences, vibrant colours and long-lasting cut stems. This chapter presents the origin, distribution, species, botanical characteristics and commercially important types of Heliconia. It discusses climate, soil, shade, propagation, planting, irrigation, nutrition and cultural management. Pest and disease problems are described together with suitable management practices. The chapter also addresses harvesting stages, postharvest handling, grading, packaging, vase life and yield. Its emphasis on tropical production makes Heliconia particularly relevant to growers seeking to diversify high-value floriculture enterprises in warm and humid regions of India. commercially.

Principle

Red blood cell sticking (hemadsorption) can reveal the presence of certain viruses. This happens because these viruses, like influenza or measles, sprout proteins (hemagglutinin) on their infected host cells. These proteins act like Velcro, attracting red blood cells and causing them to cling to the surface. A hemadsorption assay uses this natural process to check for viruses. It's faster than waiting for the cells to show damage (cytopathic effect), allowing for earlier detection. Haemadsorbing viruses can be detected several days prior to the appearance of a cytopathic effect.

Equipment

a) Biosafety cabinet level 2 (B2)

b) Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) Incubator (set to 37°C with a 5% CO2 in air atmosphere)

c) Refrigerated centrifuge

d) Refrigerator

e) Inverted Microscope

f) Micro pipettes (1-10 μl, 10-200 μl, 100-1000 μl)

g) -86°C/-80°C deep freezer h) Autoclave

i) Hot air oven

j) Filtration Assembly

Hemangiopericytoma is a tumor originating from pericytes. It is mostly seen in distal extremities due to elevation of blood pressure in that area. It is mostly seen in skin and subcutaneous tissue around the joint region.

The hematoxylin and eosin stain are most widely used histological stain. Its popularity lies in its simple staining procedure and ability to demonstrate most tissue structures. Hematoxylin, also called natural black is a compound extracted from heartwood of the logwood tree (Haematoxylum campechianum) with a chemical formula of C16H14O6. This naturally derived dye has been used as a histologic stain, ink and as a dye in the textile and leather industry.
Hematoxylin, a natural dye was first used in about 1863. Hematoxylin itself is not a stain; it is its oxidation product, hematein. This process known as “ripening” takes several days or weeks unless it is hastened by the addition of an oxidizing agent. So the active coloring agent hematein can be produced from hematoxylin in two ways:
A. Natural oxidation by exposure to light and air.
B. Chemical oxidation: Sodium iodate is the most common oxidizing agent for this purpose, although there are others, such as potassium permanganate, iodine, bleach and mercuric oxide. It is now strongly recommended that mercuric oxide not be used for this oxidation as it eventually makes its way into the environment as a poison.
As the hematoxylin dye has little affinity for the tissue when used alone, it is usually used in conjunction with a mordant, therefore can be arbitrarily classified based on which mordant is used:
1. Alum hematoxylin
2. Iron hematoxylin
3. Tungsten hematoxylin

Principle

The residue from the cell walls determination is extracted with boiling 8 percent sulphuric acid for one hour to hydrolyse the hemicellulose without dissolving cellulose, lignin or acid insoluble ash.

Equipment
    1.    Refluxing apparatus.
    2.     Filtering apparatus: same as described for cell wall determination
    3.    Filtering crucibles: same as described for cell wall determination.

Reagents

    1.    Sulphuric acid (8%) : Standardize Reagent grade sulphuric acid to specific gravity of 1.052 at 20ºC.
    2.    Bromocresol green indicator solution: Same as used for lignin determination.

Transport systems are crucial to survival. Unicellular organisms rely on simple diffusion for transport of nutrients and removal of waste. Multicellular organisms have developed more complex circulatory systems. The circulatory system is responsible for the transport of the various essential compounds and other factors around the body, as well as the removal of the metabolic wastes that accumulate in the tissues from body activities to places of elimination.

Hemorrhagic disorders refer to conditions that impair the ability of an animal’s blood to clot properly, resulting in prolonged or excessive bleeding. These disorders can be broadly categorized into congenital coagulation defects and acquired coagulation defects, each with distinct etiologies, pathophysiologies, and clinical manifestations.
a) Congenital coagulation defects
Congenital coagulation defects are inherited conditions caused by genetic mutations affecting one or more components of the coagulation cascade. These defects are often breed-specific and can be observed in a variety of domestic animals.
Common types of congenital coagulation defects
Hemophilia- A
Cause: Deficiency of factor VIII.
Affected animals: Common in dogs, especially German Shepherds, and less common in cats and horses,
Pathophysiology: Factor VIII is essential for forming the intrinsic tenase complex, which amplifies thrombin generation. Its deficiency results in inadequate fibrin formation and poor clot stability.
Clinical signs: Spontaneous bleeding, hematomas, hemarthrosis (bleeding into joints), and prolonged bleeding after trauma or surgery.
Diagnosis: Prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), normal prothrombin time (PT), and reduced Factor VIII activity.

It is an acute disease of turkeys, occurring in 6-7 wk. -Old turkeys, but has been seen in younger and older turkeys as well. The disease is worldwide in distribution.

Etiological Agent

It belongs to adenovirus type II. A serologically indistinguishable virus from HE virus, causes marble spleen disease (MSD) in confinement reared pheasants (3-8 months old). The disease shows predominantly respiratory signs. A virus of the same group causes avian adenovirus group II splenomegaly (AAS) in chickens.

Synonyms : Pasteurellosis, shipping fever, Stockyardis disease, Stockyardis pneumonia, Barbone disease

Hemorrhagic septicaemia is a particular form of pasteurellosis caused by Pasteurella multocida and manifested by an acute and highly fatal septicaemia mainly in  cattle and water buffaloes. The disease includes pneumonic pasteurellosis (shipping or transport fever), a disease caused mainly by P. haemolytica, although various serotypes of P. multocida are occasionally involved. Although the morbidity of pneumonic pasteurellosis of cattle can be high, the mortality rate is much less than that of hemorrhagic septicemia.